10 Chemistry of the environment

FOCUS POINTS
★ What is the difference between pure water and water from natural sources?
★ What are the problems and advantages of the substances in water from natural sources?
★ How is water purified for domestic use?
★ Why do we use fertilisers?
★ Where do the pollutants in our air come from?
★ How can we reduce the problems of these pollutants?

In this chapter, you will learn about the most plentiful liquid on this planet, water, and the most
important gaseous mixture we know, the air (or atmosphere). The importance of water and air is not
in doubt. Without either of these, life would not be possible on Earth! Also, we consider the problems
with the pollution we have created worldwide, including excessive use of fertilisers, fossil fuels and
plastics, and the greenhouse effect and the associated global warming. You will also learn about
some possible solutions to the problems. By the end of this chapter, you will be able to provide a
possible answer to this question:
How can we guard our planet against the problems we have and those we continue to create?

10.1 Water
Water is the commonest compound on this planet. constituents in all living organisms. For example,
More than 70% of the Earth’s surface is covered your bones contain 72% water, your kidneys are
with sea, and the land masses are dotted with about 82% water and your blood is about 90% water
rivers and lakes (Figure 11.1a). It is vital to our (Figure 11.1b).
existence and survival because it is one of the main

a Millions of tonnes of water pass over this waterfall b Your blood contains a lot of water
every day
▲ Figure 11.1

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 10.1 Water

Going further
Water circulates around the Earth via the water cycle (Figure 11.2). The driving force for the water cycle is the Sun.

Clouds

Rain

Lakes
Evaporation Transpiration

Percolation
Run off

Rivers

The sea

▲ Figure 11.2 The water cycle

● Heat from the Sun causes evaporation from oceans, ● The water that falls as rain runs into streams and
seas and lakes. Water vapour is also formed from rivers and then on into lakes, seas and oceans.
the evaporation of water from leaves (transpiration),
Some water is diverted from rivers into reservoirs and
through respiration and through combustion. The
purified (p. 173). This water is then used in industry and
water vapour rises and cools, and condenses to form
the home. After use it is dirty and has to be treated at
tiny droplets of water. These droplets form clouds.
the sewage works before being returned to a river or
● The clouds are moved along by air currents. As they
the sea.
cool, the tiny droplets join to form larger droplets,
which fall as rain when they reach a certain size.

Water has many other important uses besides Pure water is a neutral, colourless liquid which
sustaining life. These include: (at 1 atmosphere pressure) boils at 100°C and
In the home: freezes at 0°C (Figure 11.3). If you try boiling tap
» cooking water, you will find that it does not boil at exactly
» cleaning 100°C. This is because it is a very good solvent
» drinking. and dissolves many substances. It is the presence
of these impurities that causes a change in the
In industry: boiling point compared to pure water. Distilled
» as a solvent water is therefore used in many experiments in the
» as a coolant laboratory because it is very pure and does not
» for cleaning contain many of these impurities, which may affect
» as a chemical reactant. the outcome of the experiments.
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 10 chemiStry of the environment

You can find out whether a colourless liquid

contains water by adding the unknown liquid
to anhydrous copper(II) sulfate. If this changes
from white to blue, then the liquid contains water
(Figure 11.4a).
Another test is to dip blue cobalt(II) chloride
paper into the liquid. If the paper turns pink, then
the liquid contains water (Figure 11.4b).
You have already seen in Chapter 5 that water
may be electrolysed (when acidified with a little
dilute sulfuric acid). When this is done, the ratio of
the volume of the gas produced at the cathode to
that produced at the anode is 2 : 1. This is what you
might expect, since the formula of water is H2O!

The unique properties of water

Water is a unique substance. Not only is it an
excellent solvent for many ionic substances, such
as sodium chloride, but it also has some unusual
properties. For example:
» It has an unusually high boiling point for a
molecule of its relatively low molecular mass.
» It has a greater specific heat capacity than
almost any other liquid.
» It decreases in density when it freezes
(Figure 11.5).
▲ Figure 11.3 Liquid water boils at 100°C and freezes to
form ice at 0°C

a Anhydrous copper(II) sulfate goes blue when water is b Cobalt(II) chloride paper turns pink when water is
added to it dropped on to it
▲ Figure 11.4 Tests for the presence of water

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 10.1 Water

Agriculture needs a water supply in order to

irrigate crops, especially in areas of the world with
hot climates. The production of more and more crops
for the ever-increasing population is essential.
Key definition
Pollution is a modification that takes place to the
environment, water or air, caused by human influence
such as releasing substances into our water or air.

Water is very good at dissolving substances and

so it is very unusual to find really pure water on
this planet. As water falls through the atmosphere,
▲ Figure 11.5 When water freezes, its density falls; this is on to and then through the surface of the Earth,
why icebergs float it dissolves a tremendous variety of substances
including:
Going further » a variety of gases from the air such as carbon
dioxide and oxygen. However, oxygen is
These unusual properties can be explained by beneficial to aquatic life and allows it to thrive
hydrogen bonding. This is a weak intermolecular force in our rivers and oceans. Carbon dioxide creates
(bond) which occurs between water molecules because a low-level natural acidity in the water, but
the bonds within the molecules are polar. A polar bond
is one which contains, for example, oxygen attached to
this acidity is increasing, due to the increase in
hydrogen by a covalent bond. The shared electrons in the amount of carbon dioxide released into the
the bond are drawn towards the oxygen atom to create atmosphere by vehicles and industry.
a small negative charge on the oxygen atom (δ–). » nitrates and phosphates from agricultural waste
There is then an equally small positive charge on the and detergents. Chemical fertilisers, washed off
hydrogen atom (δ+). The water molecules then attract surrounding land, add nitrate ions (NO3−) and
one another as shown in Figure 11.6. In the case of
water, this attraction is called a hydrogen bond. It is a phosphate ions (PO43−) to the water. This is due to
much weaker bond than a covalent bond. the use of artificial fertilisers, such as ammonium
nitrate and ammonium phosphate (see below), as
O δ– H δ+ well as some pesticides. Detergents used in the
home and in industry contain phosphates. The
O δ– nitrates and phosphates encourage the growth of
Hδ+ H δ+ algae which eventually die and decay, removing
H δ+ oxygen from the water (deoxygenation). They can
Hydrogen bond
also disrupt sensitive ecosystems.
» metal compounds from industrial waste water,
▲ Figure 11.6 The unusual properties of water can be which may contain harmful chemicals, such
explained by hydrogen bonding as cadmium and mercury, which are toxic. It
should be noted however, that not all metal
compounds are toxic. Some metal compounds
Water pollution and treatment that are present are also beneficial as they
An adequate supply of fresh and safe water is provide essential minerals. This is especially true
essential to the health and well-being of the world’s of calcium-containing compounds. The calcium
population. Across the planet, biological and present in water is necessary for healthy growth
chemical pollutants are affecting the quality of our of bones and teeth.
water. Lack of availability of fresh water leads to » human waste from sewage. Sewage contains
waterborne diseases, such as cholera and typhoid, harmful microbes which cause disease.
and to diarrhoea, which is one of the biggest killers » insoluble impurities such as oil and plastic
across the world. waste (Figure 11.7). Plastic waste is polluting

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 10 chemiStry of the environment

our streams and rivers as well as oceans. It is

detrimental to all aquatic life as well as human
life on this planet. This issue will be discussed
in more detail in Chapter 12.

▲ Figure 11.8 This lake is used as a source of drinking

water

A lot of drinking water is obtained from lakes

and rivers where the pollution levels are low
(Figure 11.8). Undesirable materials are removed
from water by the process of water treatment, which
involves both filtration and chlorination and is
▲ Figure 11.7 A badly polluted river summarised in Figure 11.9.
1 Impure water is passed through screens to filter
All these artificial and natural impurities must out floating debris.
be removed from the water before it can be used. 2 Aluminium sulfate is added to coagulate small
Recent regulations in many countries have imposed particles of clay so that they form larger clumps,
strict guidelines on the amounts of various which settle more rapidly.
substances allowed in drinking water.

1
Water passed through screen Covered
storage
2 tank
Water Aluminium sulfate added
in

Pump

Sulfur
Screen dioxide
added
3
Coarse To
sand filter homes
and
Sodium
factories
hydroxide
4 5 added
Sedimentation Fine sand 6
tank filter Chlorine added

▲ Figure 11.9 The processes involved in water treatment

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 10.2 Artificial fertilisers

3 Filtration through coarse sand traps larger, insoluble and others, such as calcium, magnesium, sodium,
particles. The sand also contains specially grown sulfur, copper and iron. Examples of nitrogenous
microbes which remove some of the bacteria. fertilisers (those which contain nitrogen) are shown
4 A sedimentation tank has chemicals known as in Table 11.1.
flocculants, for example, aluminium sulfate, ▼ Table 11.1 Some nitrogenous fertilisers
added to it to make the smaller particles (which
remain in the water as colloidal clay) stick Fertiliser Formula
together and sink to the bottom of the tank. Ammonium nitrate NH4NO3
5 These particles are removed by further filtration Ammonium phosphate (NH4)3PO 4
through fine sand. This is followed by carbon
Ammonium sulfate (NH4)2 SO4
slurry filters which are there to remove unwanted
tastes and odours, and a lime slurry is used to Urea CO(NH2)2
adjust the acidity. Artificial fertilisers can also create fertile land from
6 Finally, a little chlorine gas is added, which areas unable to support crop growth. The fertilisers
sterilises the water and kills any remaining which add the three main nutrients (N, P and K)
bacteria. Excess chlorine can be removed by the are called NPK fertilisers. They contain ammonium
addition of sulfur dioxide gas. The addition of nitrate (NH4NO3), ammonium phosphate ((NH4)3PO4)
chlorine gas makes the water more acidic and and potassium chloride (KCl) in varying proportions
so appropriate amounts of sodium hydroxide (Figure 11.10). Fertilisers have an important role in
solution are added. Fluoride is sometimes the nitrogen cycle.
added to water if there is insufficient occurring
naturally, as it helps to prevent tooth decay.

10.2 Artificial fertilisers

Some of the ammonia produced by the Haber process
(see Chapter 7, p. 109) is used to produce nitric acid.
If ammonia is then reacted with the nitric acid,
ammonium nitrate is produced. This gives us the
basic reaction for the production of many artificial
fertilisers.
Key definition a Different fertilisers contain differing amounts of the
Fertiliser is a chemical put onto soil to replace lost elements nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium
mineral salts and so make plants grow more healthily.
These include ammonium salts, such as ammonium
nitrate, which is one of the most commonly used fertilisers. Green
foliage
ammonia + nitric acid → ammonium nitrate
NH3(g) + HNO3(aq) → NH4NO3(aq) Strong
roots
Ammonium nitrate (Nitram®) is probably the most
widely used nitrogenous fertiliser. The use of
Healthy
artificial fertilisers is essential if farmers are to
growth
produce sufficient crops to feed the ever-increasing
world population. Crops remove nutrients from
the soil as they grow; these include nitrogen, b The different NPK elements are responsible for the
phosphorus and potassium. Artificial fertilisers healthy growth of plants in different ways
are added to the soil to replace these nutrients ▲ Figure 11.10

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 10 chemiStry of the environment

Going further
The vital importance of nitrogen to both plants and animals can be summarised by the nitrogen cycle (Figure 11.12).

Nitrogen in the air

Nitrogen fixation*
Animals eat plants
Fertilisers produced
by the Haber process
FE FE
R TI LI R TI LI
SE R SE R

Plants use nitrates Remains of Nitrogen-fixing bacteria

to make proteins dead plants Excreted in soil and root nodules
and animals waste of some plants

Nitrates in the soil

▲ Figure 11.12 The nitrogen cycle

*Nitrogen fixation is the direct use of atmospheric nitrogen in the formation of important compounds of nitrogen.
Bacteria present in the root nodules of certain plants are able to take nitrogen directly from the atmosphere to form
essential protein molecules.
If farm crops are harvested from the land rather the decay, however, the latter process is not efficient
than left to decay, the soil becomes deficient in this enough to produce nitrates on the scale required.
important element. The nitrogen is removed in the
Farmers often need to add substances containing
harvested crops rather than remaining as the plants
these nitrates. Such substances include farmyard
decay. In addition, nitrates can be washed from the
manure and artificial fertilisers. One of the most
soil by the action of rain (leaching). For the soil to
commonly used artificial fertilisers is ammonium
remain fertile for the next crop, the nitrates need to
nitrate which, as you saw earlier, is made from
be replaced. The natural process is by decay or by the
ammonia gas and nitric acid, both nitrogen-containing
action of lightning on atmospheric nitrogen. Without
compounds.

Worked example
Using relative atomic masses and the formula of a fertiliser,
it is possible to calculate the percentage of each of the
essential elements in a fertiliser.
What is the percentage of nitrogen in the fertiliser
ammonium sulfate (NH4)2 SO 4)?
(Ar: H = 1; N = 14; O = 16; S = 32)
The formula mass of ammonium sulfate (NH4)2 SO 4) is:
(2 × 14) + 2(4 × 1) + 32 + (4 × 16) = 132
The % nitrogen in ammonium sulfate is:

▲ Figure 11.11 Fertilisers have been used to help create ((2 × 14)/132) × 100 = 21.2%
some of the best fruit and vegetables on sale

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 10.3 The air

Problems with fertilisers and about 75% of the mass of the atmosphere is
If artificial fertilisers of all kinds are not used found in the layer nearest the Earth called the
correctly, problems can arise. If too much fertiliser troposphere (Figure 11.15). Beyond this layer,
is applied to the land, rain washes the fertiliser off the atmosphere reaches into space but becomes
the land and into rivers and streams. This is known as extremely thin. Nearly all atmospheric water
leaching. This leaching leads to eutrophication: the vapour (or moisture) is found in the troposphere,
process that occurs when fertiliser is leached, causing which also contains the liquid water in the
algae to multiply rapidly and causing the water to oceans, rivers and lakes.
turn green. As the algae die and decay, oxygen is
removed from the water, leaving insufficient amounts
for fish and other organisms to survive (Figure 11.13).
In extreme cases, no normal aquatic life can survive.
There are also worries about the effect of agricultural
fertilisers, especially nitrates such as ammonium
nitrate, on the public water supply.

▲ Figure 11.14 The lighter blue shows the extent of the

atmosphere around the Earth – approximately 100 km

Thermosphere
80
▲ Figure 11.13 Over-use of fertilisers has led to Ionosphere
70
eutrophication Mesosphere
60
Test yourself
Altitude/km

50

1 Calculate the percentage of nitrogen in each 40

of the three fertilisers ammonium nitrate Stratosphere Ozone layer
(NH4NO3), ammonium phosphate ((NH4)3PO4) 30
and urea (CO(NH2)2). (Ar: H = 1; C = 12; N = 14;
O = 16; P = 31) 20

2 Write down a method that you could carry out 10

Troposphere
in a school laboratory to prepare a sample of
ammonium sulfate fertiliser.
0

0
60
20
20
60
10

10

3 Why is it important to have nitrogen in fertilisers?

Temperature/ C

▲ Figure 11.15 The Earth’s atmosphere

10.3 The air

The composition of the atmosphere
Going further If a sample of dry, unpolluted air were taken from
any location in the troposphere and analysed, the
The gases in the air are held in an envelope composition by volume of the sample would be
around the Earth by its gravity. The atmosphere similar to that shown in Table 11.2.
is approximately 100 km thick (Figure 11.14),
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 10 chemiStry of the environment

▼ Table 11.2 Composition of the atmosphere Figure 11.16 shows how carbon dioxide is
produced by the combustion of fossil fuels such as
Component %
methane found in natural gas. It is also produced
Nitrogen 78.08 by all living organisms. Animals take in oxygen and
Oxygen 20.95 breathe out carbon dioxide.
Argon 0.93 Carbon dioxide is taken in by plants through
their leaves and used together with water, taken in
Carbon dioxide 0.04
through their roots, to synthesise glucose (a sugar).
Neon 0.002 This is the process of photosynthesis.
Helium 0.000 5 It takes place only in sunlight and only in green
Krypton 0.000 1 leaves, as they contain chlorophyll (the green
Xenon plus tiny amounts of other gases 0.000 01 pigment) which catalyses the process.
sunlight
Note that air contained approximately 0.03% by carbon + water chlorophyll
 → glucose + oxygen
volume of carbon dioxide for many years. This value dioxide
has remained almost constant for a long period of
time and is maintained via the processes found in 6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12 O6 + 6O2
the carbon cycle (Figure 11.16).
However, scientists have recently detected an The carbon cycle has continued in this manner for
increase in the amount of carbon dioxide in the millions of years. However, scientists have detected
atmosphere to approximately 0.04%. an imbalance in the carbon cycle due to the increase
in the amount of carbon dioxide produced through
Key definition burning fossil fuels and the deforestation of large
Clean, dry air is approximately 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen areas of tropical rainforest.
and the remainder is a mixture of noble gases and carbon The Earth’s climate is affected by the levels
dioxide.
of carbon dioxide (and water vapour) in the
atmosphere. If the amount of carbon dioxide, in
Sources of carbon dioxide in the air particular, builds up in the air, it is thought that
the average temperature of the Earth will rise,
causing global warming. This effect is thought by
scientists to be caused by the greenhouse effect.
Carbon dioxide
in the air This important topic will be discussed further later
SUN
in this chapter on p. 183.

Respiration Photosynthesis
Test yourself
Animals take in oxygen, 4 Draw a pie chart to show the data given in
eat plants and breathe Table 11.2.
out CO2
5 Is air a compound or a mixture? Explain your
answer.
6 Which of the following statements about the air
Plants give out oxygen are true and which are false?
a Nitrogen constitutes nearly 79% of the

Burned as fuels
producing CO2 Death and decay Decay atmosphere.
b Air is a mixture of elements.
c Carbon dioxide is not a constituent
Carbon compounds
in oil, gas, coal of the air.
and carbonates d Neon is present in the air.

▲ Figure 11.16 The carbon cycle

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 10.4 Atmospheric pollution

10.4 Atmospheric pollution Air pollution is all around us. Concentrations of

gases in the atmosphere, such as carbon monoxide,
The two major resources considered in this chapter, sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides, are increasing
water and air, are essential to our way of life and with the increasing population. As the population
our very existence. Water and air make up the increases, there is a consequent increase in the need
environment of a living organism. The environment for energy, industries and motor vehicles. These
is everything in the surroundings of an organism gases are produced primarily from the combustion of
that could possibly influence it. Humans continually the fossil fuels, coal, oil and gas, but they are also
pollute these resources. We now look at the effects produced by the smoking of cigarettes.
of the various sources of pollution of the air and at Motor vehicles are responsible for much of the air
the methods used to control or eliminate them. For pollution in large towns and cities. They produce five
a discussion of water pollution, see p. 173. particularly harmful pollutants, as shown in Table 11.3.
▼ Table 11.3 Pollution caused by motor vehicles

Pollutant Caused by Problems caused Can be reduced by

Carbon The complete combustion Higher levels of carbon dioxide Burning fewer fossil fuels
dioxide, CO2 of carbon-containing fuels lead to increased global
warming, which leads to
climate change
Carbon The incomplete combustion Toxic gas Fitting catalytic converters to remove CO,
monoxide, CO of carbon-containing fuels but more CO2 is produced. It should be
noted that lean-burn engines also produce
less CO.
Particulates, C The incomplete combustion Increased risk of respiratory Adding oxygenates such as ethanol to
of carbon-containing fuels problems and cancer petrol to reduce the particulates produced
Methane, CH4 The decomposition of Higher levels of methane lead Encouraging composting or incineration.
vegetation and waste gases to increased global warming, Capturing the methane produced and
from digestion in animals which leads to climate change using it as a fuel or to generate electricity
when burned. Reducing the number of
farm animals by encouraging people to eat
less meat
Nitrogen Car engines Acid rain, photochemical smog Fitting catalytic converters to remove
oxides, NOx and respiratory problems nitrogen oxides. However, in doing so more
carbon dioxide is produced.
Sulfur dioxide, The combustion of fossil Acid rain Removing sulfur from petrol to produce
SO2 fuels which contain sulfur low-sulfur petrol. Using flue gas
compounds desulfurisation units (see p. 182) at
coal-burning power stations

Catalytic converters nitrogen(II) + carbon → nitrogen + carbon

In recent years, regulations have been introduced oxide monoxide dioxide
worldwide which state that all new cars have to be 2NO(g) + 2CO(g) → N2(g) + 2CO2(g)
fitted with catalytic converters as part of their
exhaust system (Figure 11.17). Car exhaust fumes The catalyst in the catalytic converter speeds up
contain pollutant gases, such as carbon monoxide these reactions considerably. The catalyst is made
(CO), formed from the incomplete combustion of from platinum or a similar platinum-like metal such
hydrocarbons(C xHy) in the fuel, and nitrogen(II) as palladium or rhodium. In these reactions, the
oxide (NO) formed by the reaction of nitrogen gas pollutants are converted to carbon dioxide and
and oxygen gas from the air. The following reactions nitrogen, which are naturally present in the air. The
proceed of their own accord but very slowly under removal of oxides of nitrogen is important because
the conditions inside an exhaust. they cause respiratory disease. They are also
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 10 chemiStry of the environment

involved in the production of photochemical smogs air pollutant. It is formed in the atmosphere by
(Figure 11.18) which occur worldwide in major cities, the reaction between gaseous pollutants, nitrogen
especially in the summer. Photochemical smog is oxides and hydrocarbons.
the most widely known and perhaps most serious

CO2
H2O
N2

a A catalytic converter

CO
HC
NOx

b A section through a catalytic converter

▲ Figure 11.17

Going further
The incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons in
the petrol and the evaporation of hydrocarbons
from petrol tanks both contribute to the formation
of photochemical smog. This can cause severe
respiratory problems. However adding oxygenates,
such as ethanol, to petrol reduces its production.
Catalytic converters also help remove unburned
hydrocarbons but in doing so more carbon dioxide is
produced!

▲ Figure 11.18 The haze is caused by a photochemical Test yourself

smog, which is due to pollution caused mainly by cars 7 Catalytic converters remove harmful gases
without catalyst exhaust systems CO and NO. They do this by converting them
into less harmful chemicals. Give the names
and formulas of the chemicals they are
converted to.

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 10.4 Atmospheric pollution

A further method of regulating pollutant gases from

vehicles is to remove petrol-burning engines and
replace them with an efficient electric motor. The
research and development of these motors is moving
forward at a tremendous pace.
Internationally there has been great concern
globally with the increase of particulates in the air
(Figure 11.19). ‘Particulates’ is a general term used
to describe very small particles in the atmosphere,
such as certain types of smoke emitted from diesel
engines, as well as dust.

Going further
These particulates have been associated with a
variety of lung complaints in both adults and children.
It has been found, however, that adding oxygenates,
such as ethanol, to fuels reduces the amount of
particulates produced by vehicles. The oxygenates
provide extra oxygen to the burning process in the ▲ Figure 11.20 Sulfur dioxide is a major pollutant produced
engine and so reduce the amount of incomplete by industry
combustion taking place.
Rainwater is naturally acidic since it dissolves
carbon dioxide gas from the atmosphere as it falls.
Natural rainwater has a pH of about 5.7. However, the
acidity is enhanced by sulfur dioxide gas dissolving in
rainwater to form the weak acid, sulfurous acid (H2SO3).
A further reaction occurs in which the sulfurous acid
is oxidised to sulfuric acid (H2SO4). Solutions of these
acids are the principal contributors to acid rain. It
should be noted that the reduction of nitrogen(IV) oxide
by the use of catalytic exhaust systems is important
since the NO2 produced in the atmosphere dissolves in
rainwater and produces, eventually, nitric acid which
adds to acid rain. In recent years, especially in central
Europe, the pH of rainwater has fallen to between pH 3
and pH 4.8. This increase in acidity has led to extensive
damage to forests (Figure 11.21), lakes and marine life.

▲ Figure 11.19 Particulates produced by diesel engines are

a real health problem worldwide

In addition to the fuels used in motor vehicles

producing quantities of sulfur dioxide when they
combust in engines, heavy industry (Figure 11.20)
and power stations are also major sources of sulfur
dioxide, formed by the combustion of coal, oil and
gas, which also contain small amounts of sulfur. ▲ Figure 11.21 This forest has been devastated by acid rain

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 10 chemiStry of the environment

Practical skills
Acid rain Experiment B
For safe experiments/demonstrations which The student was then given some powdered
are related to this chapter, please refer to the calcium carbonate to add to each sample. The
Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Practical Skills results are shown in the table below. The student
Workbook, which is also part of this series. was asked to collect samples of any gas produced
and test any gas produced using limewater.
Safety
Observation upon adding Observation after
● Eye protection must be worn.
Sample calcium carbonate powder adding limewater
Experiment A Playing Small amount of bubbles No result
A student tests the rainwater collected from the Fields but not sufficient to test
school playing field using universal indicator A Lots of bubbles of a gas Limewater turns
solution. They then tested rainwater from three produced milky white
other places, A, B and C. B Small amount of bubbles No result
but not sufficient to test
1 What apparatus would be required for
this experiment? C Small amount of bubbles No result
but not sufficient to test
The results of the tests are shown in the
table below.
4 a Which gas was being tested for?
Colour of universal b How could a sample of the white solid
Sample indicator solution pH of rain water be obtained after the test was carried
Playing fields Lime green 6 out on A?
A Orange 3
5 Describe, with the aid of a simple diagram,
how the student could collect samples of
B Yellow 5
any gas produced.
C Lime green 6 6 Did these results confirm the results
obtained in experiment A?
2 Which was the most acidic water?
Explain your answer.
3 Which was the least acidic water?
7 Write a conclusion to experiments A and B.

Recently, units called flue gas desulfurisation (FGD)

units have been fitted to some power stations
throughout the world to prevent the emission of
sulfur dioxide gas. Here, the sulfur dioxide gas is
removed from the waste gases by passing them
through calcium oxide slurry. This not only removes
the sulfur dioxide but also creates calcium sulfite,
which then oxidises to sulfate, which can be sold to
produce plasterboard (Figure 11.22). The FGD units
are very expensive and therefore the sale of the
calcium sulfate is an important economic part of the
process.

▲ Figure 11.22 This plasterboard is made using calcium

sulfate from an FGD plant

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 10.4 Atmospheric pollution

Global warming in the weather patterns which will further affect

agriculture worldwide.
Scientists know that certain gases in the atmosphere There is an additional effect when the
trap the Sun’s heat in our atmosphere and this incomplete combustion of diesel takes place. Carbon
makes the Earth warmer. These gases are known as particles or particulates are produced. These black
greenhouse gases and cause the greenhouse effect. particles are blown by the prevailing winds and
This increase in the Earth’s temperature is known as some end up falling on snow and ice fields. This
global warming. reduces the reflectivity of the snow, which causes a
It is well known by scientists that, for example, further increase in the melting of the snow and ice
higher levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere in mountainous areas as well as the northern and
lead to increased global warming, which leads to southern pole areas of the world.
climate change.
How does the greenhouse effect affect the
average temperature of the Earth?
SUN
Some energy from the Sun is absorbed by the Earth Energy
radiated
and its atmosphere. The remainder is reflected
back into space. The energy that is absorbed helps Some energy
absorbed
to heat up the Earth. The Earth radiates some
heat energy back into space but the greenhouse Some energy
radiated back
gases, including carbon dioxide, prevent it from into space
escaping. This effect is similar to that observed in
Earth
a greenhouse where sunlight (visible/ultraviolet
radiation) enters through the glass panes but heat
(infrared radiation) has difficulty escaping through Atmosphere

the glass (Figure 11.23).

Carbon dioxide is not the only greenhouse gas. Other SUN

gases also contribute to the greenhouse effect. One

of these is methane (see Chapter 12, p. 189), which is
produced from agriculture and released from landfill
sites as well as rice fields. The amount of carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere is increasing due to:
» major deforestation taking place in several
countries of the world. Trees act as the lungs of Earth
the planet. During photosynthesis they absorb Greenhouse
carbon dioxide and release oxygen.
» pollution of our rivers and oceans. The more
pollutants that are dissolving in these systems, ▲ Figure 11.23 The greenhouse effect
the less carbon dioxide that can dissolve in
the water.
These problems have been recognised by nations
» a large increase in the amounts of carbon dioxide
worldwide. Recent agreements under the Kyoto
released by the continued burning of large
Protocol, as well as the Paris Accord, between
quantities of fossil fuels by industry and transport.
nations mean that there will be some reduction
The long-term effect of the higher temperatures of in the amount of carbon dioxide (and other
the greenhouse effect and the subsequent global greenhouse gases) produced over the next few
warming will be the continued gradual melting of years. However, there is still a long way to go
ice caps and consequent flooding in low-lying areas before we no longer increase greenhouse gases in
of the Earth. There will also be further changes the atmosphere.

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 10 chemiStry of the environment

How can we reduce the effects of global matters. However, we must take into account
warming? whether or not the alternative fuel is going to use
There are several actions that can be taken to up other resources in a way that enables them to
reduce the effects of global warming: continue in the future rather than destroying them.
In other words, is the alternative sustainable?
» Plant more trees and reduce the amount of Sustainability is very important. In the case of
deforestation taking place worldwide. This will fossil fuels, they are not renewable or sustainable.
cause more carbon dioxide to be absorbed from When they are gone they are gone! Also we must
the atmosphere through photosynthesis. consider the advantages and disadvantages
» Burn fewer fossil fuels by using alternative fuels of the alternative fuel. Table 11.4 shows not
in order to reduce the amount of carbon dioxide only whether those alternatives are sustainable
entering the atmosphere. You will see in Table but also their perceived advantages and
11.4 that there are alternatives that might improve disadvantages.
▼ Table 11.4 Alternative fuels to fossil fuels

Alternative
fuel Is the alternative sustainable? Advantages Disadvantages
Biodiesel Yes it is! It is made from waste plant Produces less CO, CxHy, SO2 and NO emissions are higher
material and animal oils and fats. particulates than diesel fuel. than from standard
diesel fuel.
Ethanol This is open to debate since large Less CO, SO2 and NOx are produced It is very flammable.
amounts of energy and land are than from petrol. Replanting sugar cane
needed to cultivate sugar cane for creates a cycle as it absorbs CO2 from
fermentation. the atmosphere.
Hydrogen Hydrogen is sustainable only if the Water is the only product of production. It is very, very flammable.
electricity needed to produce it, from Hence there is no pollution. Also a high-pressure fuel
the electrolysis of acidified water, is tank is needed to store it
from a renewable resource such as as a liquid.
solar power or wind. The car shown in
Figure 11.24 is powered by hydrogen.

» Be more energy efficient. This will reduce the » Increase the use of renewable energy sources
amount of carbon dioxide entering the atmosphere. such as solar, wind and tidal.
In homes, for example, this means making them » Significantly reduce livestock farming to cut
well insulated and turning off lights when not down the amount of methane released into the
needed. We also need to consider whether the atmosphere.
journey we are about to take by car or plane is
essential. Only by being conscientious will we make
inroads into the global warming situation. Going further
Some uses of the gases from the air
Our everyday life would not be the same without the
gases we obtain from the air. For example:
● Oxygen is used in hospitals by patients with
breathing difficulties as well as in the manufacture
of steel.
● Nitrogen is used in the manufacture of fertilisers
(see p. 175) as well as in food packaging to keep
food fresh.
● Inert gases, such as argon, are used to fill the
space between the panes of modern double-glazing
units, while neon is used in advertising signs.
▲ Figure 11.24 A hydrogen-powered vehicle

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 10.4 Atmospheric pollution

Test yourself
8 In 1960, the percentage of carbon dioxide in the and calcium hydroxide slurry in the FGD unit of a
atmosphere was close to 0.03% and in 2010 it was power station.
close to 0.04%. Suggest an explanation for this 10 Write down one problem that can be caused by each
increase. of these air pollutants:
9 Write a balanced chemical equation to represent the a nitrogen dioxide
reaction which takes place between sulfur dioxide b particulates.

Revision checklist
After studying Chapter 11 you should be able to: ✔ State the adverse effect of these air pollutants.
✔ Name the gases in the atmosphere and state the
approximate percentage proportions of each gas. ✔ Describe how the greenhouse gases, such
✔ Describe chemical tests for the presence of water. as carbon dioxide and methane, cause global
✔ Describe how to test for the purity of water. warming, which leads to climate change.
✔ Explain why distilled water is used in practical ✔ Explain how oxides of nitrogen form in car
chemistry rather than tap water. engines and describe their removal by catalytic
✔ State that ammonium salts and nitrates can converters.
be used as fertilisers, including ammonium
phosphate and potassium nitrate. ✔ State and explain strategies to reduce the effects
✔ Describe the use of NPK fertilisers to provide of these various environmental issues.
improved plant growth and provide larger yields of ✔ Describe photosynthesis as the reaction between
crops to feed the world’s growing population. carbon dioxide and water to produce glucose in
✔ State the composition of clean, dry air. the presence of chlorophyll and using energy from
✔ State the source of these air pollutants: carbon light .
dioxide, carbon monoxide, methane, nitrogen
oxides, sulfur dioxide and particulates.

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 10 chemiStry of the environment

Exam-style questions
1 The apparatus shown below was used to estimate
the proportion of oxygen in the atmosphere.
100 cm 3 of air is pushed Across hot Into this
out of this syringe copper syringe

Heat

Air is passed backwards and forwards The volume of air gets smaller
across the copper, which turns black and smaller

Eventually the volume of The volume of remaining air

air stops getting smaller is measured
Heat

A volume of dry air (200 cm3) was passed g Would you expect the copper to have
backwards and forwards over heated copper until increased or decreased in mass during the
no further change in volume took place. The experiment? Explain your answer. [2]
apparatus was then allowed to cool down to room 2 a Oxygen has an atomic number of 8 and mass
temperature and the final volume reading was number 16. Give the electronic configuration
then taken. Some typical results are shown below. of the oxygen atom. [1]
b How many electrons, neutrons and protons
Volume of gas before = 200 cm3
are there in the oxygen atom? [3]
Volume of gas after = 157 cm3 c Oxygen molecules are diatomic. Explain the
During the experiment, the copper slowly turned meaning of this term. [3]
black.
a Explain why the apparatus was allowed to cool d Sketch a diagram of the oxygen molecule
back to room temperature before the final showing the outer shell of electrons only.
volume reading was taken. [2] What type of bonding does the molecule
b Using the information given above, calculate contain?[5]
the percentage volume reduction which has
taken place. [3] 3 Explain the following statements.
c Explain briefly why there is a change in a Air is a mixture of elements and
volume.[2] compounds. [2]
d Identify which observation given above b The percentage of carbon dioxide in the
supports your explanation in c. atmosphere does not significantly vary from
e Give a balanced chemical equation for any 0.04%.[2]
reaction which has occurred. [4] c Power stations are thought to be a major
f Give the name of the main residual gas at the cause of acid rain. [3]
end of the experiment. [1]

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 Exam-style questions

4 Use the words below to complete the following ii Which process, distillation or filtration, is
passage about water and its uses. actually used to produce drinking water
abundant chlorine monitored coolant from river water? Compare your answer
reactions pure clay solvent essential with your answer in c i.[2]
6 a Besides carbon dioxide, name one other
Water is for all life on Earth. It is the greenhouse gas. [1]
most substance on Earth. Water is
not only used for drinking and washing but also: b Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas which
● in chemical , for example in the adds to the greenhouse effect. Describe what
production of ethanol from ethene you understand by the term ‘greenhouse
● as a to dissolve things effect’.[3]
● as a in some chemical processes.
For us to drink it, water must be relatively c The graph below shows the change in mean
. To make the water drinkable, any global air temperature from 1860 to 2000.
undissolved solids are removed through filtration

Mean global air temperature / °C

beds. Aluminium sulfate is added to remove 14.6
small particles of and is 14.4
added to kill bacteria. 14.2
14.0
Water is continuously because there
13.8
are certain substances that eventually find their
13.6
way into the water supply. [9]
13.4
5 a Explain what is meant by the term ‘pollution’
0.0
with reference to air and water. [4] 1860 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000
b i Give an air pollutant produced by the Year
burning of coal. [1]
ii Give a different air pollutant produced by i Describe the general trend shown by the
the combustion of petrol in a car engine.[1] graph from 1860. [1]
c Some of our drinking water is obtained by ii Explain what you think has caused the
purifying river water. trend you gave as an answer in part a.[2]
i Would distillation or filtration produce
the purest water from river water? Give a
reason for your answer. [3]

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