1.

0 Introduction to Module 1: Continued Resistance to Colonial

Rule

1.1 The Second Phase of the Philippine Revolution

1897
● May 10, 1897 — Execution of the Bonifacios
○ Andres and Procopio Bonifacio
○ Initiated by Emilio Aguinaldo; he had him arrested and tried for treason
○ Aguinaldo becomes leader of the Katipunan
● May 17, 1897 — Primo de Rivera’s offer
○ Primo de Rivera, as the governor-general, offers pardon for those who
surrender peacefully
○ Hoped that PH revolutionaries will tire after combat
● July 2, 1897 — Rivera’s limitation of movements
○ The governor-general limits movement across villages and towns
○ His goal was to capture Aguinaldo
● November 1, 1897 — The Biak-na-Bato Republic
○ Aguinaldo establishes the Biak-na Bato-Republic
○ Declared after he successfully evaded the Spanish forces (Primo de
Rivera) pursuing him by moving up north
○ Goal of the republic was to separate from the Spanish monarchy and to
form an independent state
★ In the midst of all this, Pedro Paterno positioned himself as mediator between
Aguinaldo and Primo de Rivera to negotiate an end to conflict between the
Philippines and Spain
● December 15, 1897 — The Truce of Biak-na Bato
○ Aguinaldo signs a truce between him and Primo de Rivera to end the
Philippine Revolution
○ Conditions:
■ Aguinaldo and his companions will go into voluntary exile abroad
■ De Rivera shall pay P800,000 to the rebels in three installments:
● 400k to Aguinaldo;
● 200k when arms surrendered by the revolutionaries exceed
700;
● 200k when the Te Deum was sung and general amnesty
proclaimed by the governor
○ Primo de Rivera would pay an additional sum of P900,000 to the families
of the non-combatant Filipinos who suffered during the armed conflict.
○ Agoncillo's account implies that Aguinaldo's voluntary exile in exchange for
money is an effort to live and fight another day, as the money would be
necessary for the revolution
○ The truce did not secure complete independence; it simply suppressed
the revolution
■ It merely gave Filipinos money that mostly went to the rebels
 ○ Had vague terms and was questionable, therefore it drew more attention to
Aguinaldo
● Aguinaldo goes to Hongkong with company to exile — does not necessarily signal
the end of the revolution, seeing as this still continued
○ After Aguinaldo surrenders, the rebels who continued fighting are now
considered insurgents who are going against their leader’s decision
● GLOBAL SCALE: Cuba was also fighting for independence against Spain
○ Received support from the USA, who provided them with weapons and arms
○ Spain’s powers were dwindling, while the US was rising

1898
● February 15, 1898 — Bombing of the USS Maine
○ The Spanish fleet bombs the USS maine in Havana, Cuba
● April 25, 1898 — US declares war on Spain; Aguinaldo returns to Hong Kong
○ The United States had declared war against Spain in the name of
democracy, but also to protect their economic interests in Cuba
○ An American attack on the Spanish forces in Manila will strengthen their
position in the war
● Aguinaldo and Pratt’s meeting
○ While all this goes on, an exiled Aguinaldo meets with American consul
Spencer Pratt in Singapore and discusses the possibility of uniting against
Spain so that the former may take back Manila
■ Pratt assures that the PH will be safe and not colonized, seeing as
they merely protected Cuba
■ Agoncillo's account of their meeting assert that Aguinaldo expressed
doubts of the United States' intention
○ Aguinaldo's plan to put Manila under siege required a strong navy, which
the Philippines did not have at that time—but the Americans did.
● May 1, 1898 — The Battle of Manila Bay
○ The United States navy defeats Spaniards in Manila Bay
● May 19, 1898 — The US brings Aguinaldo home
● May 24, 1898 — Aguinaldo’s dictatorial government
○ Aguinaldo declares a (temporary) dictatorial government
● Through all this, the Spanish government resisted against the thought that the PH
was going to win the revolution, although it was inevitable
● The End of Spanish Colonial Rule
○ With the assistance offered by the Americans, Aguinaldo was able to enact
his siege of the walled city of Intramuros
■ Filipino revolutionaries surrounded the gates of the city preventing the
entry of supplies, while the American navy blocked the port.
■ The Spanish leaders in Intramuros were trapped inside the walled
city and their surrender was only a matter of time
○ Aguinaldo's strategy, however, was not going according to plan; the Spanish
military leaders refused to surrender.
○ Worse still, the Americans have shut off communication with Aguinaldo
on the execution of his plan—which scared him.
 ○ Aguinaldo's adviser, Apolinario Mabini, urged him to declare Philippine
Independence and establish a revolutionary government in order to
assert the country's status as an independent state.
● June 12, 1898 — Philippine Independence
○ Emilio Aguinaldo declared Philippine Independence in Kawit, Cavite
○ He did so to push forward the notion that the Philippines is free
○ He thanked the USA for helping them towards independence
○ Unfortunately for the Filipinos, this grand gesture did not stop the Spaniards
who refused to surrender and the Americans who had their sights set on
the Philippines
● July 1898 — Jaudenes and Dewey’s Secret Agreement
○ Governor-General Fermin Jaudenes and Commodore George Dewey arrived
at a mutual agreement to stage a mock battle in order to justify Spanish
surrender to the United States
○ The agreement stressed that no Filipino must be involved in the battle, for
Spain refuses to accept defeat against the revolutionaries
● August 13, 1898 — Mock Battle of Manila
○ Spain surrendered to the United States through this mock battle
○ Offered Spanish forces in the Philippines an opportunity to save face by
surrendering to the militarily superior Americans, and not the Filipinos
● December 10, 1898 — The Treaty of Paris
○ Formalized the United States' purchase of the Philippines from Spain for
the sum of $20,000,000
○ Neither country acknowledged Filipino independence
● Views on Independence:
○ Bonifacio — Freedom from colonizers and land ownership
○ Aguinaldo — Self-rule and recognition, particularly from other countries

1.2 The Malolos Republic

● June 18, 1898 — Reorganization of Provinces
○ Under Apolinario Mabini’s counsel, government decrees the reorganization
of provinces free from Spanish control
● June 20, 1898 — Outlining of Supplementary Decrees
○ Aguinaldo declares that prisoners of war should be treated humanely
● June 23, 1898 — Shift from Dictatorial to a Revolutionary Government
○ The government shifts from a dictatorial to a revolutionary form of
government
○ Changed the title of the chief of state from Dictator to President
○ 2 goals of this shift:
■ Recognition from other countries, including Spain
■ Preparation for future direction of the nation to be established as a
true republic
○ Appointment of cabinets and the creation of Congress
■ Cabinets made of representatives who are elected by the people
■ Literate, fluent in Filipino and Spanish, landowner, has leadership
abilities
 ■ 3 representatives from Manila or Cavite, 2 representatives from 1st
class provinces near Manila, 1 representative from the rest of the
areas
● Declaration of the Malolos Republic
○ The Malolos Republic was established to assert Philippine independence
and self-governance
○ Diplomatic agents were sent abroad to work for the recognition of Philippine
Independence
○ The role of Congress in the Republic was heavily debated and ultimately led
to the crafting of the Malolos Constitution
■ Congress as advisors, but the president makes the decisions
○ The republic was never really put into effect, but it helped our leaders
articulate their vision for the future of the Philippines

1899
● January 23, 1899 — Inauguration of the Malolos Republic
○ Aguinaldo’s words on Philippine independence reflect an awareness of the
Philippines as a nation-state, a country bound by more than just
common geography.
○ In his speech, Aguinaldo parallels the Philippines to the American
revolution
■ By doing this, he could be calling out the hypocrisy of the United
States since they were having intentions to colonize the
Philippines—showing Aguinaldo as a politically-minded leader
■ Also possibly an appeal to the United States' value for liberty and
independence and a call for them to honor Filipino nationhood.
● The Malolos Constitution
○ The establishment of the Malolos Republic pushed Filipino leaders to
articulate the rights of individuals and the powers and obligations of the
state.
○ Sought to protect Filipinos from oppressive practices they have come to
learn from their colonizers
■ Provisions such as the separation of church and state shows the
Filipinos' recognition of the Church's abuses during the Spanish
colonial period and their desire to eliminate this practice in their new
Republic.
○ At the same time, this also reflected an attempt to maintain the existing
social stratification in Philippine society
○ The Constitution struggled to balance the competing ideals of building a
strong central state and forming a government with checks and
balances.
■ In empowering the Legislative Assembly, the Constitution effectively
limits the power of the President in favor of
representation/decentralization.
○ By allowing local governments to take charge of the administration in their
respective towns and provinces, the elite secures their position and power
in society
 ■ This motive could be seen in how the elite leader Felipe Calderon
defends the power granted to the Legislative branch of government,
saying something along the lines of: “If we make the military rule after
the spaniards, that would be ignorant because they don’t have the
ability to rule; this oligarchy then must be neutralized by the oligarchy
of intelligence.”
● Central State vs. Local Power
○ One major struggle of the new Republic is the establishment of a strong
central government, as this was hampered by the interests of local elites
and the provision for a legislative branch which dominated the executive
and the judiciary
○ Apolinario Mabini, argued for a strong “politico-military dictator” while the
country was at war with the United States
■ rejected by members of the Congress on the basis that it goes
against the ideal of representation
○ Congress called for Mabini's resignation, and legislative supremacy
characterized the new Republic
■ This type of government is why provincial elites did not recognize the
legitimacy of Aguinaldo, the PH government, or the remaining
American rule
○ The weakness of the central government in different localities can be further
illustrated in how directives of the central government were dismissed in
towns and provinces; it was ultimately the local elite who made important
decisions on continuing with the revolution or submitting to American
rule
○ Overall, the Malolos Republic had little impact since the American colonizers
already started to take over; nonetheless, it showed what the country could
be in the future and how its leaders had envisioned it to be

1.3 The Philippine-American War

Why or why not go to war? - USA Perspective

Pros Cons

● Seeking to expand their power in ● However, aggressive imperialism

Asia, the United States saw an would run contrary to the
opportunity in establishing a territory country's ideals of freedom and
in the Philippines. democracy, and would therefore
● Wanted to establish their place as receive much criticism from U.S.
a global power citizens.
● They would be able to pursue an ● Anti-imperialist league formed in
"Open Door" policy with China, the USA to fight against the war in
expand their military and their the Philippines
navy, and—for Protestant - Says that war is impractical
missionaries—conduct missionary - Hypocritical move from the
work. US
 - Cites racist reasons as well,
feared intermarriage

● Tensions between the Philippines and America

○ President William McKinley expressed American interest in expanding
its territory to the Philippines, a mere eleven days after the signing of the
treaty of Paris, he was careful with how his policy was presented and
received.
● December 21, 1898 — Proclamation of Benevolent Assimilation
○ Issued by McKinley, Benevolent Assimilation presents American plans on
the Philippines as something which is not imperialistic in nature, but rather as
a form of goodwill to a country seeking to be civilized
○ Not approaching as invaders, but as ‘friends’ who aim to protect the natives
■ Wanted to help Filipinos after the Spanish-American war, to mother
the PH
○ Generally directed towards Americans to gain their support
○ This rhetoric, however, was not well-received by the Filipinos who have
been wary of American interests to succeed Spain as their colonizer.
● January 5, 1899 — Aguinaldo’s Counter-proclamation
○ As a response to McKinley's proclamation, Aguinaldo issues a counter
proclamation threatening open hostilities if the United States attempts to
seize territories from the Philippines
○ This was immediately succeeded by the Malolos Congress declaring the
First Philippine Republic
● Even with these public pronouncements, both sides were not prepared for the
conflict to escalate
○ Aguinaldo understood the United States was a strong opponent, and the
Americans needed to delay open hostilities until such time that more
reinforcements would arrive in the country
○ Thus, meetings between Aguinaldo's men and American commissioners
were held in January 1899 to discuss the political interests of both
countries
○ In these meetings, however, both parties were equally mistrustful of the
other, knowing that these are simply being held to delay inevitable conflict.
● February 4, 1899 — Shooting at San Juan
■ Shooting at the San Juan bridge led to the outbreak of open
hostilities between Filipinos and Americans
■ Occurred between an American and a Filipino soldier

The Philippine-American War

● As tensions between the Philippines and the United States broke out into war, the
Filipino revolutionary army engaged the Americans in conventional warfare.
● February to March of 1899 — Outbreak of War
○ American reinforcements arrived in the Philippines and the Americans
expanded their control of territories north and south of Manila.
 ○ The Filipinos had a share of victories, although the poorly armed and trained
Filipino army could not stop the American advance.
○ Luna suggested a shift to guerilla warfare, but Aguinaldo insisted
otherwise.
● May 5, 1899 — Offer of Autonomy
○ Americans, through the Schurman Commission, offered autonomy to the
Filipinos but was rejected by Mabini
○ This enraged the elite members of the Malolos Congress, as they felt that
this offer of autonomy was already a win—after all, this was what they had
been asking for from Spain prior to the entry of the Americans.
○ With tension already high between the members of the Congress and
Apolinario Mabini, this conflict ultimately leads to Mabini's resignation
from Aguinaldo’s cabinet.
● May 7, 1899 — Mabini’s Resignation
○ Apolinario Mabini resigns from Aguinaldo’s cabinet
● June 5, 1899 — Antonio Luna’s Assassination
○ General Antonio Luna, unpopular to his men and to elite members of the
Malolos Congress, was assassinated at the convent of Cabanatuan.
○ To this day, the brains of his assassination is still a mystery, though it has
been attributed to elite leaders of Malolos like Felipe Buencamino, to the
Magdalo faction of the revolution, and even to Aguinaldo himself.
● November 13, 1899 — Shift to Guerilla Warfare
○ Aguinaldo finally yielded to the recommendation of shifting tactics and
engaged the Americans in guerilla warfare.
○ He marches north to the mountains with his mother and sisters under the
protection of General Gregorio del Pilar.
● December 2, 1899 — Gregorio Del Pilar killed
○ General Gregorio del Pilar is killed in the Battle of Tirad Pass
● March 23, 1901 — Aguinaldo’s Capture
○ Emilio Aguinaldo was captured by the Americans; he was tricked by the
Macabebe, a group in Pampanga to come with them as reinforcements, but
the group led him to American troops.
● April 19, 1901 — Aguinaldo’s Oath and Appeal
○ Aguinaldo took the Oath of Allegiance to the United States and appealed
to Filipinos to accept American sovereignty.
● July 4, 1902 — End of the Philippine Insurrection
○ U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt officially declared an end to
Philippine Insurrection.
○ But resistance to colonial rule continued.
■ Uprisings in provinces still took place, and it wasn’t until 1909 that the
Americans had a firm hold over the archipelago.
● The Outcome of the War
○ The late nineteenth century saw the different faces of Filipino resistance to
colonial rule:
■ Smaller factions of the Katipunan and other millenarian
movements continued to raise arms against the remainder of the
Spaniards in the country, while the leaders of the revolution
congregated in Malolos and argued over matters of state formation.
 ■ Central authority of the Malolos government was weak as
American presence grew in the country.

Why the United States won the Philippine-American War

● Despite the position and the technology of both countries in 1899, Filipino defeat in
the Philippine-American War was not inevitable. Rather, this was the result of
multiple factors, both within and outside the Philippines’ control:
● Firstly, the Filipinos outnumbered the Americans. His estimate was that the
Filipino army was at least double the size of the American troops in the country.
● Filipino artillery was simply primitive. Although the Americans did indeed have
superiority over the quality of weapons, this did not necessarily mean that the quality
of American weapons were excellent.
● The Americans had a superior military. The Philippines had been recovering from
Spanish colonization, and so they were low on resources in general.
● Filipinos were also low on ammunition and therefore could not afford to use
their bullets for training. The result is that the Filipinos were poor marksmen.
● The Americans also had the advantage of having cavalry units and controlling
the seas. Thus, it was difficult for Aguinaldo to efficiently send reinforcements to the
sites of battle, especially when it required travel across islands.
● On this note, May criticizes Aguinaldo’s poor leadership and strategy. Despite
having lost to the Spaniards in conventional warfare during the first phase of the
revolution, Aguinaldo still decides to adopt the same tactics against the Americans.
○ Initially, Antonio Luna—Aguinaldo’s appointed general—supported the use of
conventional warfare, with him being educated in this style of warfare in
Europe. Later on, Luna himself acknowledged the weaknesses of the tactic
and suggested a shift to guerilla warfare as early as April 1899.
○ This suggestion, however, was not heeded and in-fighting within the
army led to Luna’s assassination two months later.
● May posits that another possible reason for Aguinaldo’s insistence to stick to
conventional warfare is his own insecurities.
○ He may have felt that guerilla tactics are inferior and employing such may
not merit Western powers’ recognition of the Philippines as a credible
nation-state.
○ Moreover, Aguinaldo is insecure about his authority over the army.
■ Guerilla tactics let people have more agency, so Aguinaldo would end
up losing complete control over his troops.
● And indeed, Aguinaldo’s authority was weak. This is reflected in the low and
scattered support for the revolution among the peasantry.
○ First, a great majority was indifferent; they did not care to take sides for so
long as they could cultivate their crops in peace.
○ A smaller segment was outwardly supportive of the Filipino revolutionaries,
although this was due to their bonds as tenants to their landlords.
○ From this group were peasants who actively joined the fighting, either out of
patriotism or out of duty to their landlord.
○ Millenarian groups, of which many of the peasants belonged to, also fought
against the Americans but not necessarily in coordinated effort with the
leaders of Malolos Republic.
 ■ While the Malolos leaders sought to establish a new status quo under
their authority, these millenarian groups sought a more radical social
change.
○ In general, the PH felt extorted, especially after the Malolos Republic.
● But even from among the elite class, the revolution had weak support.
○ They accepted the offer of benevolent assimilation instead. They didn’t
take Aguinaldo or the Malolos Congress seriously, so they opted to work with
the Americans.
○ Ethnic tensions also prevented cohesion within the army. Aguinaldo’s
Luzon-based generals did not receive the support or respect of the Visayan
armies assigned to them.
● Furthermore, the Filipino armies did not receive any support from outside the
country.
○ The United States army’s war atrocities had not alarmed other
governments for them to send their support.
○ Even the group of anti-imperialists in the United States was too small to
have any significant effect on their war policy.
● The war was supported widely by the American people. USA propaganda spread
the idea that the nation’s duty was to civilize the native people.
● In conclusion, May states that the determinant of the differing outcomes between the
Philippine-American War and the Vietnam War is simply the passage of time.
Ideologies prevalent in the world of 1899 within the country and outside of it
decided the Filipinos’ defeat in the Philippine American War.
● [Not in May’s essay] Disease and hunger was also spreading in the provinces.
○ A cholera epidemic was rampant during the PH-American war; many
soldiers helped Filipinos to disinfect their homes in order to protect
themselves, but ended up gaining their trust
○ PH gov’t at the time prioritized war over disease and hunger; an approach
not favored by Filipinos

2.0 The American Colonial Period and the Commonwealth Republic

● Building State Institutions
○ Professional civil service; Filipinos/Philippine citizens were now allowed to
join
○ Philippine Constabulary
○ Public education in the metropolitan language

2.1 Education in the American Colonial Period

● The Thomasites as teachers and missionaries
○ Goal was not just literacy and numeracy, but also bringing democratic
ideals and values to make the Philippines a model of American-style
democracy
○ Many of them joined for travel and adventure
● Many Filipinos were suspicious at first
○ Thomasite presence felt like a threat to christianity
○ Were discouraged even to go to the Thomasite schools
 ● American Teachers
○ Welcomed and respected in the Filipino community
○ Mostly isolated from other Americans, so they had to adapt to where they
were sent to
○ Filipinos often invited Americans to social gatherings since they lived
alone
■ Interaction between equals, helped promote benevolent assimilation
○ Adult education classes were also held to train future Filipino teachers
● The American Classroom
○ No corporal punishment, unlike in Spanish institutions
○ Incentives for good performance and behavior
○ Students treated equally regardless of socioeconomic status
■ Because of this, attitudes toward education changed; people/families
were no longer in fear of going to school and of the teachers
● Acceptance and Resistance of American Values
○ The importance of punctuality and regular attendance
○ Sports and teamwork: basketball, volleyball, and baseball
○ Sanitation and hygiene
○ The dignity of labor
■ Not really well-liked by Filipinos since they wanted their children not to
end up doing manual labor like themselves
○ Democracy
● Filipinos were also taught American history
○ Backdrop of Philippine colonization never really escaped the classroom
context
● Impact of Education — Long Term
○ Filipinos learned English
○ Participation in larger colonial bureaucracy
○ Pensionados, or gov’t scholars who are eventually sent to the US
○ Social mobility increased
○ Ideal of democracy
○ Opportunities in the international world
● Detriments of American Education
○ American way of life as superior; notion of American = Educated
○ Their teaching of equality
■ Work hard = succeed rhetoric that wasn’t necessarily realistic
■ The outside world was still visibly stratified—teachings
eliminated the idea that privileges still exist

2.2 Politics in the American Colonial Rule

● The Philippine Commissions
○ Their role was to figure out what to do with the Philippines, now that it was
under American rule
○ McKinley: The presumption is always to be in favor of the smaller
subdivision.
■ Go to localities and figure out the changes Filipinos want, not
necessarily going to Aguinaldo first
 ○ Decentralization and Representation was at the forefront
■ In stark contrast from earlier attempts at state formation.
● Shift to Representation
○ When the Commission organized a consultative body for its policies and
recommendations, they held an election of representatives at the
municipal level to the provincial level to form the Philippine Assembly
■ Highest position in the PH available to Filipinos, Philippine Assembly
was akin to the lower house of the Philippine legislature
■ Win the smaller elections first (municipal, provincial), before
national level
■ In winning the smaller elections, you have to promise people
something
○ General hierarchy went like this: President - Gov. General (American) -
Upper House (Full of Americans) - Lower House
○ Shift to representation meant a shift in power relations of municipal to
provincial elite
■ Instead of the municipal leaders being loyal subjects to their
respective provincial authorities, they now found themselves in a
position wherein their influence in their localities would gain them
political capital.
■ This change encouraged the prevalence of party politics and the
padrino or patronage system in Philippine politics.
● Parallel State Building
○ Goal was to integrate the farther provinces (uncolonized, like Moro and
Mountain Provinces) into the rest of the lowlands
■ Actually preferred American rule rather than joining the rest of the PH
● Philippine Assembly
○ Served as the lower house, with the PH commission as the Upper House
of Legislature
○ Granted politicians more power and control over the distribution of
resources
○ Departed from idea of Malolos Congress, which gathered elites to form an
admin
■ While the Malolos Congress sought to build strong central institutions,
the Philippine Assembly focused on representation from the local
level upwards
■ Leaders of the Malolos Congress sought institutionalization, but the
leaders of the Philippine Assembly focused on politics
○ Dominated by the Nacionalista Party
● Filipinization
○ What Filipinos really wanted
○ Refers to the process of transferring political power from American
authorities to Filipino politicians
○ In more direct terms, this refers to the transition to Philippine
self-governance.
○ Republicans and Democrats differ on their ideas on what to do with the
PH, something Quezon found out during his trip
 ■ Democrat stance: the Philippines must be granted
self-governance at the earliest possible time; after all, the
Spanish-American war was never meant to be a war of conquest.
■ Republican stance: PH is not ready to be independent; this
transition would take a long time before it is completed.
● Quezon and Gov. Gen Francis Burton Harrison
○ Knowing the sympathy of democrats to Philippine independence,
Quezon lobbied for the appointment of governor-general Francis Burton
Harrison, knowing that he would allow Filipino politicians to hold greater
power over governance of the state.
○ Discouraged Americans from taking on executive roles in the country
by cutting down executive salaries, resulting in more executive positions
open for aspiring Filipino bureaucrats.
○ Allowed for greater authority of the Nacionalista party in making local and
provincial appointments and to determine budgetary allocations.
○ The issue of parallel state building in the Moro and Mountain provinces
was also transferred to Filipino leaders, thus squashing separatist
intentions.
○ Instead, leaders of the Moro and Mountain provinces were invited to join the
Philippine Assembly.
■ Least amount of resistance, they agreed as long as they remain in
power in their respective provinces
● The Jones Law or the Philippine Autonomy Act of 1916
○ In 1916, the American Congress approved the plan for Filipinization with the
Jones Law
○ This document is the first formal and official declaration of the United
States’ commitment to grant independence to the Philippines on the
condition that the U.S. approves of its establishment of a “stable government.”
○ Abolished the Philippine Commission and passed on its remaining
legislative functions to the upper house of the new bicameral legislature.
■ Philippine legislature instead of having to go through the Americans
first
○ The only American that remains is the Gov. General
■ One less layer of American approval
● Crony Capitalism
○ With the increased participation and influence of elite leaders in politics,
the distribution of largesse or the spoils system also became more
rampant.
○ In terms of political power, this meant participation in the padrino or the
patronage system wherein loyalty was given in exchange for appointments
of kin and allies in important offices.
○ The spoils system extended to the economy, with Osmeña assuming control
of the Philippine National Bank and Quezon controlling the Manila Railroad
Company
■ Osmena being criticized for appointing incompetent leaders
■ He silenced critics by accusing them of being unnationalistic for their
lack of support in his Filipino appointees.
 ○ Politicians became experts in combining corruption and competence, a
skill that seemed to characterize Filipino politicians
■ They still need something to show for, they couldn’t just carry on with
corruption itself
● Critics of the Nacionalista Party
○ Some members of the American business community (esp. local sugar
and tobacco farmers)
■ Against the party's free trade agreement with the United States
and believed that the Philippines was too far away to be profitable to
invest in
○ Republican President Warren Harding and his appointment of
Governor-General Leonard Wood
■ Wood attempted to reverse many of Harrison's reforms including
the granting of authority to Filipinos over parallel state building
○ Rural and urban poor Filipinos
■ Peasants and workers felt that the government is not doing enough
to address their concerns on wages and landlessness.
○ Congressman Vicente Sotto, formed the Democrata Party
■ Criticized Quezon, because he seems like he doesn’t fight very
passionately for our independence; comes off as insincere about
our independence
■ Insisted that Quezon uses public funds for their personal gain during
their supposed Independence Missions to the United States
● Quezon and Osmena’s Competition for Power
○ Acknowledged that they needed to work together, but there was still
competition
○ Osmena was always second to Quezon
■ Sometimes challenged his control because of this
○ Fought for control of legislature and the Nacionalista Party
○ Quezon’s fav. way to thwart Osmena was to criticize him for monopolizing
power, thus offering to resign from his position to give it to Osmena knowing
that people will stop him from doing so
○ In 1933, Quezon sent Osmeña to the United States to negotiate the terms of
Philippine independence and then criticized the outcome of his negotiations.
■ Osmena ended up coming home with the independence bill, angering
Quezon since it undermines his power
■ Quezon makes efforts to reject this bill so HE can pass it
● Tydings-Mcduffie Act / the Philippines Independence Act of 1934
○ Act granting PH independence after a period of 10 years
○ Revised version of the Hare-Hawes-Cutting Bill that was lobbied by
Osmena but denied at the urging of Quezon
○ Provided for the creation of the Philippine Commonwealth and the
transfer of authority over the Philippines to the elected President of the
Commonwealth Republic
■ Almost set in stone that the person who passes this bill will become
the President of the Commonwealth republic
○ Set the date for PH independence, July 4 1946 – 10 years after the
inauguration of the Commonwealth Government
● Partido Sakdalista
○ October 29, 1933 — Establishment of the Partida Sakdalista
■ a disgruntled Quezon adherent named Benigno Ramos who ran a
publication Sakdal ("To accuse"), established the Partido Sakdalista
which challenged the dominant Nacionalista party.
○ Composed of Filipinos not part of political elite
○ Criticized and accused Quezon, in the same vein as Vicente Sotto
○ Were concerned about the REAL concerns of Filipinos rather than the
Nacionalista Party, which was concerned about securing PH political power
○ The party's demands were significantly different from the Nacionalista
platform and represented the needs of the peasants and the working
class:
■ “Complete and absolute independence”
■ Abolition of taxes
■ “Equal or common” ownership of land;
■ Investigation of the remaining friar estates and Church wealth
accumulated “through dishonest means”;
■ Formation of a Philippine army;
■ Use of local languages in public schools;
■ Lawyers for poor defendants;
■ Lower pay for officials and increased pay for laborers, teachers, and
policemen;
■ “Adoption of voting machines to prevent election frauds”
○ In the 1934 elections, the Sakdalistas won three seats in the House of
Representatives
○ Many of the group chose more militant action since it was taking a long
time to secure PH independence
○ Accused the Nacionalistas of being satisfied with American rule and
being insincere with independence.
■ This was considered dangerous to the image of the Nacionalista party
as it exposed the weaknesses of conservative nationalism which the
elite leaders have perfected by this point.
○ The Partido Sakdalista was also considered a threat, especially if the populist
movement joined forces with the Partido Komunista ng Pilipinas (Communist
Party of the Philippines) which was established in 1930.
★ Quezon dominates PH election – Wins with 68% of the votes
○ May 2, 1935 — The Sakdal Uprising
■ the Sakdalistas confronted the Philippine Constabulary in an uprising
and by May 4, the party was already defeated by the constabulary's
superior arms.
■ Despite the uprising being contained in Manila, news of the violence
that took place spread throughout the country and Quezon
capitalized on this with his slogan, "Quezon or chaos" in the
1935 elections.
○ Quezon is proclaimed President of the Commonwealth Republic.
2.3 Socio-Economics in the American Colonial Period
● The root of pistaym prosperity:
○ The Payne-Aldrich Act of 1909 allowed for a free trade system between the
United States and the Philippines
■ Free trade = Removal of tariffs
■ Allowed for the tariff-free entry of American goods in the Philippine
market because the country was an American colony
● Meant that we were getting more imported goods sold at
the same price as PH goods; American products generally
better too because of industrialization thus competing with
PH goods and hindering development of local businesses
○ Widespread infrastructure programs pursued by the Americans compared to
what they experienced during Spanish rule; helped the PH seem ‘wealthy’ in
a way
● Who really prospered in this era?
○ Dery argues that American policies on the Philippine economy were
designed in order to benefit American businesses above all.
■ While wealthy Filipinos enjoyed the entry of relatively affordable
imported goods, this policy also resulted in American capital being
the driving force of the Philippine economy.
○ Only in fishing, banking, real estate, and retail trade were the Americans
overtaken by other foreigners
○ Approximately 70% of the volume of businesses was transacted by
foreigners.
■ 30% left to Filipinos, mostly in Agriculture esp. by hacienderos and
farmers
■ Filipinos were then confined to their sari-sari stores; buy and sell of
goods instead of selling their own products since manufacturing
is very costly
● The Filipinos, then, were not producers in their own
economy.
● Pre-War Export Crop Economy
○ The few wealthy Filipinos who had capital were also limited in their
participation, mostly confined to the export-crop industry.
○ They would export agricultural goods to the United States to be
processed in factories. These processed goods then return to the
Philippine market, to the same wealthy Filipino consumers enjoying their
imported goods.
○ Farmers: produce as much as you can/become the most productive so
that sales would go up; treated as workers
■ Sugar
■ Coconut
■ Tobacco
■ Abaca
● The Character of the PH Colonial Economy
○ Sugar = 60% of country’s exports, 2M Filipinos dependent for livelihood
○ Coconuts = 30%, 4M Filipinos dependent
 ○ Tobacco = Number one employer of laborers in Manila
○ Abaca = 12%
○ Rice = livelihood for 4M Filipinos
● Experience of prosperity was limited to few Filipinos lucky enough to have
high monthly incomes; they could afford American goods, etc.
○ Existence of wage gap even in colonial period
● Share of Filipinos in Pistaym Prosperity
○ General majority of Filipinos were laborers and farmers living on a
starvation wage.
○ Research from pre-war medical organizations reveal that the pre-war Filipino
diet was hardly balanced with 80-90% carbohydrates.
○ Further still, their medical needs were consistently neglected by their
employers. The profit-oriented economy had little care for laborers.
● Realities of Mass Education
○ Spanish period – education only for elite Filipinos
○ American period – free education for all FIlipinos
○ Dery also asserts that the initial promise of public education proves hollow
○ Declining rate of education/completion of education despite the
accessibility of education; they helped out in agriculture at an early age and
dropped out, to keep agricultural families afloat and alive in a competitive
industry
■ No point in waiting for children to graduate, they have to work
ASAP
■ Education alone is insufficient for social mobility, even at the time
● Widespread Labor Discontent and Agrarian Unrest
○ Dery further argues that even the concept of pistaym is a myth as grave
social discontent led to rampant protests of farmers and laborers
especially in areas where agriculture is the main source of livelihood.
○ Various groups—whose names allude to their demographic—make the case
that the Sakdal uprising was not an isolated incident.
○ In fact, widespread labor discontent and agrarian unrest existed since 1901,
carrying grievances on land distribution—a sentiment of many farmers and
laborers since the Spanish colonial era.
● Dery concludes that there was ‘pistaym’ prosperity, but that it was only enjoyed by
the Manila Americans and other foreigners who dominated the Philippine
economy.

2.4 The Commonwealth Republic

● Transitional government addressing the provision of the Tydings-Mcduffie act
that the PH will have a ten year period to prepare for self-governance before being
granted independence by the Americans
● The unrest leading up to the 1935 election, ultimately led to the victory of Manuel L.
Quezon as president of the Commonwealth Republic and his running mate Sergio
Osmeña as vice-president.
● Based on American constitution and system of government
● Mandate/Primary Objective:
○ To prepare the PH for self-governance
 ○ To address growing social unrest; because there was such a big focus on
garnering Filipino political power, actual Filipino problems were left
unaddressed
● Popular Insurgency
○ 1935 Commonwealth Constitution granted suffrage to men without
property rights, and two years later, women as well
■ Signaled that people’s concerns began to matter
○ Second and third decades of colonial rules were punctuated by small
millenarian movements led by “popes promising to end landlord rule and
deliver independence and rural prosperity”
● Quezon expands executive power
○ In order to address growing social unrest among peasants and workers,
Quezon justified the need for centralizing state power and reforming the
government into a president-centered “partyless democracy”.
○ June 1940: Quezon successfully fought to make senatorial constituencies
nationwide in order to “uproot the new Senate from its regional base… [and]
render it an extension of his executive authority” (Abinales and Amoroso
2018, 153).
○ Tightened control over the Civil Service Bureau, the Bureau of Budget,
and the Bureau of Audit — Offices that keep the government in check
■ He was able to assure his control over cronyism, knowing full well
that these bureaus are key to the distribution of spoils.
■ Able to see who his potential threats are and can eliminate them
before they become more powerful
■ He ordered the creation of a Commonwealth army under the
command of one of his close American allies, General Douglas
MacArthur.
○ Quezon was also keen on the notion that real power in the government lies
with the provincial, city, and municipal officials.
■ Kept close relations with local officials, and, despite claiming that the
government is a partyless democracy, still maintained control over the
Nacionalista party.
● Quezon and Nationalism
○ Tried to get people to unite on something; to unite via the Filipino
identity
○ Quezon was president of a "nation in the making"
■ He was shaping a nation which was assured of its independence and
he took pride in his role in nation-building and wanted to involve the
Filipinos in the process
■ “He certainly coveted political power for his own ends, but also
wanted Filipinos to see the office as their presidency,
encouraging provincial audiences to see him differently than his
American predecessors: ‘I’m a Filipino, so tell me the truth.’”
(Abinales and Amoroso 2018, 155)
○ Cultivated a brand of civic-nationalism that was acceptable to both the
colonizers and the Filipino electorate
 ■ By aligning it with the American value of democracy, Quezon was able
to please both the Filipino nationalists who elected him and the
American colonizers.
■ Thus, much of Quezon's policies and projects were modeled after the
United States.
○ Established Quezon city as the capital of PH, not Manila since it was
devastated by the war.
■ A symbolic way of showing nationalism; “this is a new chapter in
our history and it starts with me.”
○ While he did promote Filipino culture and language, he was also consistently
supportive of the Americans throughout his presidency and he maintained
existing trade agreements with the United States
● Quezon and Social Justice
○ Quezon needed to find a way to address issues of social justice without
necessarily overhauling the status quo which served him and his allies.
○ He sought various reforms by which he could improve the economic
conditions of the middle and lower classes of society by proposing the
following:
■ to improve the income of the middle class by amending tax laws;
■ to redistribute land to its cultivators;
■ to address labor’s rights through 8-hour work days and minimum
wage;
■ to expand the rights of workers and peasants to form unions and
gain access to courts; and finally,
■ to resettle families from densely-populated areas to land-rich
Mindanao.
● Response to protests about land; just give people land in
Mindanao since it's already part of the PH but they made no
effort to see if the land is already owned, rules about land
in Mindanao, etc.
○ Of these reforms, he managed to achieve all except the redistribution of
land to the peasants. Thus, while some discontent among the urban working
class was addressed, many exploitative practices of landlords in the rural
areas remained.
■ Hacienderos were just too powerful due to the export crop economy

3.0 The Japanese Occupation

3.1 World War II in the Philippines

● Japanese Occupation is not seen as significant period in PH history by some
historians
● Commonwealth Government: Meant to be a transitional gov’t according to the
Tydings-Mcduffie act; under the presidency of Manuel L. Quezon

How did the PH get involved in WW2?

● Japan's economic imperialism began in the 1890s under the Meiji era
 ○ The policy became increasingly militaristic in character as the Japanese
desire to establish its identity and power in the modern demanded an
expansion of its territory and resources
● With its expansion in Southeast Asia, Japan sought to establish the Greater East
Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, with a goal of building an asia for asians
○ This means driving western powers out of the regions so that asian
economies can work together for the development of a united pan-asia
under the Japanese hegemony
○ Japan as leader of asia instead; wanted to liberate and control them at the
same time
● Japan’s expands its territories in Asia
○ Commodore Matthew Perry visits Japan to show off the United States’ military
prowess/technology
○ Japan’s aim of self-sufficiency
■ Realized how far behind they are in terms of modernization after
seeing the conditions of the United States
■ Believed that without building their own strength, Japan will be
victimized by the west
● Japan’s period of modernization
○ Incredibly fast industrialization and political organization
○ STRONG ARMY; RICH COUNTRY Goal
■ Less vulnerability to predators from the west
■ Led them to no longer rely on their own resources; Japan was not
blessed with these, so they wanted to expand their territory
○ Started expansion with Korea, China—led Japan to be seen as their equal
○ Japan felt: why are we being sanctioned by the League of Nations for
colonizing China when western countries freely do this in their modernization
efforts?
● Overall, the Japanese desire to liberate Western colonies in Asia, protect its
own territory, and expand its economy puts it at war with the United States,
thus bringing World War II on Philippine soil.

● Commonwealth Act No. 1: The National Defense Act

○ Creation of a citizen’s army in the Philippine military
○ Allocation of resources for national defense
● July 26, 1941 — The United States Armed Forces in the Far East
○ The Philippine reserve and regular forces were incorporated into the
United States army and formed USAFE
○ Formed to show Japan that the PH had a strong military force
○ Under command of Douglas MacArthur
○ Still these acts of militarization were intended to intimidate Japan and
hopefully quash any plans of attack on the PH
● December 7, 1941 — The Bombing of Pearl Harbor
○ Japanese imperialism was also part of the wider WW2 narrative, in which the
US initially implemented its isolationist policy/non-involvement
○ USA could not hide behind their isolationist policy towards Japan after Pearl
Harbor
 ○ Done as part of Japan’s offensive on Southeast Asia; US naval forces in the
pacific were seen as a hindrance
● December 8, 1941 — Bombings and the Declaration of War on Japan
○ Japanese bomb the Clark Field and stage area attacks of Davao, Baguio, and
Aparri
○ US joins WW2 with the allied powers
● December 16, 1941 — Commonwealth Act 671
○ The National Assembly passes Commonwealth Act 671, investing the
President with extraordinary powers
○ Brought about by the bombings on Dec 8. And growing severity of the
situation
● December 22, 1941 — Japanese Invasion Begins
○ The JPN occupation of the Philippines commences
○ Media shut down at this time; people relied on rumors instead
○ Filipinos also feared the MAKAPILI; regular Filipinos who were informants
of those who acted in hostility to the Japanese, were Japanese allies
● December 26, 1941 — Manila Declared As Open City
○ Manila is declared as an open city; the USAFE retreats to Bataan
○ Declared because they deemed it impossible to protect the capital from
within
○ Declared by Gen. Douglas MacArthur
○ Implied that Manila will not resist the Japanese from entering the city,
and violence was therefore unnecessary
■ This, however, did not stop JPN from bombing the city
○ Pres. Quezon advised to leave
● December 30, 1941 — Quezon leaves; Laurel in charge
○ Quezon leaves for Corregidor with his family and some officials including
Osmena, Jose P. Laurel is left in charge
○ Quezon to establish a government-in-exile, so he took his oath of
office—marking his second term as PH president
● January 2, 1942 — JPN enters Manila
○ The Japanese enters an occupied Manila with minimal resistance
● The resistance continues in Bataan
○ MacArthur leads the USAFE in its retreat to Bataan
○ USAFE troops had some early victories against the Japanese, delaying their
Asian conquest, but suffered from lack of aid as the US and Britain adopt
the Europe-First policy
■ The pacific part/theater of the war was then regarded as a lesser
priority and thus researched less resources and reinforcements
○ PH demoted to orange alert, compared to the west which was under red alert
● Mar 11, 1942 — MacArthur’s Return to USA
■ General MacArthur is ordered to return to the United States by
president Roosevelt
■ He is succeeded by Lieutenant General Jonathan Wainwright as
commander of the USAFE
○ With low resources and morale, majority of the Bataan forces were left with
no choice but to surrender; around 2000 men escaped with Wainwright, thus
the surrender of USAFE was not absolute
 ● April 9, 1942 — The Bataan Death March
○ Those who surrendered faced Japanese cruelty, as they were forced to
march from Bataan to Pampanga, and were then sent to a train going to
Tarlac
○ Many died from hunger, heat, exhaustion, dehydration
○ Japanese viewed weakness and surrender as being dishonorable, even
worse than death
○ Lasted from April 9 - 17, 1941
● Filipino economy was at a low point due to the Americans who left, and dire
conditions pushed Filipinos to turn against one another
● May 6, 1942 — USAFE surrenders to the Japanese
○ General Wainwright offered the absolute surrender of the USAFE army
○ Made the Japanese victory in the Philippines official

3.2 Politics During The Japanese Occupation

● Occupation was mostly concentrated in Manila
● What does it mean to have a puppet government?
○ Jose P. Laurel was left in charge when President Manuel Quezon and Vice
President Sergio Osmeña left the country to serve as government-in-exile in
the United States; still technically president but could not continue inside PH
■ In this way, the two top leaders of the country were able to prevent
being forced to take the Oath of Allegiance to Japan and making
the Philippines an enemy of the United States.
○ Laurel was then given the mandate that he must accept whatever
compromise is necessary to protect the country, except if it meant
swearing allegiance to Japan.
○ Thus, Laurel played the role of a diplomat: negotiating with the Japanese
to protect Philippine interests, while also making difficult compromises to keep
them convinced of Filipino cooperation in the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity
Sphere.
● Jose P. Laurel was left with the task to maintain diplomatic ties with the
Japanese
○ Assigned as Secretary of Justice of the War Cabinet
○ Goal was not to engage in war, but to keep the Japanese appeased so
that they do not inflict further damage to the PH
○ Told by Quezon to do anything BUT surrender
● Japan offers PH “Honorary Independence”
○ Independence but it’s still under the service of Japan
○ Wanted to win over PH loyalty, felt like this move would gain trust
○ To demonstrate Japanese sincerity about their Asia for Asians goal that did
not initially want to make enemies out of Asians
○ Japan kept acquiring territories but lost control over them, so Honorary
Independence would lighten their burden since Filipinos would be able
to rule again in some capacity
○ Required the PH to have peace and order, to hold back on their resistance
against Japan
○ Laurel appointed as head of Central Pacification Committee
 ○ Was not welcomed by Filipinos; not same as USA’s July 4 Independence
○ To show PH strength, the guerrillas attempted to assassinate Laurel
■ Japan made things difficult for Laurel; their demands were making him
more untrustworthy to Filipinos
● October 4, 1943 — PH granted Honorary Independence; Jose P. Laurel
becomes President of the Second Republic
○ Just a formality for FIlipinos; did not necessarily mean anything significant
● Debates over the constitution
○ PH independence required a constitution
○ Filipino legislators wanted to pattern this after the 1935 constitution
■ Japan didn’t want this because that was based on the US
constitution, as it was reflective of their democratic values
■ Goal was to have Asia’s own brand of modernity so they didn’t like this
western influence
○ Japan let Filipinos have this, but they wanted PH commitment to Japan be
reflected and they also insisted that the PH should participate more actively in
the war effort
■ Japan war effort was against the west, so they wanted the PH to
turn against the US too
● Laurel says this would not be well-received because Filipinos
was loyal to Americans and Filipinos didn’t even like him
● Resistance to Japan control
○ Laurel refused to take a Japanese adviser and believed that with his
leadership, peace could be restored and the economy rehabilitated
■ Economy was incredibly dead after the Americans left
○ Japan censored speeches but Laurel and Recto found workarounds
○ Jose Yulo kept MacArthur updated on dealings with Japan, as well as with
their trip to Japan and Manchukuo
■ A way to assure the Americans that Fillipinos are loyal to them
despite cooperation with Japan
■ Via MacArthur that FIlipinos could get info about the war outside the
PH
● Gossip more reliable in a way than Japanese sponsored
news
○ Manuel Roxas – signed documents with left hand, so they he could say that
the documents were invalid since they were signed w his left hand
○ Laurel mentainted that Filipino soldiers will not be forced to fight in the
war
■ Victory for Laurel as even Korean people were forced to fight in the
war when they were under Japan
○ Resistance of the Filipino people via humor
● On the Economy
○ Laurel govt. needed to address problems of shortages and inflation
■ People still needed support in this time
○ Japan controlled production and distribution of basic commodities, as
well as transportation, media, and communication
■ Wanted these to go towards the war efforts
○ Non-priority for Japan, wanted to put war first
 ○ PH needed to provide their resources in support of the war; labor and
homes, sometimes even schools were used as barracks — war became more
costly in Japan
○ Also provided labor in terms of weapons manufacturing
● Laurel and Recto
○ Lived in constant fear and terror
○ Sought an audience with the Japanese to discuss the state of PH and
Japan relations
■ Wanted better state of living for Filipinos, to lessen violence, and
improve economy
○ Recto emphasized that Japan was losing PH favor due to its
maltreatment of Filipinos despite leaders’ efforts at diplomacy and
unification
■ Contrast to American approach, which more Filipinos were open to
accept
■ Recto: even if Japan wins war, the Filipinos would still not have faith
and trust in them
● The Peace and Order Situation
○ Guerilla activities did not stop
○ Laurel lobbied for temporary amnesty to control the peace and order
situation between the guerillas and Japan military
○ Guerilla surrendered but without giving up their guns and resumed
operations after the amnesty period
■ Made Japan suspicious of Laurel, as they thought that he was
letting them recuperate via amnesty
○ Malacanang not spared from Japan anti-guerilla raids
○ Japan wanted PH to declare war against USA
■ Wanted support to drive western power out of asia, but PH
loyalty to US persists
■ Wanted to see FIlipino support for Asia for Asians
● State of War
○ US carrier-based planes raided Manila, culminating with almost complete
destruction of Manila in the following year.
■ PH attacked by US; Laurel declares state of war, not necessarily
against the USA
■ Filipinos not required to fight against US if they didn’t want to
○ Sept. 21, 1944 — Laurel declares Martial Law
■ Manila getting bombed by the Americans, who the PH remained loyal
to
■ Many Filipinos celebrated this time since the return of Americans
signaled liberation from Japan, even though they were destroying
the city
● Manila Faces Total War
○ Total war ignores existence of civilians
○ First time for PH to be involved in this kind of war
○ December 21, 1944 — Laurel goes to Baguio
■ Skeleton gov’t takes over Manila in the same vein as Quezon going
out of the country
 ○ Mar 22, 1945 — Laurel’s exile
■ Laurel is exiled to Japan against his will

3.3 Socio-Economics during the Japanese Occupation

● Areas far from Manila: Northern Mindanao, Leyte, Negros, Panay, and Central Luzon
and the experiences of non-elites
● Is the Japanese occupation significant to PH history?
○ Periodization in Philippine history has traditionally been based on the
colonial periods.
○ Perspectives in history:
■ John Larkin and Alfred McCoy
● Larkin: Wants to see Philippine history in terms of our
milestones in international trade and frontiers
● McCoy: Japanese occupation merely continued the
Philippines’ export-crop economy
● Overall, their views suggest that the Japanese occupation
was not a major period in Philippine history, as it did not
change the Philippine social structure and economy
significantly
● The occupation merely interrupted the established systems
during the American occupation and the Commonwealth,
which the Philippines revived almost immediately in the
post-war period.
● Japanese rule was concentrated and mostly confined within
the capital city of Manila and other major urban areas; to
consider the Japanese occupation as a significant period in
Philippine history would mean favoring an interpretation of
Philippine history from the perspective of the colonizer and an
overemphasis on the experiences of the capital city.
■ John Smail & Benedict Kerkvliet
● To understand history, it must be studied according to the
perspective and experiences of the people who have gone
through the event
● Anti-colonial as well, in a way
● Posits that for the PH people, Japanese occupation left a
mark on them and thus it is significant since they choose to
highlight this period in time
● Socio-economic conditions of PH prior to Japan occupation
○ Provider of raw materials to the USA
○ Very dependent on imports
○ Farms not being used for sustenance but for export crops instead
○ Need other sources of income aside from export crop industry; sending family
members to Manila to find other sources
○ The export-crop economy doomed the peasantry to harsher and even
more punishing work and living conditions; this grew even worse during
the Japanese occupation with the introduction of failed reforms.
● Economic Collapse Under the Japanese
 ○ Japan wanted to free the Philippines from its heavy dependence on the
USA
■ Shift to self-sufficiency and as producers of the Greater East Asia
Co-Prosperity Sphere
○ Causes of economic conditions:
■ The agricultural reforms were short-sighted; intended a shift from
sugar to cotton, but cotton did not grow as well in the Philippines as
it did in other parts of Asia.
■ The colonial regime prioritized war policy over economic reform;
Japan’s position in the war turned for the worse in 1942, the
period of their occupation of the Philippines.
■ Destruction made agricultural production difficult, even
impossible; this was due to Guerilla raids and the American
bombing of Manila
■ Simply, the Filipinos were uncooperative to the Japanese.
■ By 1944, Japan also released more money — doing more harm
than good for PH economy by creating terrible hyperinflation
● Patterns of Withdrawal and Resistance
○ Experience of Japanese occupation depended on where you are
○ Occupied Territories: areas where Japan regime concentrated its military
forces and gov’t offices; provincial capitals and other densely populated areas
○ Autonomous or Unoccupied Territories: the rest of the countryside and the
lesser populated areas; autonomy in a political and economic sense
○ 4 Patterns of Withdrawal and Resistance:
■ Japan regime was despised, hated, and resisted
● Filipinos expressed hate most explicitly by taking part in the
guerilla movement
● Sometimes resistance came in the form of humor through
mockery of the Japanese and sabotage in the workplace
● Filipinos didn’t work hard in their jobs anymore, simply
sabotaging the workplace
■ Many Filipinos withdrew from the formal to the informal economy
● Workers with little wage constantly left to devote time to petty
trade and to growing their own food due to worsening
economic conditions
● Barter and buy-and-sell became common modes of trade.
● Hyperinflation also happened bc of Filipinos themselves by
selling their own goods at high prices, yet this allowed small
traders to survive
● City dwellers devised direct links with rural producers and
created trade networks for the buying and selling of
vegetables; supplying from the province and selling in the city
● Allowed for the revival of small-scale manufacturing and a shift
away from the export-crop economy as food sustainability
became the priority of agricultural lands in rural areas.
● Robbery, banditry, prostitution
■ A big portion of the population moved from urban to rural areas
 ● People and their families escaped to the mountains and
were eventually absorbed by the guerilla movement
● Population in cities fluctuated; when the guerilla was
targeted, people fled back to Manila and also returned to the
mountains when the Americas returned in 1944
● Movement occurred from occupied to autonomous regions
● In Japan occupied towns: their food was scarce, clothing
patched, fear constant — although people were under gov’t
programs, but that didn’t really matter
● While agencies established by the Laurel government in a
futile attempt to address food sustainability were disorganized
and riddled with corruption, the guerillas organized the
distribution of labor and produce.
● Protected the Filipino peasantry residing in autonomous
regions not only from the Japanese but also from their
own landlords, many of whom chose to settle in the occupied
territories rather than submit to guerilla leadership.
● The guerillas established their own political and economic
system. Thus, autonomous regions did not rely on the
Japanese nor the Laurel government for their survival.
● These patterns in movement fluctuated in 1943 when the
Japanese launched an all-out offensive against the
guerillas, and many rushed to the occupied regions despite
the poorer economic conditions.
■ In 1944, when the American forces returned and urban
or occupied regions were most devastated by war, a
big portion of the population would again return to the
rural or autonomous areas.
○ The Japanese Occupation IS Significant
■ Filipinos internalized what it meant to be a nation; withdrawal and
resistance was taking place nationwide
■ Motivations and intentions for withdrawal and resistance often combined the
wish to provide for and defend one’s family and desire to resist oppression
■ The populace relied upon themselves to defy, subvert, and survive one
of the most adverse and oppressive regimes in the country’s history
■ For this reason, while the Japanese occupation may not have left lasting
changes in Philippine politics and economics, it has made a great impact on
Filipino nationalism, especially among the peasantry.

3.4 The Hukbalahap Movement

● Women and History
○ Women, having little to no political power, are viewed as insignificant in
historical narratives; the woman's narrative is limited to the family and the
home. This, however, does not mean that women were oblivious to political
discourse.
 ○ Though their introduction to these movements may have been through their
fathers, brothers, and husbands, it was still with their own agency that they
embraced these ideas.
○ Eventually, when these peasant organizations came together to form the
Hukbalahap—the organization who led the mobilization against the
Japanese after the Americans left the Philippines—many women bravely
joined.
○ The Huks were the first major political and military organization in the
country to include and actively recruit women.
○ Women played various roles within the movement:
■ Some would become guerilla fighters and commanders, while
others were involved in the formation and organization of the
Sandatahang Tanod ng Bayan (Barrio United Defense Corps or
BUDCs).
● The BUDCs were under the guise of Japanese sponsored
neighborhood association
● Role of Family and Kinship Ties
○ Family and kin served as support systems in times of poverty;
○ Peasant families lived in close proximity enabling them to develop strong
group thoughts, feelings, and habits and a sense of security. (Lanzona 2009,
26)
○ The sense of community that peasant families developed, along with their
shared struggle, led the peasants to organize and radicalize against their
landlords
● The Hukbo ng Bayan Laban sa Hapon
○ The Huks did not receive government support and had to scavenge for
weapons from abandoned American and Philippine military units and through
raids of Japanese garrisons
○ Formed a mass-based alliance of peasants, laborers, youth, women, and
even landlords against the Japanese and their collaborators
○ Formation of the Sandatahang Tanod ng Bayan (Barrio United Defense
Corps or BUDCs) under the guise of Japanese-sponsored neighborhood
associations
● Mobilization of Huk Women
○ Most of the women were 15-35 years old, single, and lived in peasant
households
○ Many women who joined the movement did so as a continuation of their
involvement in peasant or labor movements; were recruited by family
members; or pushed by their experiences and desire to escape domestic life.
○ Some women joined as guerillas in the armed struggle (Kumander
Liwayway / Remedios Gomez Paraiso);
○ But, many more took part in organizing the BUDC (Barrio Unit Defense Corp)
○ Women also played roles in the medical division as nurses and caretakers;
○ Women were given secretarial work and housekeeping duties such as
cleaning, tidying up, cooking for the guerillas, and washing their clothes.
○ Unfortunately, women’s work in the movement was still considered
secondary to the work of the guerilla units both by their male and even
female comrades
● The Forest School
○ The most important lecture is that of the “Fundamental Spirit” which
provides the guiding principle of the organization.
○ According to Luis Taruc, this lecture “established the character of a
revolutionary army and emphasized the differences between a people’s army
and the ordinary hired army of the ruling classes.”
○ The fundamental spirit of a revolutionary army, insisted the leaders of
the Hukbalahap, involved equality between officers and soldiers and the
values of comradeship and unity. (Lanzona 2009, 50)
● The Education Department
○ Went down to barrios and gave lectures to people of all walks of life
○ Educated and trained groups (buklod) in the barrios
○ “We discussed many things from the peace and order situation to
problems in their areas such as gambling and lack of food”
● The Organization Department
○ Met with the leaders of the barrios to talk about the situation and
strategize what to do when the Japanese arrive in the barrios
○ Specified tasks they can do to help the guerillas
■ for example: doing informal intelligence work for them, giving them
food and washing their clothes, and especially caring for the sick and
wounded.
● The Propaganda Core / The Cultural Division
○ Go from barrio to barrio to sing and make cultural presentations, including
drama, poetry, etc.
○ Propaganda work aims to motivate the barrio to support the Huk
movement.
○ The barrio was the base, and the people, in the mornings they were farming
and at night, they joined the Hukbalahap movement.
● The Communication Department
○ “As a courier... I used to walk from Quezon to Pampanga to Manila. I brought
with me letters and documents.”
○ Brings these materials from one leadership group to another.
● Intelligence Networks
○ In the beginning, the zeal of the people to pass on everything that occurred
produced amazing reports.
○ “We were given the position of every carabao in the fields, the number of
chickens and pigs in the vicinity, and an account of all births, deaths,
marriages, and family quarrels, as well as the details of the enemy
movements.
○ The barrio intelligence was at its best in the observation and
investigation of strangers; it was our most effective way of combating
spies and enemy agents
● The End of the War
○ By 1944, news of MacArthur’s return assured the Filipinos of victory;
however this did not stop Japanese forces from launching an intensive
drive in Central Luzon, hoping to destroy the Hukbalahap
○ Aware of their fate, retreating Japanese forces took their frustration out
on the villages—committing more massacres and atrocities.
 ○ For many Huk women, the end of the war also meant a reunion with their
families.

3.5 The Liberation of Manila

● The Japanese Occupation:
○ IN MANILA / OCCUPIED TERRITORIES
○ IN RURAL AREAS / UNOCCUPIED TERRITORIES
● Sources of hope during the war
○ Many rural Filipinos felt safe with the guerillas in their communities
○ Total war was not something that the Filipinos were ready for, especially
at a time when they were supposedly preparing for their independence.
■ With the USAFFE defeated, the Japanese further dampened Filipino
morale.
○ The violence that soldiers waged instilled fear especially in Manila.
○ The Japanese also controlled the media and spread rumors that the
Allies are losing the war and that the Americans have abandoned the
Philippines.
■ This was the Japanese way of persuading the Filipinos to willingly
accept their membership to the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity
Sphere and to join the war against the Americans.
○ The Radio San Francisco and the guerilla newspapers (run by the
Communications and Intelligence Departments) also reported the victories
of the Allied Forces so that Filipinos will not lose faith in the Americans'
return.
○ Before leaving for Australia, President Quezon also visited islands in the
Visayas region to boost morale and assure Filipinos of American
protection.
● Manuel Quezon's final years as president
○ While in exile, President Quezon appoints Manuel Roxas as President of
the Commonwealth in case of his and Osmeña’s untimely death.
○ He also sought to extend his term beyond its official end in 1938. This was
granted to him due to the war circumstances.
○ August 1, 1944 — Quezon’s Death
■ However, he was still not able to finish his term, as he died of
tuberculosis in the United States, a year before the official end of
the war and two years before the promised independence of the
Philippines.
● The Liberation Timeline
○ June of 1944 — Americans began to reclaim their territories in the
Pacific.
○ June 19-20, 1944 — American Victory in Battle of the Philippine Sea
■ The Americans are victorious in the Battle of the Philippine Sea
■ An air combat between the American and the Japanese forces,
ending in the defeat of the Japanese after only two days of battle.
■ Allowed the Americans to push forward and inch closer to the
Philippines.
 ■ After the battle, the Japanese released reports of American
defeat in the Tribune, but the Filipinos were no longer convinced.
■ In the months that followed, the Americans continued their reclamation
of territories from Guam to Roti Island to the coast of New Guinea.
○ September 21, 1944 — Airstrikes in Manila
■ Manila was bombed by American-carrier planes, forcing
President Laurel to declare martial law and a "state of war"
against the United States.
■ By staging simultaneous aerial attacks on the Philippines, the United
States was able to determine that MacArthur's entry to the country
must be through Leyte, since this was where Japanese bases
were most vulnerable.
○ October 20, 1944 — MacArthur’s Return to Leyte
■ It was decided that the invasion of Leyte should take place on this day,
before the Japanese are able to reinforce their defenses.
■ American planes carried out air strikes in Leyte in order to soften
enemy forces. Similar raids were conducted in Northern and Central
Luzon to prevent giving away the next move of the US forces.
■ Leyte beaches were severely bombarded from the air and from
the sea. MacArthur and his forces have arrived on the island.
○ October 24-26, 1944 — American Victory in Battle at Leyte Gulf
■ The Battle of Leyte Gulf ended in the decisive victory of the
Americans.
○ Mid-December 1944 to January 1945 — American forces land in the
Philippines
■ American forces would land in the Philippines in batches.
■ Air strikes staged by the American forces would continue in
Manila in order to mislead the Japanese.
○ January 9, 1945 — Landings in Lingayen Gulf
■ The last of the American forces lands at Lingayen Gulf.
■ The Liberation Forces now encircled Manila and are ready to close in
on the Japanese invaders in the capital.
○ Realizing the inevitability of defeat, the Japanese forces flee to the
mountains and take vengeance on the Hukbalahap.
○ In their anger, even those who were not affiliated with the organization were
not spared from the violence that ensued.
○ Japanese attacks in rural areas took place as Manila was under attack
by American liberators.
○ February 3, 1945 — Americans take back Manila

● The Return of the Commonwealth Republic

○ October 23, 1944 — Re-establishment of the Commonwealth
Government
■ During the Americans' return to the Philippines, the Commonwealth
government was re-established in Tacloban, Leyte under the
leadership of General Douglas MacArthur.
○ December 21, 1944 — Laurel sent to Baguio
 ■ By late December, when an Allied victory was becoming more
apparent and the prospect of an American return to Manila threatened
the Japanese hold of the city, President Jose P. Laurel and his men
were sent to Baguio as a skeleton government and the MAKAPILI
took over their duties in reporting guerilla activities.
○ February 27, 1945 — Turnover of Civil Government to Osmeña
■ When Manila was liberated in 1945, General MacArthur transferred
authority to Quezon's vice-president, Sergio Osmeña.
○ March 22, 1945 — Forced Exile of Laurel to Japan
■ Laurel, some men, and his family, were sent to Tokyo against his
wishes to establish a government-in-exile.
■ It was only on August 17, 1945, two days after the official end of the
war, that he was able to officially dissolve the Second Republic.
● The end of the war
○ August 15, 1945 — Emperor Hirohito’s Declaration of Surrender
■ Japanese Emperor Hirohito declared the country's unconditional
surrender on officially ending World War II in Asia.
■ By the end of the war, eighty percent of Manila was destroyed, making
it the second most damaged city next to Warsaw.
■ The Battle of Manila cost the lives of a thousand Americans, sixteen
thousand Japanese, and tens of thousands of Filipinos. All this for a
war that the Filipinos never chose to take part in.