NENS301 COURSE NOTES

1. INTEGRATED NAVIGATION SYSTEMS

1.1 INTRODUCTION.

An integrated navigation system is established when two or more electronic navigation

aids are combined in a command control system that provides a single set of output
data. The purpose of combining navigation aids is to achieve a level of performance
better than that of individual systems and to provide a more efficient means for the
operator to acquire information on the vessel’s navigation status.

SOLAS Chapter V: Safety of Navigation, in Regulation 15, requires that all applications
of requirements relating to “bridge design, design and arrangement of navigational
systems and equipment, and bridge procedures” must take the following into account:

 Facilitating the tasks to be performed by the bridge team (including the pilot) in
making a full appraisal of the situation and in navigating the ship safely under all
operational conditions;
 Promoting effective and safe bridge resource management;
 Enabling the bridge team and pilot to have convenient and continuous access to
essential information which is presented in a clear and unambiguous manner,
using standardised symbols for controls and displays;
 Indicating the operational status of automated functions and integrated
components of all navigation equipment;
 Allowing for continuous and effective information processing and decision making
by the bridge team, including the pilot;
 Preventing unnecessary work and any conditions or distractions on the bridge
which may cause fatigue or interfere with the vigilance of the bridge team,
including the pilot; and
 Minimising the risk of human error and detecting any such error through
monitoring and alarm systems, in time for the bridge team (including the pilot) to
take appropriate action.

All electrical and electronic equipment on the bridge must be tested for electromagnetic
compatibility and no portable equipment should be operated on the bridge if it may affect
the proper function of navigational systems and equipment.

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Regulation 19 requires that integrated bridge systems should alert the officer on watch to
failure of any sub-system by audible and visual alarms, and this failure should not lead to
the failure of another sub-system.

In the event of failure in one part of the integrated navigation system it must be possible
to operate other parts of the system separately.

1.2 COMPONENTS.

An important component for position-finding is a GPS satellite tracking system, and this
is complemented by navigation data input during the interval between satellite passes, or
when good satellite geometry is not constant.

This data should include ship’s velocity so that compensation can be made for the effect
of the ship’s own motion on the observed Doppler shift* of the satellite’s transmission.
The velocity data is combined with time to provide position information during the
intervals between satellite fixes. Velocity is usually provided by a speed log but a more
accurate source may be a bottom tracking Doppler speed log**.

*Doppler shift is the change in frequency of a wave in relation to an observer who is moving
relative to the wave source. An example is the change in sound when a car approaches, passes
by, and disappears into the distance.
**The Doppler speed log measures the difference in frequency between a signal transmitted to
the seabed and the return signal. The shift in frequency is measured and the difference provides
the ship’s speed.

The time between satellite fixes is known to a high degree of accuracy therefore a
precise average velocity can be calculated by the system for the interval between fixes.
This means that any systemic errors in producing velocity can be reduced and this
improves the overall performance of the system.

A larger integrated system may feed all data into a central computer for output such as
anti-collision data displayed on a radar screen. In the ARPA system the display can be
enhanced by superimposing vectors and other data relating to specific targets. On an
ECDIS display the data is further enhanced with topographical and navigation features
which can be selected for the least cluttered output display.

The actual combining of data from various sensors is performed by a micro-processor.

The mathematical method of combining the data is chosen by the system designer to
achieve the optimum result from the data available.

Additional navigation data may be provided such as course to steer - great circle or
rhumb line, time of arrival and distance to selected waypoints. Some highly specialised

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developments include an integrated marine decisions support system with weather
routeing information.

This type of system has input from onboard motion sensors and strain gauges to give
the master detailed information on the vessel’s structural performance in existing and
projected sea states. The system can recommend a preferred course and speed to
minimise damage and improve transit time.

Kelvin Hughes offers a range of integrated systems based on its Nucleus Integrated
Navigation System (NINAS). This provides a single operator workstation with a central
processor, interface unit, monitor, trackball and keyboard. This central unit has various
subsystems connected to it including ECDIS and a comprehensive alarm system.

An integrated system means more than just close assembly and connection of
components. It also extends to positioning, layout, accessibility of displays and
ergonomics; and operationally it means consolidating all main bridge functions into a
single functional framework for ease of access.

For ergonomic efficiency the functional integration should be based on:

 Task-specific selection of information sources for display on a minimum number
of multi-function consoles incorporating necessary levels of redundancy;
 Reducing displayed information to essential elements only, with an option for the
operator to access specific data when required;
 Eliminating unnecessary distances between individual units that serve closely
related tasks.

These principles have influenced designs of integrated systems in standard models for
virtually all ship types.

1.3 STANDARDS.

The relevant organisations involved in global standards are:

 IMO;
 the International Standards Organisation (ISO);
 the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC); and
 the International Telecommunications Union (ITU).

IMO is responsible for defining the requirements for marine equipment but it does not
provide sufficient detail for manufacturers to design particular pieces of equipment, nor
does it provide guidelines for national maritime authorities to set up test and approval
facilities for equipment.

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The International Standards Organisation (ISO) is a non-governmental organisation
which has the following aims:
 promote the development of global standards;
 facilitate the international exchange of goods and services; and
 develop co-operation in areas of scientific, technological and economic activity.

The output from ISO deliberations is in the form of international agreements and
standards. The ISO is based in Geneva, Switzerland along with the International
Electrotechnical Commission (IEC).

The IEC has established electrical standards and set up more than 200 technical
committees in more than 100 countries. The IEC collaborates with the ISO on matters of
mutual interest and both organisations co-operate with the International
Telecommunications Union (ITU) and IMO, which are agencies of the United Nations.
The IEC and ISO standards are designed to allow for the necessary specification
requirements for design, testing and approval.

The IEC has several technical committees working in specialised areas. Technical
Committee 80 (TC80) is responsible for “Maritime navigation and radiocommunication
equipment and systems”.

TC80 has 770 working groups. Those involved with navigation equipment are:
WG6 Digital interfaces for navigational equipment within a ship
WG15 Automatic identification system (AIS)
WG16 Bridge alert management (BAM)
WG17 Common Maritime Data Structure (CMDS)

1.4 DESIGN CRITERIA.

In the late 1960’s planned bridge arrangements were available from manufacturers of
bridge equipment. These were the first steps towards constructing a bridge by taking into
account the operational requirements of a vessel. Integrated navigation systems and
integrated bridge arrangements evolved from those early days and the concept is now
an integral part of the shipbuilding process.

The design of bridges is governed by the requirements of SOLAS Chapter V:

1. the functions and related tasks to be carried out on the bridge, systems used and
methods of task performance;
2. the range, layout and location of workstations required for performance of bridge
functions;
3. the fields of vision required for visual observations from each of the workstations;
4. composition of the bridge team and the procedures required for safe operations
under all identified conditions; and

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 5. the type and range of equipment to be provided for the performance of tasks at
individual workstations and elsewhere on the bridge.

A set of international performance standards has been set up under the direction of the
IEC’s TC80. These standards include type approval and system notation.

TC80 advises that an integrated bridge system should be designed and installed as a
physical combination of equipment or systems using interconnected controls and
displays. Workstations should provide centralised access to all nautical information.

The types of operational function carried out on the bridge include navigation,
communication, automation and general ship operations.

In the absence of any internationally agreed operating standards, from either IMO or
national authorities, reliance must be placed on industry guidelines and the ISO
standards which do exist for bridge layout and equipment.

The IEC definition of an integrated bridge system states that such a system must be
capable of carrying out two or more of the following functions:
 Navigation planning;
 Passage execution and manoeuvring;
 Collision and stranding avoidance;
 Communications;
 Machinery control and monitoring;
 Safety and security; and
 Management of the ship.

The integrated bridge system that meets these requirements must provide:
 redundancy in the event of system failure;
 an interface using standard equipment;
 centralisation of all nautical data and alarms; and
 the use of appropriate displays to monitor the data.

Reduced manning levels on board vessels means that the bridge team must be capable
of interpreting and responding to the multitude of alarms and information presented. Of
course, this requirement should involve training of crews and system documentation
available on board for reference.

In modern shipbuilding it is standard practice to source all bridge equipment from a

single manufacturer. Kelvin Hughes can provide basic radar and navigation displays in a

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central console adapted to accept auxiliary equipment in modular units from specialist
manufacturers. The modules allow flexibility in the final design arrangement decided by
the ship owner.

Classification Society DNV-GL have devised a safety philosophy to address the optimum
safety and efficiency of the total bridge system, and it consists of four essential
components:

 The technical system, which deduces and presents information to allow the
proper setting of course and speed.
 The human operator, who evaluates the available information, decides on the
action to be taken and executes the decision.
 The man/machine interface, which is designed to ensure that the technical
system has taken into account human abilities.
 The procedures, which ensure that the total bridge system performs satisfactorily
under different operating conditions.

DNV-GL also have Rules for Nautical Safety which reflect the different factors that
affect performance of the total bridge system and are intended to regulate the following:

 Design of the workplace based on the analysis of functions to be performed

under various operating conditions and the technical aids to be installed.
 Bridge working environment based on the factors affecting performance of
human operators.
 The range of instrumentation based on information needs and efficient
performance of navigational tasks.
 Equipment reliability (applicable to all types of bridge equipment) based on
common requirements to ensure their suitability under various environmental
conditions.
 Specific requirements of different types of bridge equipment based on the
facilities required for the performance of their specific functions.
 The man/machine interface based on the analysis of human limitations and
compliance with ergonomic principles.
 Qualifications based on the competence required for mastering navigation
methods and relevant technical systems installed on a typical ship.
 Operating procedures based on the work organisation needed to make the
bridge system function under different operational situations.
 Information on the ship’s manoeuvring characteristics based on manoeuvres
usually used in various operational situations.

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  Tests and trials for new ships based on the need to ensure that technical
systems perform in accordance with their specifications, before being relied on in
practical operation.
 A Reporting system on bridge instrument failure based on information needed to
detect their actual reliability level.
 Survey schemes for ships in service based on the follow-up and testing required
to safeguard each bridge system’s reliability.

Ships have been developed and numerous instruments have been invented over the
ages to make the task of navigating easier and safer, but this has not prevented
accidents. There are still ships sinking, colliding, going aground and catching fire. We
therefore need to look closely at the human element.

The OOW needs to ask and receive answers to all of the following:
 Where am I?
 What course is being steered?
 Is there sufficient water under the keel?
 Am I going to hit anything?
 Do I need the assistance of the master?
 Should I be in hand steering mode?
 Is a good lookout being kept by all available means?
 Can I trust the information I am receiving?
 Is the information reliable?
 How accurate and up to date is the information?

The sophistication of current instrumentation means that it is essential for the navigator
to be well trained. His correct interpretation of the information available is vitally
important for the safety of the vessel and his shipmates.

1.5 DEVELOPMENT OF AN E-NAVIGATION STRATEGY.

In July 2012 the IMO’s NAV Sub-committee endorsed five prioritised solutions for e-
navigation taking into account: seamless transfer of data between equipment on board;
and seamless transfer of electronic information/data between ship and shore and vice
versa, as well as ship to ship and shore to shore.

The five prioritised solutions are:

 Improved, harmonised and user-friendly bridge design;
 Means for standardised and automated reporting;

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  Improved reliability, resilience and integrity of bridge equipment and navigation
information;
 Integration and presentation of available information in graphical displays
received via communication equipment;
 Improved Communication of VTS Service Portfolio (where the service portfolio is
the set of operational and technical services provided by a stakeholder in a given
sea area, waterway, or port).

Seven Risk Control Options (RCOs) were identified as part of the IMO formal safety
assessment procedure:

 RCO 1: integration of navigation information and equipment including

improved software quality assurance;
 RCO 2: bridge alert management;
 RCO 3: standardized mode(s) for navigation equipment;
 RCO 4: automated and standardized ship-shore reporting;
 RCO 5: improved reliability and resilience of onboard PNT* systems;
 RCO 6: improved shore-based services; and
 RCO 7: bridge and workstation layout standardization.

*A PNT system means an electronic Position, Navigation and Timing system on board, such as
that using GPS, Augmentation and a terrestrial navigation system.

1.6 BRIDGE NAVIGATIONAL WATCH ALARM SYSTEM (BNWAS)

Reference: IMO Res. MSC.128 (75) Performance Standards for a Bridge Navigational
Watch Alarm System.

The purpose of BNWAS is to monitor bridge activity and check for any watchkeeper
disability which could lead to a marine accident. The system will contact the Master or
other watchkeepers if for any reason the OOW becomes unable to perform his or her
duties.

The system will first try to alert the OOW with a series of alarms and, if no response, an
alarm will alert the Master. In addition, the BNWAS is capable of calling for immediate
assistance for the OOW. The BNWAS becomes operational as soon as the ship’s auto-
pilot is engaged at the start of a passage.

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When in operation the system will remain dormant for a period of between 3 and 12
minutes and this length of time is set by the Master. At the end of this period a visual
alarm will be activated. If the watchkeeper does not reset an audible alarm will sound
within 15 seconds.

If not reset within a further 15 seconds a 2nd stage alarm will sound in the Master’s
cabin. If the alarm is not reset after a further 90 seconds a general alarm (3 rd stage
alarm) will be activated to alert the entire crew. On large vessels the period of time
between the 2nd stage and 3rd stage alarms may be extended for up to 3 minutes to allow
time for the Master or other backup officer to reach the bridge. On passenger vessels
the 3rd stage alarm will be limited to crew cabins to avoid panic among passengers.

An Emergency Call function allows the OOW to summon immediate assistance.

The reset buttons can be located in accessible positions in the wheelhouse, chartroom
and bridge wings. The reset function of the system can only be activated by the
watchkeeper on the bridge and any alarm cannot be cancelled away from the bridge.
When the system is reset it will automatically restart the dormant period.

The system operates on mains but in the event of power failure the emergency call
function will have battery power.

Current systems are inter-faced with ECDIS, radar and auto-pilot, so that any adjustment
made by the watchkeeper to any of these instruments will reset the BNWAS alarm
period.

1.7 BRIDGE ALERT MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (BAMS)

Not to be confused with BNWAS a bridge alert system is defined as an umbrella term for
the indication of abnormal situations with three different categories of priority alerts:
1. Alarms
2. Warnings
3. Caution
Unlike BNWAS which is in place to monitor navigators, the navigators themselves must
constantly monitor the proper functioning of the vessel and its equipment. SOLAS
requires many ship systems to indicate failures and problems by way of an audible or
visual alert on the bridge. Some of these are on the equipment itself while those for
watertight doors, fire alarms and steering are generally incorporated into an alarm
display located on the bridge. These displays are not always in a location that is
convenient to monitor while engaged in navigation of the ship.

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2. BRIDGE RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

The resources available to a watchkeeper include both personnel and navigation aids.
These two aspects of Resource Management are considered separately but the concept
should be holistic when one takes into account the reliance of personnel on equipment,
and the integration of bridge equipment to facilitate ergonomic use.

The correct use of a single integrated system by the co-ordinated functioning of a bridge
team should be the objective of all shipowners and masters.

2.1 BRIDGE TEAM MANAGEMENT

Although modern ships have reliable machinery and the latest technology to assist the
navigator each voyage has a certain amount of risk, and the ship and crew are still
subjected to the forces of nature. However, incidents may not be the result of a hostile
environment, because the majority of incidents at sea are caused by human error.

In many cases information, which could have prevented the incident, was available, but
was either not appreciated at the time or was ignored.

Most accidents occur because there is usually no system to detect and subsequently
prevent a person making a mistake. Members of a navigational watch should, at all
times, be prepared to respond efficiently and effectively to changes in circumstances
(STCW B-Vlll Part 3.1).

This means that, no matter how well a voyage may have been planned and conducted
and no matter how well a bridge team works together, everything can change.
Teamwork and planning will take care of most contingencies, but there will always come
a time when the most junior officer will be faced with a situation beyond his capabilities.

If there is a good system of bridge team management (BTM) on board and the passage
plan has been carefully prepared, an inexperienced deck officer will have a substantial
fund of knowledge and resources to call on. He should be comfortable knowing that the
decisions he takes will be safe in applying the knowledge he has within the established
system.

A drawback to effective team management is the reality that the highest calibre of
personnel and the latest equipment are not usually available in today’s economic
climate. Frequently the watchkeepers are of mixed nationalities with varying abilities,
working with outdated equipment. However, to achieve a successful outturn on a voyage
the focus of all watchkeepers should be making the best of available resources, and
each member of the team has an important part to play.

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The term “team management” does not refer to an act of managing by one person. It
means that each member of the team should accept and understand the role each
member has been assigned.

In order for good results to be achieved there are some fundamental factors that should
be addressed. These include:
 technical knowledge;
 ability to apply the knowledge; and
 people management skills.

The smooth and efficient operation of any bridge depends on the basic principles of
good communication and people management. With today’s ship manning practices
it is vital that these skills are developed on board to counter cultural differences and the
traditional hierarchical rank structure.

2.2 PRACTICAL BRIDGE TEAMWORK

Normal practice in commercial shipping means that during daylight the certificated
watchkeeper will be alone on the bridge. At night lookouts on shorter (2-hour dog
watches) are assigned and their exclusive duty is to provide sight and sound warnings to
the watchkeeper. The single watchkeeper will have navigation duties while the ship is on
automatic steering.

There will always be an occasion, perhaps a close quarters situation, when the single
watchkeeper during daylight hours requires a helmsman. There may also be a reduction
in visibility, in which case lookouts will be required. These situations require a great deal
of co-operation in shipboard operations, by having a man on call near the bridge should
he be required as a helmsman, or a communication system for calling crew members
from their maintenance work.

Teamwork is required once the men are in place and supporting the watchkeeper in his
duties. This will take training and experience because the watchkeeper should never be
distracted from his navigation duties by having to coach support staff at critical times.

Under certain circumstances the master will be called to the bridge, and the
watchkeeper should be reassured that calling on experience and expertise will never
result in reprimand. Calling the master should also not be left until a doubtful situation
develops into a critical situation.

The master will need time to adjust his vision at night, absorb the details of the situation,
and decide on appropriate action. The watchkeeper is the master’s representative on the
bridge, and the watchkeeper should always bear in mind that the master may delegate
authority but can never delegate ultimate responsibility for the safety of the ship.

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Calling the master to the bridge will not automatically relieve the watchkeeper of the con.
Until the master actually states that he has the con the watchkeeper must carry on with
his duties, including taking action with any decision he has made.

When the master has the con the watchkeeper assumes a supportive role but he still
has responsibilities for his watch. It is recommended that the watchkeeper make an
appropriate deck log entry when the con is handed over.

Part of the coaching of watchkeepers should involve defining the roles of individual team
members, including an additional deck officer in certain circumstances. Besides the
master, watchkeeper, helmsman and lookouts there may be a need for another deck
officer to assist in high-risk situations. There may also be a need for a junior officer or
cadet to record manoeuvring orders and important events in the bell book (also known
as the movement book).

The smooth operation of an experienced team, each fulfilling a role, will take time to
develop. The period of time will always depend on the coaching role of senior officers
and careful planning for all known situations and possible events.

2.3 ERROR CHAINS

Most accidents occur as a result of a chain of non-serious events which are allowed to
reach a serious conclusion. That is why situational awareness is vital for the
watchkeeper and his team, so that any developing error chain can be arrested in time.

Indications of an error chain developing may be insignificant but an alert watchkeeper

should become aware when the passage plan is not being executed as agreed by the
bridge team.

It may be that fixes acquired by two different navigation aids do not agree. There may be
distraction in the form of attending to a radio or internal telephone call, diverting the
watchkeeper’s attention for a period of time. There may a breakdown in communication
between members of the bridge team, or between the team and pilot, or a failure to
understand clearly a VHF call from another vessel. There may be a failure to clearly
establish who has the con during a high-risk situation, which may occur when a pilot is
on the bridge during a port entry.

At an International Safety Conference held in Norway in 1975 it emerged that there were
two principal factors in the cause of all collisions and groundings. These were:
weaknesses in bridge organisation, and failure to keep a proper lookout.

It was found that there was a failure to:

 pre-plan a track;
 adequately monitor progress along the planned track;

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  take immediate action to regain the track after deviating from it;
 cross check fixes by comparing results from two different methods;
 use visual fixing when available;
 use the echo sounder when making landfall;
 correctly identify navigation lights; and
 have important navigational decisions checked by another deck officer.

Casualties could have been avoided by:

 increasing the bridge team in critical situations;
 ensuring personnel are available when required;
 proper and precise instructions for when the master is to be called;
 posting lookouts;
 having a helmsman in place in good time;
 setting a procedure for changing over steering functions; and
 proper and precise instructions for reducing speed in restricted visibility.

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3. BRIDGE EQUIPMENT

3.1 MANDATORY CARRIAGE OF ECDIS

All existing passenger ships >500 gross tonnes, all cargo ships, and existing tankers
>3,000 gross tonnes have been required to carry ECDIS since 1 July 2016. This means
that most of the merchant fleet is subject to the mandatory carriage of ECDIS.

The United Kingdom Hydrographic Office (UKHO) provides Admiralty Vector Chart
Service (AVCS) ENCs which operate on all makes of ECDIS. The scope of coverage
offered by AVCS includes over 13,000 ENCs covering over 4,000 of the world’s biggest
and busiest ports, including many with unique coverage not offered by any other chart
service. AVCS also meets the IHO’s S-63 Edition 1.1, which is the latest version of the
international open-format data standard for digital chart security.

To achieve SOLAS carriage requirements for the use of ECDIS as a primary means of
navigation, the ship’s Safety Management System must include procedures for the
operational use of ECDIS.

The publication: ADMIRALTY Guide to ECDIS Implementation, Policy and Procedures

(NP232) supports the global implementation of ECDIS. It is also intended to be an
onboard reference to support company procedures for the operation of ECDIS, which
will assist in preparing for audits and inspections.

ECDIS is a great tool and should enhance the safety of vessels but to do so it must be
set up and used correctly. The IMO has stipulated that ‘paper-less’ navigation and
ECDIS as the primary means of navigation means that certain rules must be followed. In
broad outline they are:

 The installation of at least two independent type approved ECDIS sets;

 The bridge team to have completed an approved certified generic ECDIS course
based on the 40 hour / 5 day IMO 1.27 course model;
 Deck officers to have completed formal type specific familiarisation (which can be
incorporated in the generic course); and
 A formal risk assessment to be completed and submitted to the Flag state

3.2 ECDIS TRAINING

ECDIS TRAINING Ref: Hydro International – March/April 2010, Electronic Navigation Charts

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ECDIS training should include:
• operating a digital catalogue;
• use of the IHO data set to test the ECDIS for optimal operation;
• planning a passage;
• determining licence requirements;
• loading licences onto the ECDIS; and
• performing updates as necessary.

There are many different types of catalogue software each with their own user interface
and peculiarities.

Generic ECDIS training is offered by training institutions but ship operators should have
type-specific training for watchkeepers by the manufacturer. In addition, watchkeepers
must be trained in the ordering process and licencing procedures.

3.3 ECDIS DEVELOPMENTS.

For ENC corrections downloads from suppliers are available via high-speed broadband,
which is more efficient than the outdated method of waiting for delivery of a DVD at the
next port.

With all the different items of equipment on a modern bridge the navigator has become
an information integrator, assessing risk with a variety of data at his disposal. ECDIS is a
tool that provides a great deal of information but it is only as good as its operator, and
training in its efficient use is essential.

Even though there are standardised features for all ECDIS systems, manufacturers have
come up with new innovations so each system has different functionalities. An
experienced operator will easily adapt to these but most junior officers will require
training with an accredited provider.

Examples of these innovations include: weather overlays, scroll-over information about

other vessels and navigation marks, as well as tidal information.

Licensing ENC users has become simpler and most ENCs in use are usually updated
and then invoiced by the contracted provider. This has removed the need for
watchkeepers to apply for updates.

For example: a licensing solution is provided by the ENCTrack service. This is a flexible
system whereby all ENC’s available are licenced. The vessel’s track is monitored to
determine which ENC cells the vessel has traversed and these will then be charged for.
This method removes the need for licencing management and training in these

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procedures. All ENC’s are also constantly updated which is a significant safety factor for
the ship.

ENC Life Cycle. Ref: John K. Klippen e-Nav International News 1.04.2013

Quality control and quality assurance of an ENC is a complex matter and is probably
more demanding than its paper predecessor. ENCs consist of digitised data conforming
to the IHO’s latest standards and all relevant charted features necessary for safe
navigation. These features include coastlines, bathymetry, buoys, lights etc. (Bathymetry
is the underwater depth of the seabed).

An ECDIS converts the ENC into a System ENC (SENC) in an internal format optimised
for efficient display. Therefore, the production of ENCs demands a high level of quality
control and quality assurance.

Its important to understand the difference between these two concepts. Quality Control =
the checks made on a product after production; Quality Assurance = the overall set of
processes, of which Quality Control forms a part, designed to ensure that a product is
produced correctly and without errors. Both of these must be considered throughout the
entire ENC life cycle.

The life cycle for an ENC includes: source data assessment and verification; product
compilation, validation and publication; followed by continuous product maintenance;
and finally, the termination process. The issuing authority is responsible for the full life
cycle of an ENC.

When an ENC is to be terminated or issued as a new edition (because of new coverage

or products) the old edition is automatically provided with an update file. In the chart
portfolio the update file is marked “terminated”. This process closes the life cycle for that
particular ENC. For Quality Control to be effective the termination must result in a
“locked” data set so that no further corrections or changes can be applied.

QUALITY MANAGEMENT IN PRODUCTION.

An ECDIS is a very accurate and sophisticated device. Any deficiencies in data quality
may compromise computer-aided navigation. To meet the exacting requirements of an
ENC the quality management system must be technically integrated with the production
system at each stage of both production and maintenance.

Ensuring ENC quality during practical chart production is much broader than the
implementation of IHO Standards. There are specific checks at each stage of the
process using error-proof technology and the entire process must be controlled with an
established quality management system. This ensures mariners are provided with ENCs
of high quality.

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QUALITY MANAGEMENT ON BOARD.
The United Kingdom Hydrographic Office (UKHO) provides the Admiralty ENC
Maintenance Record NP133C which is designed to streamline the management of paper
records of ENC and ECDIS maintenance. NP133C makes information on official digital
charts more accessible for the bridge team and assists with SOLAS Ch V compliance.

NP133C is laid out in nine logical sections, with templates for the bridge team to make
administrative processes faster and more efficient. Also, by consolidating records into
one well-organised folder, it enables inspectors and auditors to see quickly that ENCs
and ECDIS are well managed on that ship.

The sections include:

 Digital Chart Service Certificate
 ENC Status
 Temporary and Preliminary Notices to Mariners
 Important Service Notices
 Cancelled and Withdrawn ENCs
 Maintenance of ECDIS
 ECDIS Installation
If all sections are completed and kept up to date, the folder can be used as part of any
handover process and can be easily integrated into the ship’s Safety Management
System for ISM compliance.

Many pilots now carry their own PPUs (Portable Pilot Units) with charting software and
position-finding hardware so that they don’t have to rely on an unfamiliar ECDIS. All the
pilot has to do to ensure reliability is to carry spare batteries or a multi-adaptor plug for
long pilotages.

3.4 LRIT (Long Range Identification and Tracking)

All passenger ships and cargo ships of 300GT and over on international voyages are
required to have LRIT equipment on board. However, those vessels operating entirely
within an A1 sea area are not required to conform. A1 sea areas are defined as those
within VHF range of a coast radio station.

The major purpose of LRIT is to address the need for information on ships for enhanced
maritime security. This global system provides long range identification and tracking of
ships up to 1000 miles from any coastal state.

The transmitter on a ship will automatically send information via satellite to an LRIT Data
Centre, and the information includes the vessel’s identity, date, time and position.

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Transmissions are made at 6-hour intervals, and also on receipt of a polling command
(request).

LRIT is fundamentally different from AIS because the shipboard equipment transmits
information directly to an LRIT Data Centre. This data is only available to authorised
recipients, such as SOLAS contracting states when they require information on ships
within 1000 miles of their coast.

The information can be shared for SAR operations and environmental protection
purposes. IMO member states are required to establish their own data centres or
collaborate with neighbouring countries to set up regional centres. IMO is the co-
ordinator with powers to authorise integration of national and regional data centres into
the LRIT system.

The system in each state is financed by a user pays policy. However, no charges will be
levied for search and rescue services.

3.5 NIGHT VISION

The ability to see in a dark environment is made possible by a combination of sufficient

optical range and sufficient intensity range. Human vision is confined to a small part of
the electromagnetic wave spectrum called visible light. Some persons have the ability to
see very small quantities of light, which means that they have a greater intensity range
than normal.

Enhanced intensity range is achieved by the use of an image intensifier. Enhanced

spectral range allows a viewer to take advantage of non-visible sources of
electromagnetic radiation such as near infra-red.

When the human eye is exposed to white light, molecules of the iris undergo a change in
shape as light is absorbed. When the white light is removed it takes about 30 minutes for
the iris to re-adapt to the dark but most of the adaptation occurs during the first 5 or 10
minutes.

The iris is not sensitive to the longer wavelengths of red light and this is the light which
should be used to preserve night vision.

3.5.1 Night glasses.

Night glasses are binoculars with large lenses to gather and concentrate light. This
intensifies the light by purely optical means to enable the user to see in the dark. Older
types had the major drawbacks of size and weight but new types are compact and light
in weight.

3.5.2 Image intensifier

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An image intensifier is a vacuum tube device that converts infra-red light to an image
that can be viewed by the human eye. When infra-red light from an object strikes a
photocathode plate electrons are emitted through a vacuum tube to strike an image
screen.

This screen illuminates with a picture in the same pattern as the infra-red image. The
image is intensified because the output of visible light from the photocathode plate is
brighter than the incoming infra-red light.

Image intensifiers are about the same size and mass as a pair of binoculars.

3.5.3 Night Vision Devices (NVD’s)

Although NVD’s were developed by the military their usefulness in security, police work
and search and rescue has become invaluable. NVD’s use the near infra-red wave band
which has a wavelength of about 1 micrometre. In comparison the human eye is
sensitive to light wavelengths in the 0.4 to 0.7 micrometre range.

NVDs use an image intensifier tube with a photoelectric effect. They detect ambient light,
usually from the moon and stars, reflected by the objects being viewed. As each light
photon (quantum of electromagnetic radiation) strikes the photocathode plate several
electrons are emitted and accelerated by a strong electric field towards a phosphor
screen. At the points of impact on the screen a bright image is formed.

NVD’s do not detect colour variations therefore a monochromatic phosphor screen is

used. The human eye is most sensitive to the colour green, which falls in the middle of
the visible light spectrum, therefore green phosphor screens are used.

3.5.4 Searchlight innovation.

Imtech Marine have created SmartVIEW Technology which allows control of searchlights
from a software programme on board as an alternative to the traditional lever for
controlling the direction. This system also controls a night vision camera integrated onto
the same pan/tilt base. The camera can be used at night with thermal imaging as well as
in daylight, and images may be viewed on the bridge or other location.

3.5.5 WatchStander (Ref: H Hobson 30.05.2014 From the Bridge)

A system called WatchStander uses radar mounted on either side of a ship to scan the
surrounding water for small objects that look like they are moving to intercept. It can
automatically sound an alarm and dispense countermeasures to deter any approaching
vessels.

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The system is meant to tackle piracy at sea. Pirates use skiffs (small, fast fishing boats)
with a very low profile on the surface of the water. A ships' radar system is designed to
pick up large objects that are collision risks and to filter out echoes from waves. This
means they often miss skiffs. By contrast, WatchStander's radar uses shorter radio
wavelengths, allowing it to see smaller objects.

If WatchStander detects a skiff that's heading to intercept the ship it will automatically
target the skiff with a countermeasure. It will shine a powerful strobe light at the
occupants of the boat.

3.6 LASER FLARES AND LIGHTS

Pyrotechnics have long been used for rescue signalling but in current shipping practice,
with an ever-increasing amount of fire hazardous cargo, these devices are a hazard in
themselves. Modern laser lights are a simple and effective alternative for signalling to a
rescue ship or airplane.

Laser lights have the following advantages over pyrotechnic flares:

 EASE OF USE. The devices can be switched on and off, and used over and over
again.
 LONGER LASTING. A typical hand-held pyrotechnic flare lasts for about one
minute while the laser flare can be used continuously for hours. A laser flare
powered by two AA size batteries would have a continuous life of 72 hours, and
the batteries can be replaced. The actual laser diode has a life of 10 000 hours.
 RANGE. Depending on height above sea level, ambient light and weather
conditions laser devices can be seen from much further away. The range in
optimum nighttime conditions is up to 20 miles and daytime effectiveness is
claimed to be 3 miles.
 LOCATION AID. Laser lights can be used to illuminate reflective materials on
lifeboats, liferafts, lifejackets and lifebuoys to assist location by a rescue ship.
 SAFETY. Laser flares and lights are battery powered and are not a fire hazard,
therefore they can be used in virtually any situation.

Typical laser lights are roughly the same size and weight as pyrotechnic hand-held
flares. The plastic case is strongly made and manufacturers claim these are waterproof
to depths of up to 24m.

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A precaution to be followed for their use is to never shine the laser beam into a person’s
eyes. Temporary blindness can be caused and if a person prolongs staring at a laser
beam there may be permanent damage to the retina of the eye.

3.7 RADAR REFLECTORS

SOLAS Chapter V – Safety of Navigation – states that a ship shall have “if less than 150
gross tonnage and if practicable, a radar reflector, or other means, to enable detection
by ships navigating by radar at both 9 and 3 GHz”.

Radar detection is a complex subject which involves the power, quality and height of the
interrogating radar, and the range, size, shape, construction material and aspect of the
target vessel. Target detection is also affected by the other external factors including sea
state, wave shape and direction, air-borne dust and moisture (rain, snow and fog).

Commercial shipping uses radar equipment operating in the 9 GHz or “X” band and the
3 GHz or “S” band, and these present both problems and advantages.

The probability of detecting small craft, particularly those not fitted with a radar reflector,
may be degraded by many environmental factors. This has always presented a
challenge to navigators and equipment manufacturers.

Vessels of less than 20m LOA are only required to carry lights with a visible range of 3
miles, a distance covered by a 20 knot ship in 9 minutes.

There is no guarantee that a small vessel will consistently show on radar screens, but a
correctly fitted reflector with a large Radar Cross Section (RCS) [‘echoing area”] will
greatly increase the probability of detection. The RCS determines the amount of radar
energy reflected back.

Currently reflectors should meet the technical standards of ISO standard 8729:1997.
The IMO Performance Standards for Radar Reflectors were adopted in 1977 and require
all vessels of less than 100 gross tons to have a radar reflector fitted.

The IMO Performance Standards require the following:

 a peak RCS of at least 10m² when mounted at a minimum height of 4m above
sea level; or
 at least 40m² when mounted at a minimum height of 2m above sea level; and
 capable of performance 360º in azimuth when using a typical marine radar.

The correct installation of the reflector should follow manufacturer’s recommendations. A

reflector should be mounted at a minimum height of 3m above sea level to place it above
wave obscuration effects. A height of 3 to 4m above sea level should give the craft a

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potential detection range of 5 nautical miles, which is the basis used for the ISO
standard.

Many navigators use automatic guard zones on an ARPA set at 3 to 5 miles to warn of
approaching vessels. A consistent radar target response is important to trigger this
function.

3.8 RADAR TARGET ENHANCERS.

A Radar Target Enhancer (RTE) is an active form of reflector requiring a power supply. It
receives a pulse of radar energy, amplifies it and re-transmits the signal.

An RTE has a larger equivalent RCS for its physically small size than a passive radar
reflector, and produces a response on the X band radar set which is stronger and more
consistent than the echo of a radar reflector.

An RTE mounted at a height of only 2m above sea level has been detected at a range of
8 nautical miles.

It must be noted by navigators that the response will only be seen on the X band or 9
GHz radar set. In poor visibility the S band set may be preferred on the shorter range,
but it will be prudent for the navigator to also check the X band set.

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4. DYNAMIC POSITIONING

4.1 INTRODUCTION

A ship is subject to the forces of wind, waves and current as well as those generated by
the ship’s own propulsion system. A dynamic positioning system (DPS) produces a
response to these forces in terms of changes in position, heading and speed.

These changes are measured with the assistance of position reference systems, the
gyrocompass and vertical reference sensors. The DPS immediately responds by
calculating the forces which thrusters have to produce in order to control the vessel’s
motion.

A ship has six degrees of freedom in its motion. Three of these involve translation:
 surge (forward or astern);
 sway (to port or starboard); and
 heave (up or down motion).

The other three involve rotation:

 roll (rotation about the surge axis);
 pitch (rotation about the sway axis); and
 yaw (rotation about the heave axis).

Dynamic positioning systems are concerned primarily with control of the ship in the
horizontal plane, ie the three axes of surge, sway and yaw. Reference system readings
are corrected for roll and pitch using vertical reference sensors. A GPS is used for
position reference, a Doppler log for speed, the gyrocompass for course, and a wind
sensor for wind speed and direction.

The DPS is designed to keep the vessel within specified position and heading limits, and
to minimise fuel consumption, and wear and tear on propulsion equipment. It achieves
this by automatically controlling a vessel’s position and heading by using thrusters.

Dynamic positioning systems may be installed in single, dual or triple configurations,

depending on the level of redundancy required.

A single DP control system provides no redundancy in the event of system failure.

A dual or two-computer system provides for redundancy with an automatic change-over

if the system on-line fails.

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A triple system provides the operator with an extra level of security and is known as
triple modular redundancy.

4.2 DP SYSTEMS.

IMO has provided a dynamic positioning classification system:

Class 1. Automatic and manual position and heading control under specified
maximum environmental conditions.

Class 2. Automatic and manual position and heading control under specified
maximum environmental conditions during and following any fault,
excluding loss of a compartment, with two independent computer
systems.

Class 3. Automatic and manual position and heading control under specified
maximum environmental conditions during and following any fault,
including loss of a compartment due to fire or flooding, with at least two
independent computer systems. There must be a separate back-up
system separated from the main system by an A60 class bulkhead.

The following is an example of a DP system. The Kongsberg “K-Pos” system has three
station-keeping modes of operation. These are:

 High Precision Control: which provides high accuracy station-keeping in all

weather conditions at the expense of fuel consumption and wear and tear on
machinery and thrusters.
 Relaxed Control: which uses thrusters smoothly at the expense of station-
keeping accuracy and is therefore mainly used in calm weather conditions.
 Green Control or Non-Linear Model Predictive Control: which means precise
station-keeping with minimum fuel consumption, and it can be used in all weather
conditions.

The following controls are available for use with Kongsberg DP systems:

 Joystick: allows an operator to manually control the vessel’s position and

heading.
 Joystick High Speed: allows an operator to manually manoeuvre a vessel at
normal sea speed, or at manoeuvring speed.
 Auto Heading and Auto Position: maintain heading and position automatically.
 Mixed Joystick/Auto: allows an operator to select automatic control of one or
more of the surge, sway and yaw axes.
 Follow Target: automatically follows a selected moving target.

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  Anchor Assist: provides thruster assistance when operating within a mooring
pattern.
 Autopilot: maintains a selected heading.
 ROT Pilot: assists an operator to manoeuvre using a rate of turn control.
 Auto Track: provides low, medium and high speed automatic tracking between
waypoints, but is for marine operations such as cable-laying and is not meant for
navigation.
 Track Line: enables the vessel to precisely follow a course over the ground, and
is also for marine operations rather than navigation.

Wartsila’s SmartDrive is similar in that it uses a joystick for a single control mechanism
to control the vessel’s movements. The DP automated control can be used for one or
two axes of movement (surge, sway, or heading) while manual control of the remaining
axis can be reduced to the joystick.

Wartsila’s SmartDock uses tracks and waypoints for the automated controller, which can
then undock a vessel, transit it to a new area, and subsequently guide the vessel to the
next docking situation The SmartDock controller takes care of vessel manoeuvres
allowing the bridge team more time to monitor ongoing situations surrounding the vessel.
This is an advantage for ferry operations when the Captain is relieved of repetitive
manoeuvring tasks during frequent transits and dockings, resulting in increased safety
and reducing fuel consumption.

In 2018 Wartsila launched SceneScan, the world’s first laser-based targetless relative
DP reference sensor capable of working without the need for pre-placed positioning
targets. This innovation has added greater operational flexibility and delivers a higher
level of safety compared to other DP systems. While SmartDock relies on global satellite
systems for position reference SceneScan is more reliable in situations when there may
be interference with satellite signals.

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5. GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEMS

5.1 GPS

The original Global Positioning System (termed Navstar during inception) is a satellite-
based radio-navigation system owned by the United States government and operated by
the US Department of Defence. It is one of the main global navigation satellite systems
(GNSS) that provide geolocation and time information to a GPS receiver anywhere on or
near the Earth’s surface where there is an unobstructed line of sight to four or more GPS
satellites.

GPS began as a United States military project during the 1970’s when an initiative was
taken to place atomic clocks in satellites and use transmitted data to assist navigation.
Satellite launches began in 1978 and GPS became fully operational with 24 satellites by
1993, with an accurate signal for US military use and a down-graded signal for civilian
use. Downgrading of the signal (Selective Availability) to non-US military users was
removed in 2000.

A constellation of 24 satellites orbit the earth at an altitude of 20 200 km in 6 orbital

planes 55º apart. Signals are transmitted to receivers on earth with data including the
satellite’s position and current time. Two main carrier frequencies are used, L1 and L2,
with another three in place for further applications and increasing accuracy.

The distance to each satellite can be determined by the receiver, by measuring the
amount of time taken for the signal to reach the receiver. The signal includes information
on the time the signal left the satellite. The distance to at least four satellites is
calculated for a position in three dimensions. Ground stations monitor each satellite’s
orbit and upload corrected ephemerides as necessary.

The inaccuracy in signals is mostly due to ionisation of particles in the ionosphere which
slow the signal from satellites by a random amount. GPS relies on accurate timing of the
signals to measure distances and this slowing down of the signal makes a satellite
appear farther away.

The errors are significantly reduced by uploading corrected information. A system,

DGPS, was introduced to provide greater accuracy from ground stations of known
position. DGPS uses a network of fixed, ground-based reference stations to broadcast
the difference between the positions indicated by the satellite systems and the known
fixed positions. The digital correction signal is typically broadcast locally over ground-
based transmitters of shorter range.

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A problem that has arisen with AIS is hoax signals, known as “spoofing”. Hackers are
able to create ghost signals to confuse navigators. While no known spoofing has
occurred with GPS signals software companies are developing countermeasures in case
signals are disrupted in any way. This provides weight to the advice to never rely entirely
on electronic signals.

5.2 GLONASS

In 1983 the Russian military began launching satellites for their system called GLONASS
(Global Navigation Satellite System) which commenced limited operations in 1995.

GLONASS has a constellation of 24 satellites, with 21 operating and 3 spare, in orbit at

an altitude of 19100 km. There are three orbital planes separated by 120º and satellites
within an orbital plane are separated by 45º.

The Ground Control and Timing Standards Centre are located in Moscow and all other
telemetry and tracking stations are located within former Soviet Union territory.

In a joint venture with India development costs are shared and GLONASS now has 24
new satellites with full global coverage. The new GLONASS-K satellites have a weight
reduction of 50% compared to the older version, and a 10 to 12 year working life in
space.

GLONASS satellites complete an orbit every 11 hours and 15 minutes, and transmit
standard precision (SP) and high precision (HP) signals on a frequency of 1.6 GHz. The
principles of operation are similar to GPS. The SP signal provides horizontal position
accuracy within 55 m, and HP is more accurate for Russian military use.

5.3 GALILEO

The European Union has developed an alternative to GPS and GLONASS in a joint
venture with the European Space Agency. The Galileo positioning system has a planned
constellation of 30 satellites. It became fully operational in December 2021 with 24
satellites and positional accuracy of 1m.

The advantages of Galileo include the following:

 It was designed and developed as a non-military application while incorporating
all necessary security features;
 It provides a guaranteed high level of continuity required by modern business
practice and contractual responsibility;
 It provides a higher level of precision compared to other systems, owing to its
constellation, sophisticated ground control, and management systems;

27
  It provides users with a signal integrity message which can immediately advise
when errors occur;
 It can provide users with reliable data in high latitudes;
 It represents a public service with specific applications.

Basic (low-precision) Galileo services are free and open to everyone. High-precision
capabilities are available for paying commercial users and for military use. Galileo
provides better positioning services at higher latitudes than other systems.

Galileo also provides a unique global Search and Rescue (SAR) function. Satellites are
equipped with a transponder which can relay distress signals from a user's transmitter to
the Rescue Co-ordination Centre, which will then initiate a rescue operation. At the same
time, the system will provide a signal to the user, informing them that their situation has
been detected and help is on the way. This latter feature is unique and considered a
major upgrade compared to GPS and GLONASS, which do not provide feedback to the
user.

Co-operation between GPS and Galileo means that receivers can track signals from
both systems for greater position coverage and accuracy.

5.4 AUGMENTATION SYSTEMS

A space-based COSPAS-SARSAT network assists aircraft and ships in distress.

COSPAS is a Russian acronym for “Space System for Search of Vessels in Distress”,
while SARSAT stands for “Search and Rescue Satellite-Aided Tracking”.

The European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service (EGNOS) is a satellite-based

augmentation system which was developed by the European Space Agency. Its function
is to supplement GPS, GLONASS and GALILEO by reporting on the reliability and
accuracy of its signals. EGNOS consists of 3 geostationary satellites and a network of
ground stations in Europe.

A similar service is offered in North America by the Wide Area Augmentation System
(WAAS) and in Asia by the Multi-functional Satellite Augmentation System (MSAS).
WAAS was introduced because DGPS systems are based in areas of high density
traffic, and this did not assist wide-area navigation especially in aviation, for which
WAAS was intended.

5.5 SATELLITE ORBITS.

The major satellite navigation systems have satellites orbiting at different distances from
the earth. GPS: 20 200 km, GLONASS 19 100 km and GALILEO 23 000 km.

28
There are various types of orbits followed by satellites and these include:
 Geocentric orbit - a circular orbit around the earth.
 Semi-synchronous orbit - with a period of approximately 12 hours (half a day).
 Geosynchronous orbit - a circular orbit in time with the earth’s rotation (following
sidereal time) and with an altitude of approximately 35 786 km.
 The Graveyard orbit (Disposal orbit) - situated a few hundred kilometres above
the Geosynchronous orbit, where satellites are moved to at the end of their
operational life.
 Geostationary orbit - a circular Geosynchronous orbit with an inclination of zero
which means that the satellite stays above a fixed position on the equator. A
geostationary satellite appears as a fixed object in the sky.
 Polar orbit - where the satellite passes over both poles during each revolution.

5.6 JAPANESE DEVELOPMENTS

Japan has developed a four-satellite regional positioning system called the Quasi-Zenith
Satellite System (QZSS) which supplements signals from GPS and became fully
operational in 2018. Three satellites are visible at all times from locations in the Asia-
Oceania regions.

These satellites in a periodic Highly Elliptical Orbit (HEO) allowing each satellite to dwell
for more than 12 hours a day with an elevation above 70° (appearing almost overhead
most of the time). This provides the term "quasi-zenith" for which the system is named.

Kepler's second law states that an object in orbit about Earth moves much faster when it
is close to Earth than when it is farther away. Perigee is the closest point and apogee is
the farthest. The elliptical orbit means that each satellite spends most of its time near
apogee (the furthest point in its orbit) where it moves very slowly above the desired area.

29
To ensure constant coverage there are two satellites on similar orbits but programmed to
be on opposite sides of the orbit at any given time. The high-speed portion of the orbit
means that each satellite will be out of view for a limited time only.

5.7 CHINESE DEVELOPMENTS

China has developed an independent satellite navigation system known as the Twinstar
Rapid Positioning System or BeiiDou Navigation System. It consists of two satellites: an
Equatorial satellite (TC-1) and a Polar satellite (TC-2), each designed, developed,
launched, and operated by the China National Space Administration.

5.8 INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEMS

The following is an extract from an article in e-Nav International News – July 2013.

An Inertial Navigation System (INS) is a navigation aid that uses a computer, motion
sensors (accelerometers) and rotation sensors (gyroscopes) to continuously calculate
the position, orientation, and velocity (direction and speed) of a moving object without
external references.

An INS contains inertial measurement units which have angular and linear
accelerometers and a gyroscopic unit. Angular accelerometers measure how the vessel
is rotating in space, and there is at least one sensor for each of the three axes: pitch,
yaw and roll.

Linear accelerometers measure accelerations of the vessel for heave (up and down),
sway (port and starboard) and surge (forward and aft).

A computer continually calculates the vessel’s position. For each of the six degrees of
freedom it integrates over time the sensed acceleration together with an estimate of
gravity, to calculate the current velocity. Then it integrates the velocity to calculate the

30
current position. The input is augmented by a satellite navigation system. The inertial
system provides short term data while the satellite system corrects accumulated errors.

Some systems use linear accelerometers on a gimballed gyro-stabilised platform. The

gimbals are a set of three rings, each with a pair of bearings, which let the platform
maintain the same orientation while the vessel rotates around it.

Platforms usually have two gyroscopes to cancel gyroscopic precession. By mounting

the pair of gyroscopes (spinning at the same speed but in opposite directions) at right
angles to each other precessions are cancelled and the platform will resist twisting.

This system allows roll, pitch and yaw angles to be measured accurately at the bearings
of the gimbals. However, its disadvantage is that the precision mechanical moving parts
can wear out or jam and gimbal lock could result.

Modern systems use strap-down technology where the computerised system is fixed in
place on the vessel. The advantages are; a saving in cost, it eliminates the possibility of
gimbal lock, removes the need for mechanical parts calibrations, and increases reliability
by eliminating moving parts.

An example of a strap-down system is a fibre-optic gyroscope, which we will deal with

later.

ERRORS.
All inertial navigation systems suffer from integration drift, which occurs when small
errors of acceleration and angular velocity are integrated into progressively larger errors
in velocity and position. As each new position is calculated from the previous calculated
position these errors accumulate in proportion to the time since the initial position.

Therefore, the position must be periodically corrected by input from an independent

source, ie a satellite navigation system. Inertial navigation systems are usually used to
supplement other navigation systems to provide a higher degree of accuracy than
possible with a single system.

5.9 VOYAGE DATA RECORDERS

A Voyage Data Recorder (VDR) is a data storage device designed for all vessels
required to comply with IMO Resolution A.861 (20). The data is collected from various
sensors, digitised, compressed and stored in an externally mounted protective storage
unit. This unit is coloured bright orange and fitted with a device to aid location in case the
ship sinks.

This unit is tamper-proof and designed to withstand extreme shock, impact, pressure
and heat. In fact, it should withstand marine accidents involving collision, fire, explosion

31
and sinking. The protective storage unit may be a retrievable fixed unit, or a float free
unit which is combined with an EPIRB.

After an incident the stored data can be recovered and replayed by authorities or the
shipowner for incident investigation. IMO MSC Circular 1024 provides Guidelines on
VDR ownership and recovery.

Although the primary purpose of the VDR is for casualty investigation the recorded data
could be used for:

 preventative maintenance;
 performance efficiency monitoring;
 heavy weather damage; and
 training in incident avoidance, safety and cost reduction.

SOLAS Chapter V specifies that a VDR, which may be a Simplified Voyage Data
Recorder (S-VDR), must be fitted to existing cargo ships of 3000 gross tonnage and
upwards. The S-VDR is not required to store the same level of detailed data as a
standard VDR, but should maintain information concerning the position, movement,
physical status, command and control of a vessel.

The data recorded in a standard VDR unit may include the following:
 Date, time and position from the GPS.
 Speed through the water or over the ground from a speed log.
 Heading from the gyro compass or magnetic transmitting compass.
 Radar display.
 AIS data.
 Bridge audio recordings from wheelhouse and bridge wings.
 VHF communications.
 Depth under the keel from the echo sounder.
 All mandatory alarms.
 Status of all watertight openings.
 Status of all fire doors.
 Accelerations and hull stresses.
 Helm orders and feedback of rudder response.
 Engine speed orders and feedback of response.
 Status, direction and amount of thrust or RPM of thrusters.

32
  Wind speed and direction from anemometer and wind vane.

There may be other special requirements such as: status of main and auxiliary
machinery, use of ODME, use of Inert Gas System, status of reefer chambers, etc, that
an individual company might want.

North of England P & I advise that cases continue to be reported where Voyage Data
Recorder (VDR) data is lost, corrupted or has not been saved following an incident. This
can make it very difficult to verify the circumstances leading up to an incident and to
provide a robust defence to any allegations arising out of an incident or alleged incident.

Common causes for a lack of usable VDR data include:

 Incorrect set up of the VDR equipment and navigational equipment inputs
 Faults in the connection with navigational equipment
 Forgetting to save the data
 Unfamiliarity with operation of VDR equipment
 Unfamiliarity with method of recovering data.

In order to ensure that the system is functioning correctly and that all required
navigational information is fed into the system properly, it is recommended that
procedures are developed to ensure that crew members are familiar with the process of
saving and recovering data. The recovered data may be used as an additional training
tool for the bridge team where appropriate. Data recovered during these routine
procedures should be checked to ensure that it is both complete and correct.

This should identify any potential problems with the system and suitable maintenance
can take place to ensure that the VDR is functioning correctly. Hopefully, the data will
never be needed but it can be invaluable should an incident occur.

5.10 VOYAGE OPTIMISATION

Reference: Jeppesen Marine (formerly C-MAP) UPDATE Summer Issue 2009.

SAFE AND EFFICIENT VOYAGES.

Voyage planning requires total vessel operational efficiency and improved risk
management. In the current economic climate ship operators face stiff competition,
volatile freight rates and fuel prices, and demands for safe and environmentally sensitive
operations.

Weather routeing advice for voyage planning has been in use for many years. One of
the products available to assist ship operators is the Jeppesen Marine VVOS (Vessel
and Voyage Optimization Solutions).

33
The software of this system integrates key passage and ship information such as draft,
trim, thrust, propeller revolutions and efficiency, bending moments and shear forces.
Real-time information on weather forecasts, ocean and tidal currents, and vessel-
specific hydrodynamics are combined to determine optimal vessel performance.

One of the most challenging tasks facing a master is planning a safe and efficient
passage to meet schedule pressures, while considering the uncertainty of the weather
and care for the cargo. An alternate route, avoiding heavy weather, will minimise vessel
motion, avoid the loss of or damage to time-sensitive cargo, and ensure that a
reasonable schedule is maintained.

The VVOS claims to be able to analyse, manage and predict vessel performance
accurately in all sea situations. The system’s hull monitoring warns the operator of
excessive motion and stress. This is particularly important on modern large container
vessels where the location of the wheelhouse tends to insulate the navigator from the
effects of heavy seas. The system will provide advance warning and advice on tactical
manoeuvring to avoid heavy weather damage. The master is therefore assisted in
making better technical and commercial decisions.

5.11 UNMANNED SHIPS

It is predicted that future navigators on dry land will use control centres to command
hundreds of crewless ships. Drone ships could be safer and cheaper for the shipping
industry that carries 90 percent of world trade. However, there are a number of
challenges with respect to system design, operation complexity, and the environment, as
well as cyber-attacks, connectivity or autonomy assisted accidents.

For unmanned vessels to become a reality, a regulatory framework must be in place.

There will be requirements concerning the person having command of the vessel,
sufficient manning, training and proper lookout must all be considered with reference to
international conventions (SOLAS, STCW and COLREGS).

To help build a safety culture around these new technologies for autonomous shipping,
DNV GL has provided a guide covering autonomous and remotely operated ships. The
guideline covers new operational concepts that do not fit within existing regulations, and
technologies that control functions normally performed by humans. The guideline will
assist in obtaining approval for alternative designs from the flag state.

TOKYO-Mitsui O.S.K. Lines successfully concluded the world's first sea trial of an
unmanned ship operation from port to port. On 24 January 2022 the ship departed from
Tsuruga Port in Fukui Prefecture and arrived on 25 January in Sakai Port in Tottori
Prefecture. The trial voyage was part of an unmanned ship project led by The Nippon
Foundation.

34
6. POLAR CODE

The International Code for Ships Operating in Polar Waters is in force. Chapter 9 of the
Polar Code relates to the Safety of Navigation and the goal is to provide for safe
navigation. To achieve this all ships must be able to receive and display current
information on ice conditions in their area of operation.

6.1 POLAR CODE REQUIREMENTS.

Ships in polar waters must be fitted with the following equipment:

 Ships constructed on or after 1 January 2017, shall have either two independent
echo-sounders or one echo-sounder with two separate independent transducers.
 Echo-sounders should be working and monitored to detect any sign of
unexpected depth variation especially when the chart is not based on a full
search of the sea floor. Charts of polar waters have poor coverage.
 Ships shall have a clear stern view.
 Ships operating in areas where ice accretion is likely to occur must have means
to prevent the accumulation of ice on antennas required for navigation and
communication.
 Where equipment has sensors that project below the hull, such sensors shall be
protected against ice.
 In Category A or B ships constructed on or after 01 January 2017, bridge wings
shall be enclosed to protect navigational equipment and operating personnel.
Category A ships can operate any distance from shore, while Category B ships
are allowed to operate up to 40 nautical miles from shore.
 Ships shall have non-magnetic means to determine and display their heading.
These must be independent and connected to the ship’s main and emergency
source of power.
 Ships operating in latitudes over 80° shall be fitted with at least one satellite
compass or equivalent, which shall be connected to the ship’s main and
emergency power supply.
 With the exception of ships solely operating in areas with 24 hours of sunlight,
ships in polar waters shall be equipped with two remotely rotatable, narrow-beam

35
 search lights controlled from the bridge to provide an arc of 360 degrees to
visually detect ice.
 Ships involved in operations with an icebreaker escort shall be equipped with a
manually initiated flashing red light visible from astern to indicate when the ship is
stopped. This light shall have a visibility range of at least 2 nautical miles and
must conform to the stern light specifications required by COLREGS.
 Independent cross-checking of positioning information (visual and radar fixing as
well as GNSS) should be undertaken at every opportunity.

6.2 COMMUNICATION.

Chapter 10 of the Polar Code relates to Communication. The goal of this chapter is to
provide effective communications for ships and survival craft during both normal
operations and emergency situations in polar waters.

 Communication equipment shall have the capabilities for ship-to-ship and ship-
to-shore communication, taking into account the limitations of communications
systems in high latitudes and the anticipated low temperature.
 Ships that provide ice-breaking escort services shall be equipped with sound
signalling equipment mounted to face following ships.
 Two-way on-scene and search-and-rescue (SAR) communication capability on
ships shall include:
 Voice and data communications with rescue coordination centres; and
 Equipment for voice communications with aircraft.
 The communication equipment shall provide for two-way voice and data
communication with a Telemedical Assistance Service (TMAS).

LIMITATIONS OF COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS IN HIGH LATITUDES.

 Current maritime digital communication systems were not designed to cover
Polar waters.
 VHF is still largely used for communication at sea, but only over short distances
and normally for voice communications.
 Digital VHF, mobile phone systems and other types of wireless technology offer
enough digital capacity for many maritime applications but only to ships within

36
 sight of shore-based stations, and are therefore not generally available in Polar
waters.
 AIS could also be used for low data-rate communication, but there are very few
base stations, and the satellite-based AIS system is designed for data reception
only.

6.3 SURVIVAL CRAFT COMMUNICATION REQUIREMENTS.

Rescue boats and lifeboats whenever released for evacuation:

 For distress alerting, must carry one device for transmitting ship to shore alerts.
 In order to be located, must carry one device for transmitting signals for location.
 For on-scene communications, must carry one device for transmitting and
receiving on-scene communications.

There are limitations arising from battery life, and procedures must be in place so that
mandatory communication equipment for use in survival craft, is available for operation
during the maximum expected time of rescue.

37
7. MAGNETISM

7.1 INTRODUCTION.

All materials can be magnetised to a certain extent, but metals containing mostly iron
can easily be magnetised. These metals are known as ferromagnetics and are
distinguished from other materials by the strength of their magnetism.

Strictly speaking there are no non-magnetic materials although there are many that can
be magnetised so slightly that their magnetism is difficult to measure. Therefore, non-
magnetic material must be understood to mean material which cannot be magnetised
sufficiently to have any appreciable effect on a compass needle.

Magnetism and electricity are closely related and each can give rise to the other. When
an iron bar is magnetised by an electric current its magnetism cannot be increased
beyond a certain strength. When this bar is broken into small pieces each piece will be
found to be magnetised.

The Domain Theory of Ferromagnetism assumes that when the iron is unmagnetised its
molecules are arranged haphazardly so that they neutralise each other. When the bar is
fully magnetised all molecules are lined up between the poles and the bar is said to be
magnetically saturated.

The space around a magnet where its influence is felt is known as the magnetic field and
all ferromagnetics will become strongly magnetised when placed in a magnetic field. The
metal which retains most of its magnetism becomes a permanent magnet, while the
metal which loses almost all of its magnetism when removed from the field is known as a
temporary magnet.

The pole of a magnet is usually found near an end where the strength of the magnet is
most evident. The pole strength of a regular shape bar magnet is the same at both
poles. A dipole may be considered as a very short magnet that has retained its pole
strength at each end. The earth’s magnetism may be considered as that of a very
powerful dipole.

7.2 TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM

7.2.1 The Earth as a Magnet

The earth is surrounded by a magnetic field and its origin is unknown but thought to
originate in the complex development of our planet from an explosion on the sun millions
of years ago.

38
The characteristics of the field are similar to those of a short and powerful magnet at the
earth’s centre. The red ends of magnets always point North therefore convention
dictates that the earth’s North Magnetic Pole is always blue.

Also by convention, lines of force emanate from the red or South Magnetic Pole. These
lines of force pass up through the earth’s surface in the southern hemisphere and re-
enter the surface in the northern hemisphere.

The places where the lines of force pass vertically through the surface are known as the
Magnetic Poles (or magnetic foci). These poles cover a relatively large area and do not
coincide with the geographic North and South poles. They also move in an irregular
secular change that is monitored by hydrographic authorities. Lines of Force make up
the earth’s magnetic field or Magnetosphere.

7.2.2 Variation.

Variation is the angle between the earth’s magnetic lines of force (magnetic meridians)
on the earth’s surface and the geographic meridians (lines of longitude).

Variation is not constant and is subject to predictable daily, annual and secular changes.
The daily change is insignificant but the navigator should take into account the annual
change, and the rate of change is provided on all charts. Secular change is non-periodic
and unpredictable.

Magnetic storms caused by sunspot activity dramatically increase the radiation directed
towards the earth and may cause unusual and unpredictable changes in variation. The
frequency of magnetic storms has been observed to have an 11-year interval, which is
the time period between maximum sunspot activities. Magnetic storms last from 24 to 48
hours on average causing a shock wave to strike the earth’s magnetosphere.

Areas with large iron ore deposits below the earth’s surface may also cause local
magnetic disturbances. Over the deeper parts of the ocean the magnetic pattern is
simple but in shallow seas and coastal waters there are localised irregularities in
variation. The cause is usually iron ore in the seabed beneath the vessel and not from
the adjacent land. Abnormal variation is given as a warning on the chart and additional
information is given in Sailing Directions.

Note the following important definitions relating to variation:

 Isogonic Lines – are lines joining places of equal variation.
 Agonic Lines – are lines joining places with no variation.
 Isallogonic Lines – are lines joining places having equal rates of change of
variation.

39
A magnetised compass needle will always lie along the magnetic meridian and its north
seeking end is always painted red. Variation is named West if the red end of the
compass needle points to the West of true North, and East if the compass needle points
to the East of true North.

7.2.3 Angle of Dip.

The angle between the earth’s lines of force and the horizontal at any place on the
earth’s surface is known as the Angle of Dip and may be measured with a dip needle. By
convention dip is positive in the northern hemisphere and negative in the southern
hemisphere.

Dip is zero when the lines of force are parallel to the earth’s surface and this occurs at
the magnetic equator or Aclinic Line. A freely suspended magnetised needle would take
up a horizontal position on the magnetic equator.

 Isoclinic Lines are lines joining places having equal dip.

 Isalloclinic lines are those joining places having an equal change of Dip.

7.2.4 Magnetic Equator.

The line joining all places where Dip is zero is known as the magnetic equator or Aclinic
line. The dipole magnet of the earth is irregular and therefore the magnetic poles are not
diametrically opposite, and the magnetic equator is not a great circle.

7.2.5 Earth’s Total Force (T).

The total strength of the earth’s field at any point on the earth’s surface, measured in
amperes/metre along the lines of force, is known as the total force (T). T may be
resolved into a horizontal component (Hf) and a vertical component (Z).

Problems involving T, Z , Hf and Dip all involve right-angled trigonometry and may
therefore be solved by Traverse Tables.

Dip = Course Hf = D Lat Z = Departure T = Distance

The values of Z and Hf vary with magnetic latitude:

1. At the magnetic equator Dip = 0 and T = Hf.

2. At the magnetic poles Dip = 90º and T = Z.

40
By convention both Dip and Z are negative in the southern hemisphere. Hf is always
directed towards magnetic North and is therefore always considered positive. This is
shown by the arrow markings on lines of force always directed towards magnetic North.

A compass needle is constrained to lie in a horizontal plane and therefore is affected

only by Hf. The directive force at the compass will decrease as the value of Hf
decreases. Hf is maximum at the Aclinic Line and minimum at the poles.

Therefore, a constant deflecting force (deviation*) acting on a compass needle will cause
an increasing amount of deviation when a ship moves from a lower to a higher latitude.
This is the reason why a magnetic compass is considered unstable at high latitudes.

 Isodynamic Lines – are lines connecting areas of the earth’s surface where the
earth’s magnetic field has the same intensity.
 Isallodynamic Lines – are lines connecting areas of the earth’s surface having
equal rates of change of intensity of the earth’s magnetic field.

7.2.6 Magnetic Elements.

T, Dip and Variation are used to fully describe the earth’s magnetic field at any point and
these components are known as the Magnetic Elements.

*Magnetic deviation is the error induced in a compass by local magnetic fields on board.

41
8. THE MAGNETIC COMPASS

8.1 INTRODUCTION.

The simplest form of compass consists of a magnetised needle free to rotate in a

horizontal plane. This needle tends to settle on a magnetic meridian. Magnetic
compasses were developed from a simple “lodestone” (or leading stone) to today’s
standard compass.

The greatest development of magnetic compasses took place during the 19 th century
and much of this was undertaken by Sir William Thomson, who later became Lord
Kelvin. He invented the Thomson compass, and this contained the basic design on
which all compass cards are made to the present time.

8.2 DEVELOPMENT OF THE COMPASS CARD.

The simple arrangement of a single needle would be unsatisfactory on board a ship. The
needle would tend to oscillate and be too unsteady for reliable readings. It would also be
too difficult to make efficient corrections on all headings for the disturbing effect of the
ship’s magnetic field. The mariner’s compass card was therefore designed with multiple
short needles, and became known as the Dry Card Compass.

8.2.1 Dry Card Compass.

The Dry Card Compass consisted of a system of short magnetised needles suspended
by silk threads from a light aluminium ring at its circumference. Either 6 or 8 needles
were located symmetrically on either side of the centre, and their poles were connected
to a circle made of silk thread.

The centre piece consisted of a sapphire bearing resting on a hard iridium point, and this
resulted in an almost frictionless pivot. The centre of gravity of the card and needles was
below the pivot which maintained the card in a horizontal position.

The mass of the card (13 to 15 grammes) was mostly in the aluminium ring at its
circumference and this gave it a large moment of inertia in comparison to its weight. This
produced a stable card with no external damping necessary.

Dry cards were usually 250mm in diameter and the markings of the card were printed on
rice paper. The light paper was divided into segments so as to prevent any distortion of
the paper, and these were carefully positioned over the magnets.

The Dry Card Compass is no longer in use.

42
8.2.2 Liquid Card Compass.

The Liquid Card Compass in use today has much greater stability than the dry card
compass. Liquid has the effect of dampening any oscillations and giving the card a
“dead beat” action.

Both the viscosity and the density of the liquid govern its effect on the moment of inertia
of the card as well as providing damping. The liquid is a mixture of distilled water and
ethyl alcohol with an SG of 0.93, and has the following advantages:

 easy to de-aerate;
 will not discolour the card or fitments;
 has a small coefficient of expansion;
 will remain fluid at temperatures of minus 30º C; and
 provides a transparent medium.

The liquid card is generally smaller than the dry card, about 150 to 200mm in diameter,
and made of mica. The card is mounted on a hollow float containing the sapphire
bearing which sits on an iridium point. The effect of buoyancy reduces the total weight
on the point to between 5 and 9 grammes.

The magnetic system is enclosed and attached below the card, either as short needles
similar to the dry card, or as a single magnet in the form of a ring. The ring magnet has
the advantage of not causing any liquid turbulence. Conventional magnets slung in brass
cases below the card were found to have caused eddy resistance and swirl in the liquid
therefore modern compasses use ring magnets.

With the increase in electronic equipment on board, and their disturbing influences, there
is a greater need for small, powerful magnets. These magnets are made in three
different ways: from rolled metal, by casting or by sintering. They are made of high-
performance alloys of aluminium, nickel and cobalt.

Sintered magnets are a product of powder metallurgy processes whereby the metals in
powder form are mixed, then subjected to great pressure in a steel die. They are heated
to a temperature just below melting point in a hydrogen atmosphere while a magnetic
field is applied. This process produces small magnets of very high performance. Circular
sintered magnets are used in liquid card compasses.

8.3 LIQUID COMPASS BOWL.

Although the compass card is only about 150 mm in diameter the bowl is considerably
larger in diameter to allow a reasonable gap between the edge of the card and the bowl.

43
Therefore, it is not possible to line up a lubber line painted on the bowl with degree
markings on the card, as in the dry card compass. The lubber line is usually made of
very thin wire close to the card or painted on a screen projecting from the side of the
bowl.

The plate glass cover has a liquid-tight seal with the body of the bowl. Running
diametrically across the bowl is the bracket which carries the pivot mounting.

The bottom of the bowl is usually made of clear glass to enable the heading to be
projected to the wheelhouse below. The ballast weight, which keeps the bowl horizontal
in gimbals, is in the form of a lead ring fixed to the bottom.

Since the liquid expands and contracts with temperature changes there must be an
allowance made for liquid volume changes. The device may be either a corrugated
expansion chamber or a nickel expansion disc fitted in the bottom of the bowl. This
means that the bowl is always kept full and the possibility of bubbles forming is
practically eliminated.

However, there may be occasions when a bubble will form due to a fault in the sealed
edge. In this case liquid can be forced out with expansion, and air is let in when the
liquid contracts. To remedy this the bowl should be tilted to one side with the filler plug
uppermost and topped up with pure alcohol, or distilled water if the former is not
available.

In modern compasses the appearance of a bubble is very rare but if one does occur the
bowl should be inverted. The bubble will float to the “bottom” and will be caught in a
specially devised bubble trap.

8.4 THE COMPASS BINNACLE.

The binnacle contains the compass slung in gimbals and its associated correctors. The
structure has to be of a suitable size to accommodate all the hard iron correctors and the
brackets for the soft iron correctors.

Older type binnacles were made of teak or mahogany with a brass hood but modern
types are made of aluminium and plastic. The removable hood has windows forward and
aft for casual observation.

On the aft side of the binnacle is an inclinometer, consisting of a curved spirit level and
graduated scale in degrees. On the forward side is the brass or aluminium case
containing the Flinder’s Bar. Brackets to support the quadrantal sphere correctors are
secured in the athwartships line on either side.

44
There are generally three doors in the binnacle stand. The uppermost gives access to
lighting arrangements and the heeling error corrector bucket.

The door on the port side opens to reveal a set of parallel, horizontal, fore and aft
permanent rod magnets, and the chain leading up to the heeling error corrector bucket.

The door on the starboard side opens to a similar set of fore and aft magnets, and a set
of athwartships corrector magnets.

It should be noted that any magnets not in use should be stowed fore and aft in a dry
stowage place away from the compass, electrical equipment and wiring.

The binnacle is secured to the deck with large bolts.

8.4 THE PROJECTOR COMPASS.

A direct method of projection allows the compass heading to be read at the helmsman
position in the wheelhouse. A plastic tube within the binnacle is located directly under
the bowl so that an arc of approximately 50 degrees is projected as an image via
projector lenses and a mirror. The mirror is adjustable for the helmsman.

Lighting may be dimmed with a rheostat and is also connected to an emergency power
source. There is also a change-over switch to a spare lamp.

Maintenance includes cleaning the lenses, mirror, and underside of the compass bowl,
and checking lights are working.

8.5 THE TRANSMITTING MAGNETIC COMPASS.

It was in consideration of the failure of a power supply to a ship’s gyro compass that lead
to the development of a transmitting compass. This compass type uses a system of
electrodes under the bowl connected to a source of alternating voltage. This allows the
north-south axis of the compass to be detected and transmitted to various repeaters as
required.

Compass repeaters are fitted with a lining-up mechanism and variable lighting
arrangements.

Although very reliable and with output always available the inherent disadvantage is that
the navigator is relied on to correctly adjust the compass output for the error on each
particular heading, as per the normal magnetic compass..

45
Ships with the transmitting system fitted to their magnetic compass usually have a
change-over switch fitted at the auto-pilot controls to allow input from this compass or
the master gyro.

8.6 THE FLUXGATE COMPASS.

A fluxgate compass detects the earth’s magnetic field but it measures it electronically
rather than merely providing a pointer in the direction of lines of force.

Originally developed for aircraft during World War 2 the fluxgate compass depends on
electrical power. It uses a magnetometer, a doughnut-shaped metal core wrapped with
copper wire turns, to convert the earth’s magnetism into electricity.

Magnetometers are suspended in a non-conductive fluid which provides a frictionless

medium as well as a damping effect. The compass is housed in a protective casing to
minimise the effects of other disturbing influences. The magnetometer orients itself to
the earth’s magnetic field and creates a measurable current that provides a digital
readout.

The compass has two sensors to determine the magnetic heading by comparing the
direction of the magnetic meridian to that which is at right angles to it. These sensors
pick up the strongest value of the earth’s total force and its weakest value at right angles
to it.

The compass can be calibrated, to compensate for any deviation, with the use of
microprocessors. Local variation can be set with manual controls.

The main advantages of this type of compass are:

 the electronic output can be digitised, transmitted easily, displayed remotely, and
interfaced with autopilots and radar;
 the compass itself can be remotely situated away from disturbing magnetic
influences
 these compasses are compact, light and relatively inexpensive.

Disadvantages with the fluxgate compass are:

 its dependence on a stable electricity supply to operate;
 overall stability may not be as good as a standard magnetic compass because
roll and heel-induced errors are difficult to compensate for; and
 these compasses are also unstable at high latitudes.

46
8.7 ASSOCIATED EQUIPMENT.

8.7.1 Azimuth Mirror.

The Azimuth Mirror, or Azimuth Circle as it is sometimes called, fits on the brass ring at
the top of the compass bowl of a compass repeater. It is designed to allow the navigator
to take accurate compass bearings of either terrestrial or celestial objects.

The instrument is made of anodised aluminium or brass and supports a reflecting prism.
Tinted shades allow observation of the sun and two shadow pins assist with transit
bearings. An arrow indicates the position of the prism for bearings: up for celestial
bearings and down for terrestrial.

For bearings to be taken accurately the axis of the prism must remain horizontal. The
prism is held in its frame by two small screws which can be adjusted if the prism goes
out of alignment.

To check alignment the navigator can take two bearings of the same object, one with the
arrow in the up position and one with the arrow pointing down. The results of both
bearings should be the same.

8.7.2 Pelorus.

This device is a hand held compass repeater usually used on yachts. Its purpose is to
take bearings of objects obscured from view at the compass or repeater positions.

8.8 RECORD KEEPING AND OPERATIONS

8.8.1 Record keeping

All ships are required to maintain an up-to-date record of magnetic compass deviations.
The Compass Observation Book must also contain the dates of adjustment of each
magnetic compass installed on the ship.

Watchkeepers are required to check the compass error after each major alteration of
course, and at least once per watch. The compass error must be recorded in the deck
logbook and the Compass Observation Book.

8.8.2 Operational checks.

The performance of all magnetic compasses, including spares, should be checked as

follows:
Freedom of movement of the gimbals.

47
Card floating freely and level; and rotating without any friction.
Liquid in the bowl free of bubbles and clear.
Compass card clear and sharp (able to be read) with no distortion or discoloration.
Optical system (if any) correctly adjusted and clean.
Azimuth reading devices and means of illumination in working order.
No liquid leaks around seals or filler plugs.
The compass error must be checked once per watch and recorded.
The deviation found must be checked against the deviation card for the magnetic
compass. (NB. Compass Error = Variation plus deviation). The deviation card should be
from the latest compass adjustment.

8.8.3 Responsibilities

All ships of 150 GT and over, and all passenger ships are required to carry a spare
magnetic compass (or equivalent). The Owner and the Master are responsible for
ensuring that compasses on their ships are maintained in good working order.

8.8.4 Compass adjustment

Each magnetic compass must be properly adjusted and its table of residual deviations
must be available at all times. A magnetic compass should be adjusted when:
- it is first installed; or
- it becomes unreliable; or
- structural repairs to the ship could affect its permanent and induced magnetism;
or
- electrical equipment is added near the compass position; or
- the compass has not been adjusted for more than two years and there is no
record of deviations; or
- the compass has excessive deviations; or
- it has physical defects.
The performance of the magnetic compass must be checked, particularly after carrying
cargoes with magnetic properties; after using electro-magnetic devices to lift cargo; after
a collision with severe contact; after the ship was struck by lightning; or, when the ship
has been in a long layup.

Ship’s staff must be aware that using portable electronic devices or electrical equipment
in close proximity to the compass can affect its performance.

A spare compass bowl, if carried, must be carefully stowed away from any disturbing
influences.

8.8.5 Emergency steering

48
SOLAS Regulation 19 requires a telephone or other means to communicate heading
information from the navigation bridge to the emergency steering position aft.

All ships over 500GT must be equipped with a visual reading of the ship’s heading (a
repeater compass) at the emergency steering position.

9. SHIP MAGNETISM

49
9.1 INTRODUCTION.

A large number of metals can be magnetised but none can match iron in this regard, but
not every type of iron has the same magnetic properties.

For example:
a) Iron alloyed with a small amount of silicon can be quite strongly magnetised by
induction, although it loses nearly all its magnetism soon after the inducing force
is removed.
b) Steel (an alloy of iron and carbon, nickel, manganese, chromium and tungsten) is
difficult to magnetise but when the inducing force is removed much of the
magnetism will remain and it does not reduce appreciably for a long time.

The iron and silicon alloy is regarded as SOFT IRON and the steel with mostly tungsten
is regarded as HARD IRON.

Soft iron is relatively easy to magnetise and quickly loses its magnetism. Hard iron is
relatively difficult to magnetise but retains its magnetism for a long time. The
intermediate iron of the ship, consisting of those elements that cannot be classified as
either hard or soft iron, tends to retain sub-permanent magnetism. This will be discussed
in more detail later.

To take these definitions a step further we can say that soft iron can be magnetised
when under the influence of a magnetic field and then only in the direction of the field. As
soon as the inducing magnetic field stops the soft iron loses its magnetism. The
magnetism of the soft iron is temporary or transient and is termed “induced
magnetism”.

Not all soft iron is induced to the same degree, and the iron that receives more induced
magnetism from the same inducing field is said to have greater permeability. The soft
iron in a ship which tends to retain more magnetism than surrounding iron is said to have
greater retentivity.

The hard iron, once it is magnetised, remains permanently magnetised with the
characteristics of the field that caused it to be magnetised. The magnetism of hard iron is
referred to as “permanent magnetism”.

A ship’s structure consists mainly of mild steel which, in magnetic terms, may be
considered to have hard iron and soft iron components. During the building of a ship the
structure is subjected to heat and hammering while lying in the earth’s magnetic field.
The strength and nature of this magnetism will depend on the direction in which the ship
was lying at the time and on the magnetic latitude.

50
Some of the magnetism acquired during this time will remain virtually constant
throughout the life of the ship. In effect the ship’s hard iron has been turned into one
large complex permanent magnet. This is regarded as the ship’s permanent
magnetism, and its polarity is not affected by alterations of course or geographic
position.

The soft iron of the ship’s structure will exhibit magnetic properties according to the
magnitude and direction of the earth’s field at any given time. This induced magnetism
will alter whenever the ship alters course or geographic position.

Magnetic hysterisis is the term given to the lag in movement of the poles induced in
soft iron when the iron is moved relative to the inducing field. On a ship every piece of
steel has some quality of hard iron and some soft iron, and therefore will be affected by
magnetic hysterisis.

9.2 PERMANENT MAGNETISM.

A ship’s permanent magnetism may be divided into three components:

 Fore and aft: Force P. Named + if attraction is towards the bow and – if attraction
is towards the stern.
 Athwartships: Force Q. Named + if attraction is towards starboard and – if
attraction is towards the port side.
 Vertical: Force R. Named + if attraction is downwards towards the keel and – if
attraction is towards the upper part of the vessel.

For example, a ship built in the southern hemisphere on a Northerly heading and the
compass position is amidships: will have a red pole formed in the fore part of the ship
and a blue pole formed in the after part. The magnetic axis will therefore run fore-and-
aft through the ship.

To simplify calculations and corrections the magnetic forces affecting the compass on
board are resolved into three components at the compass position.

9.2.1 Force P

This is the fore and aft component. In our example this force has a red pole forward, on
the centreline, and a blue pole aft. This force will cause no deviation on N or S headings,
although the directive force will be influenced by the location of blue or red poles, and
maximum deviation will occur on E and W headings.

51
In our example the force will be named - P because the attraction of the red end of the
compass needle is towards the stern and directive force will be increased on a southerly
heading.

Correction of this force will be achieved by inserting fore-and-aft permanent magnets in

the binnacle to set up a force exactly equal and opposite to that caused by the force.

9.2.2 Force Q

This is the horizontal athwartships component of the ship’s permanent magnetism.

If we use an example of a ship built while lying East-West with the bow facing East, this
force will have the blue pole to starboard and the red pole to port.

Force Q gives rise to maximum deviation on N or S headings, and no deviation on E or

W headings, although the directive force will be affected. The attraction of the red end of
the compass needle is to starboard in our example therefore the force is named + Q.

Correction is achieved by placing permanent magnets athwartships in the binnacle to set

up an equal and opposite effect.

9.2.3 Force R

This the vertical component of the ship’s permanent magnetism.

In an example where a ship is built while lying East West in the Southern Hemisphere
the force is + R because the force at the compass position is directed downwards
towards the blue pole in the keel area.

When the ship is upright Force R has no effect on deviation, but when heeled Force R
will have an athwartships component similar to Q. When the ship is trimmed Force R will
have a fore-and-aft horizontal component similar to Force P, but this is usually
negligible. Force R is the main component of heeling error.

9.2.4 Effect of Change in Hf on Deviations Caused by Permanent Magnetism.

If a ship proceeds from one position to another the value of Hf changes. Therefore, we
can deduce the following:

New deviation = Old Hf

Old deviation New Hf

This equation is true because permanent magnetism is constant and will continue having
the same effect on the compass at different locations.

52
9.3 INDUCED MAGNETISM.

The effects of magnetic fields due to induction in the soft iron components of the ship are
not as easily resolved as those due to hard iron. For the effects to be examined in detail
it will be necessary to represent the induced magnetic effects as nine rods in different
positions about the compass. (see diagram on following page).

These rods are made up of both symmetrical and non-symmetrical effects, but because
the structure of a ship is usually symmetrical about the compass position the non-
symmetrical effects can be ignored. The symmetrical affects can be resolved into vertical
and horizontal effects.

9.3.1 Vertical soft iron

This is induced by the vertical component of the earth’s field Z. The vertical soft iron
component can be considered as an induced pole at the level of the compass.

The resultant field will have a blue pole uppermost when the ship is in the northern
hemisphere and a red pole uppermost in the southern hemisphere. The compass
position is usually forward of this induced pole in the ship’s funnel and deviation will be
caused.

To counter the effect of the induced vertical soft iron a Flinder’s Bar (made of soft iron) is
placed on the forward side of the binnacle so that it will be induced with a pole at the
level of the compass. This will have an equal and opposite effect to the induced soft iron
of the ship’s funnel.

9.3.2 Horizontal soft iron

This is induced by the horizontal component of the earth’s field Hf. The effect of
horizontal soft iron will have both an athwartships and a fore-and-aft component.

The resultant effect on a conventional ship will be that of a soft iron rod passing
athwartships through the compass. The poles of this soft iron will be much closer and
have a greater effect than any fore-and-aft component, so the latter can be ignored.

The deviation caused will be quadrantal because it will be maximum on NE, SE, SW and
NW.

Correction is achieved by placing soft iron spheres on either side of the compass in an
athwartships line. Poles that will be equal to those in the soft iron of the ship will be
induced in the spheres.

53
9.4 A CONVENTIONAL SHIP

When a conventional ship is considered it is the symmetrical rods only that need to be
taken into account for soft iron.

The symmetrical rods are: -a, -c, -e, +g and +k only when heeled.

The hard iron effects will be +P or –P, +Q or –Q, and +R or –R only when heeled.

54
Therefore, only five induced forces and three permanent forces need to be
considered, and of these eight there will be three that occur only when the vessel is
heeled. The forces which affect a conventional ship will be: P, Q, aH, cZ and eH. When
heeled the forces of R, gH and kZ will also occur.

Corrections:
 Force P is compensated for by using fore-and-aft permanent magnets;
 Force Q is compensated for by using athwartships permanent magnets;
 aH and eH are compensated for by the soft iron spheres; and
 cZ is compensated for by the Flinder’s Bar.

The forces which arise when the vessel is heeled are compensated for by vertical
permanent magnets placed symmetrically in the Heeling Error Bucket in the binnacle.

All of these corrector magnets interact to a certain extent and in many cases produce
effects additional to those required. For this reason there is a strict order for placing the
correctors. We shall deal with this in the section: CORRECTING THE MAGNETIC
COMPASS.

55
10. THE COEFFICIENTS.

In order to understand the correct method for correcting a compass we need to

understand the effects of the various disturbing forces on a magnetic compass.

10.1 COEFFICIENT A.

This consists of those elements (b and d rods) which give rise to a deviation which is
constant in value and sign for all directions of the ship’s head.

It may be caused by a combination of fore-and-aft soft iron (d rods) to one side of the
compass with one induced pole abeam of it, and athwartships soft iron (b rods) either
forward or abaft the compass with one induced pole in the fore and aft line. Any
horizontal soft iron which is unsymmetrical about the compass position will have
components which give rise to Coefficient A.

Coefficient A is constant on all headings and is not amenable to correction. However, it

may be avoided by siting the compass on the ship’s centre line so that horizontal soft
iron will be symmetrically disposed on either side.

If Coefficient A is present it can easily be allowed for because it does not vary with
change of course or change of latitude. On most ships the value of Coefficient A is
negligible, mainly because the compass is correctly situated on the ship’s fore-and-aft
centre line.

Apparent Coefficient A can also be present and the following may be some of the
causes:
 compass lubber line being out of true with the ship’s fore-and-aft line;
 wrong variation used for computing;
 wrong hour angles used for computing; and
 errors introduced by distortion of the azimuth mirror.

10.2 COEFFICIENT B.

This consists of those elements which give rise to a deviation varying as the sine of a
vessel’s compass course.

This may be caused by fore-and-aft hard iron (Permanent B) or by vertical soft iron
(Induced B) in the fore-and-aft plane with an induced pole at the level of the compass.
The usual distribution on a ship means that both of these components will be present.
We shall deal with each component in turn.

56
10.2.1 Coefficient Permanent B.

The permanent magnetism in the hard iron of a ship will generally have a component in
the fore-and-aft line. This will create a constant attraction of the North or red end of the
compass needle towards either the bow or the stern. For example, a permanent blue
pole forward will cause a constant attraction towards the bow.

A blue pole forward would cause Easterly deviation on Easterly courses and Westerly
deviation on Westerly courses, and Coefficient B is therefore named positive. On North
or South headings there is no deviation, but on Northerly courses the directive force is
increased while on Southerly courses the directive force is decreased.

The curve of deviations plotted against compass courses is a sine curve. Maximum
deviation due to Coefficient Permanent B occurs when the vessel is heading East or
West. The value of this maximum deviation is considered to be the value of Coefficient
Permanent B.

The deviation on any other heading may be calculated by multiplying this value by the
sine of the compass course.

10.2.2 Effect of Latitude.

The parallelogram of forces which arise when a ship is on an Easterly heading differs in
different latitudes where the value of the earth’s horizontal field H is much less at higher
latitudes. However, the disturbing force caused by Permanent B is the same, and this
means that the resulting deviation will be greater.

If the ship proceeds to a lower latitude the value of H increases and deviation then
decreases.

10.2.3 Correction of Coefficient Permanent B.

Permanent magnets are placed in the fore-and-aft in racks in the binnacle, to counter the
fore-and-aft components of the ship’s permanent magnetic field. If the red end of the
compass needle is attracted towards the bow Coefficient Permanent B is named
positive. To correct Permanent +B the corrector magnets should be inserted with red
ends forward. If permanent B was negative the corrector magnets would be inserted with
red ends aft.

10.2.4 Coefficient Induced B.

This is due to induction in the soft iron so that an effective pole is level with the compass
and in the fore-and-aft line through the compass position. The vertical soft iron is

57
generally evenly distributed but the siting of the compass on the monkey island forward
of the funnel means that a large portion of vertical soft iron lies aft of the compass.

In the Northern hemisphere a ship will have a blue pole induced in the upper part of the
vertical soft iron.

The deviation varies as the sine of the compass course, the same as for Permanent B,
and deviation will vary inversely as H. The magnetism induced in the vertical soft iron will
also depend on the value of the earth’s vertical field Z. If the value of Z increases the
strength of the magnetism induced in the vertical soft iron also increases. Provided small
angles are involved the deviation due to Induced B varies directly as Z.

In the Southern hemisphere the vertical component of the earth’s magnetic field Z is
directed upwards and is named negative. In the Northern hemisphere it is directed
downwards and is termed positive. On similar courses in the two hemispheres the
deviation caused by Induced B will therefore be different in name.

10.2.5 Correction of Coefficient Induced B.

This is achieved by securing a vertical bar of soft iron, the Flinder’s Bar, to the binnacle
in the vertical fore-and-aft plane through the compass position. This will have a pole
induced at the top of the bar which is level with the compass, to produce a horizontal
magnetic field at the compass position.

The soft iron bar is produced in different lengths and the compass adjuster will use the
appropriate length for his calculations. He may have to use wooden spacer pieces in the
bottom of the brass tube to bring the top of the Flinder’s Bar level with the compass.

10.2.6 Total Coefficient B.

This is a combination of Permanent and Induced B. Their combined effect is to cause

zero deviation on North and South headings and maximum deviation on East and West.
On other headings the deviation caused varies as the sine of the compass course.

Coefficient B is named positive when Easterly deviation is caused on Easterly courses,

and Westerly on Westerly courses. Coefficient B is named negative when Easterly
deviation is caused on Westerly courses and Westerly deviation is caused on Easterly
courses.

Permanent B and Induced B vary according to different rules, therefore Total B can be
split into the component parts mathematically by observing its value in two places of
different magnetic latitude.

10.3 COEFFICIENT C.

58
This Coefficient consists of those elements that give rise to a deviation varying as the
cosine of the vessel’s compass course. This may be caused by hard iron in the
horizontal athwart-ships plane near the compass position, or by soft iron with an induced
pole level with the compass in the athwartships plane.

10.3 1 Coefficient Permanent C.

The permanent magnetism in the hard iron of the ship will generally have a component
at right angles to the keel. This means that the red end of the compass needle is
attracted to either port or starboard.

Deviation is zero when heading East or West, and maximum when heading North or
South. The value of the maximum deviation is considered to be the value of Coefficient
Permanent C. The deviation on any other heading may be calculated by multiplying this
value by the cosine of the compass course.

10.3.2 Effect of Latitude.

At high latitudes a constant disturbing force will cause deviation to increase because H is
reduced. When the ship proceeds to a lower latitude H will increase and, with the same
disturbing force, deviation will decrease. The deviation due to Permanent C is said to
vary inversely as H.

10.3.3 Correction of Coefficient Permanent C.

This is achieved by placing permanent magnets athwartships in the binnacle to

counteract the athwartships component of the ship’s permanent magnetism.

10.3.4 Coefficient Induced C.

This is due to induction in the vertical soft iron so that an effective pole is level with the
compass card in an athwartships vertical plane through the compass position. On a
normal ship the compass is usually situated on the centreline and vertical soft iron will be
disposed equally to port and starboard, and Coefficient Induced C will be nil.

If a compass is not carefully sited or is offset from the centreline then Coefficient Induced
C may be present.

For example, a red pole induced in a ship’s vertical soft iron when the compass is offset
to port, on a ship in the Southern hemisphere, would cause zero deviation on Easterly
and Westerly courses and maximum deviation on Northerly or Southerly courses.

59
The deviation varies as the cosine of the compass course and the corresponding
deviation curve is a cosine curve similar to that due to athwartships hard iron with a
permanent red pole to starboard.

10.3.5 Effect of Latitude.

In addition, the induction in the vertical soft iron depends on the strength of the vertical
component Z of the earth’s field. The value of Z is zero on the equator and increases to
a maximum at the poles. As Z increases so the deviation due to Induced C will increase,
and deviation will vary directly as Z.

On the magnetic equator the value of Z is zero and there will be no induction in the
vertical soft iron. Therefore, there will be no deviation due to Induced C.

In the Southern hemisphere a red pole will be induced in the top of the vertical soft iron,
and in the Northern hemisphere a blue pole will be induced in the top of the vertical soft
iron. It follows that the deviation in each hemisphere will be different in name when the
ship is on similar compass courses.

10.3.6 Correction of Coefficient Induced C.

This may be achieved by securing a vertical soft iron rod (Flinder’s Bar) to the binnacle
so that it lies in the athwartships vertical plane through the compass card.

If the compass is offset to port of the centreline, as in the above example, the Flinder’s
Bar should be attached to the port side of the binnacle.

If a compass is well positioned the Flinder’s Bar is used to correct only Coefficient
Induced B. If both coefficients are present it would be convenient to slew a single
Flinder’s Bar away from the fore-and-aft line to correct both Induced B and Induced C.

10.3.7 Total Coefficient C.

This is a combination of permanent and induced components and their combined effect
is to cause zero deviation on Easterly and Westerly compass courses and maximum on
Northerly and Southerly courses.

When Easterly deviation is caused on a Northerly heading (by having a red pole to port
of the compass) Coefficient C is named positive. When Westerly deviation is caused on
a Northerly heading Coefficient C is named negative.

As Permanent C and Induced C vary according to different rules Total Coefficient C may
be split into its component parts mathematically provided that its value is observed at
two places of different magnetic latitude.

60
10.4 COEFFICIENT D.

This consists of those elements that give rise to a deviation which varies as the sine of
twice the compass course. It is due to an arrangement of horizontal soft iron that has
fore-and-aft and athwartships components symmetrically disposed about the compass
position.

These components may be continuous through the compass position or divided on

either side, but on a normal ship the components are continuous. The athwartships
component is much more effective because its poles are nearer the compass.

10.4.1 Deviation caused by Coefficient D.

Zero deviation is caused on N, S, E and W and maximum deviation is caused on NE,

SE, SW and NW by compass. The directive force is decreased on all headings except
due North and due South.

Similar deviations would be caused by fore-and-aft divided soft iron but the directive
force would be increased.

Deviation due to Coefficient D changes its name every 90 degrees and it is therefore
called quadrantal. The maximum deviation caused is considered the value of Coefficient
D. The value of the deviation on a compass course of θ is calculated by the equation:
Deviation = Coeff D x Sin 2θ

Coefficient D is named positive when Easterly deviation is caused on courses in the NE

and SW quadrants. It is named negative when Westerly deviation is caused on courses
in the NE and SW quadrants.

The deviation due to Coefficient D is independent of latitude, ie it is the same in both

hemispheres and all latitudes.

10.4.2 Correction of Coefficient D.

This is achieved by fitting soft iron spheres to brackets to port and starboard of the
binnacle so that their centres are in the same horizontal plane as the compass needle.
The soft iron spheres will be induced with the horizontal component of the earth’s field to
create an equal and opposite effect to the ship’s Coefficient D.

In a normal ship with Coefficient +D due to continuous athwartships soft iron the spheres
are set abeam on both sides of the binnacle. In this position they have the effect of
athwartships soft iron divided on each side of the binnacle, and the effect of fore-and-aft
soft iron continuous through the compass position.

61
When the spheres are in place athwartships they cause an increase in the mean
directive force on all headings. When the ship is heading N or S the effect of the spheres
on the compass is the same as short magnets side on. When the ship is heading E or W
the effect of the spheres on the compass is the same as short magnets end on.

The effect of the increase of directive force on E and W is approximately twice the effect
of the increase in directive force on N and S.

When Coefficient +D is properly corrected the effect of the spheres is to reduce the
effect of athwartships continuous soft iron, and to augment the effect of fore-and-aft
continuous soft iron until these two effects are equal. This should result in zero deviation
due to Coefficient D on any heading.

The correction of Coefficient –D is achieved by placing the spheres in the fore-and-aft

line but it is very unusual to have a ship with Coefficient –D.

10.5 COEFFICIENT E.

This consists of those elements that cause a deviation that varies as the cosine of twice
the compass course. Horizontal soft iron, which lies across the ship in a line from 4
points on the bow to 4 points on the opposite quarter, gives rise to Coefficient E.

The soft iron may be continuous or divided about the compass position. In a normal ship,
with a carefully sited compass on the centreline, there is no unbalanced diagonal soft
iron component and consequently no Coefficient E. However, if the compass is offset
from the centreline Coefficient E is likely to be present.

10.5.1 Deviation caused by Coefficient E.

Deviation is zero on NE, SE, SW and NW compass headings and maximum on N, S, E

and W by compass. As deviation changes every 90 degrees it is called quadrantal.

Coefficient E is named positive when Easterly deviation is caused in the Northerly (315
to 045 degrees) and Southerly (135 to 225 degrees) quadrants. This effect may be
caused by horizontal soft iron divided about the compass position and lying in a diagonal
line from the starboard bow to the port quarter.

Coefficient E is named negative when Westerly deviation is caused in the Northerly and
Southerly quadrants. This effect may be caused by continuous horizontal soft iron
through the compass position and lying in a diagonal line from the port bow to the
starboard quarter.

10.5.2 Correction of Coefficient E.

62
This is achieved in a similar way to that for Coefficient D. A pair of soft iron spheres are
attached to brackets to port and starboard of the binnacle so that the centres of the
spheres lie in the horizontal plane through the compass position.

To correct Coefficient +E the spheres should be in the line from 4 points on the port bow
to 4 points on the starboard quarter. To correct Coefficient –E the spheres should be in
the line from 4 points on the starboard bow to 4 points on the port quarter.

In practice Coefficient E is likely to be negligible but if it is present a single pair of

spheres can be used to correct both Coefficient D and Coefficient E. This is achieved by
slewing the spheres from the athwartships line. Maximum deviation will occur when the
ship is on a heading to make the spheres, in their slewed position, lie in the NE – SW
line or the NW – SE line.

As per Coefficient D the effect of Coefficient E is independent of magnetic latitude and is

the same in both hemispheres.

10.6 HEELING ERROR.

This may be divided into permanent and induced components.

10.6.1 Permanent Heeling Error

This is due to the vertical component of a ship’s permanent magnetic field. This will have
no effect when the ship is upright but when the ship is heeled the magnetic field is
carried out of the vertical and deviation will be caused.

Deviation due to Permanent Heeling Error will be zero on E and W and maximum on N
or S by compass. The resulting deviation curve will be a cosine curve and deviation is
said to vary as the cosine of the compass course. Heeling Error is therefore similar to
Coefficient C which also has an athwartships effect.

As with deviation due to other effects of hard iron the effects of Permanent Heeling Error
will vary inversely as H.

10.6.2 Induced Heeling Error

In a well-placed compass Induced Heeling Error is due to three causes.

1. Induction in vertical soft iron gives rise to a similar effect to that of Permanent
Heeling Error but, because the magnetism is from the vertical component Z of
the earth’s field, the deviation caused varies directly as Z and inversely as H.

63
 2. Induction by H in athwartships horizontal soft iron gives rise to Coefficient D
when a ship is upright. When the ship is heeled this iron becomes inclined to the
horizontal and acquires a vertical component which is magnetised by Z. The
greater the angle of heel the greater the induction, and the highest value of
deviation will occur when the ship is heeled at 45 degrees. For small angles
deviation varies directly as the angle of heel.

3. A third type of Induced Heeling Error is caused by horizontal fore-and –aft soft
iron with an effective pole directly below the compass position. However, the
effect is usually small and not taken into account when the compass is corrected.

Similar to Permanent Heeling Error, deviation due to Induced Heeling Error is zero on E
and W and maximum on N and S by compass, and the deviation varies as the cosine of
the compass course.

The effect of Heeling Error is to cause a steady deviation when a ship has a constant
angle of heel and is on a particular course. It also has the effect of causing an unsteady
compass when a ship is rolling in a seaway. This is because the deviation changes its
name as the vessel rolls from port to starboard.

10.6.3 Correction of Heeling error.

A ship is not normally heeled and a cargo shift may have caused this condition. Any
correction will be temporary until the ship returns to the normal upright position.

10.7 LAMBDA.

The direction in which a compass needle lies at the compass position depends partly on
the earth’s directive force exerted on the needle towards magnetic North and partly on
the disturbing forces present on the ship.

The ratio, of the mean directive force towards magnetic North at the compass position,
to the directive force on a nearby shore is called Lambda and given the symbol λ.
Lambda should be large enough to keep deviations to a reasonable amount.

The effect of permanent magnetism and vertical soft iron will have an effect on the
directive force on any particular heading. On opposite courses the effect will always be
equal and opposite.

When the mean of the directive forces on all headings is taken into account the effect of
permanent magnetism and vertical soft iron will cancel out. Lambda is therefore
independent of these components.

64
Horizontal soft iron which is continuous through the compass position causes a mean
loss of directive force, and horizontal soft iron which is divided about the compass
position causes an increase. Aboard nearly all ships the soft iron is continuous and
therefore the mean directive force towards magnetic North aboard a ship is less than
that ashore.

If we name the directive force ashore as H and the directive force aboard as H1 we will
arrive at the equation: λ = H1 and therefore Lambda will always be less than one
(unity). H

10.8 LAMBDA 2.

When the soft iron spheres are placed to compensate for Coefficient D they modify the
effect of the ship’s horizontal soft iron. When the spheres are in the North-South line,
while the ship is heading East or West, they have the effect of divided soft iron and
increase the directive force. When the ship is heading North or South the spheres are in
the East-West line and they have the same effect as continuous soft iron.

In the North-South line the effect is approximately twice that of the effect in the East-
West line. The resultant effect of the spheres is to cause a desirable increase in mean
directive force.

When the spheres are in position the ratio of the mean directive force towards magnetic
North aboard to the directive force ashore is given the symbol λ 2 (Lambda 2).

10.9 COMBINATION OF COEFFICIENTS.

The deviation on any particular compass heading of a ship is due to a combination of the
effects from all the coefficients. To recall earlier notes:

 Coefficient A gives rise to a constant deviation on all headings.

 Coefficient B has an effect that varies as the sine of the compass course.
 Coefficient C has an effect that varies as the cosine of the compass course.
 The effect of Coefficient D varies as sine of twice the compass course.
 The effect of Coefficient E varies as cosine of twice the compass course.

Therefore on a heading of θ by compass:

d = A + B Sin θ + C Cos θ + D Sin 2θ + E Cos 2 θ

In addition, if the vessel is heeled and heeling error is present, this will vary as the
cosine of the compass course in a similar way to Coefficient C.

65
10.10 THE ANALYSIS METHOD OF FINDING THE VALUE OF COEFFICIENTS.

To calculate the value of individual coefficients the deviation should be observed when
the ship’s head is on cardinal and intercardinal points of the compass.

10.10.1 Coefficient A.

All the coefficients except A give rise to deviations which can be grouped in pairs. These
pairs are for opposite headings, and for each pair of headings the deviations are equal in
value but opposite in name. Coefficient A is found by adding all deviations and then
dividing by 8 to eliminate all other coefficients.

10.10.2 Coefficient B.

This coefficient has maximum deviation on East and West by compass but the deviation
on East is opposite in name to that on West. Coefficients A and E also cause deviation
on East and West by compass, but these are of the same name on each course.

The value of Coefficient B may be found by reversing the name of the deviation on West,
adding this value to the deviation on East, then dividing by 2. This process eliminates A
and E but leaves a value for B.

10.10.3 Coefficient C.

In the same process as for B the name of the deviation on South is reversed and added
to the value for North. The sum is divided by 2 and this again eliminates A and E to
leave a value for C.

It should be noted that an angle of heel would result in a value that would include C and
Heeling Error.

10.10.4 Coefficient D.

Coefficients A, B, C and D all contribute to deviation on intercardinal points. If the value

of deviations on NE, SE, SW and NW are observed Coefficient D can be found by
reversing the name of deviations on SE and NW, adding these figures to deviations on
NE and SW, then dividing the total by 4.

This process eliminates Coefficients A, B and C to leave a value for Coefficient D.

66
10.10.5 Coefficient E.

In a similar process to that above the name of deviations on E and W are reversed and
added to deviations on N and S. The total is divided by 4 to eliminate Coefficients A, B
and C to leave a value for Coefficient E.

NB. Refer to the Powerpoint presentation on Coefficient Analysis.

67
11. CORRECTING THE MAGNETIC COMPASS

11.1 INTRODUCTION.

There are various reasons for adjusting the correctors of a magnetic compass. The
vessel may have carried steel cargoes, which usually leave a temporary effect on the
ship’s magnetism, or sections of the hull may have been replaced, causing permanent
changes to the magnetism. The vessel owners may change its operating area and the
vessel will be subject to the earth’s magnetism in the new location.

The results of correcting may be summarised as follows:

 The effect of an incorrect deviation, or no application of deviation, can be
minimised.
 Any movement of the ship’s head to a new course can be accurately reflected.
 Any loss of directive force will be minimised.
 Uncorrected deviations will be seen to vary with the position of the ship.
 The compass will be steadier after adjustment when heeling error will be
compensated for.

11.2 PREPARING FOR A COMPASS SWING.

At intervals during a ship’s operations and particularly when the ship is in a new
operating area a compass swing should be undertaken. The swing may be undertaken
by the crew to check deviations on the ship’s deviation card, or with a certificated
compass adjuster aboard to correct the compass.

The following precautions need to be taken prior to a swing:

 The vessel should be upright and battened down for sea, including lowering all
derricks and crane jibs.
 All steel tools or objects must be removed from the vicinity of the compass, and
any electrical cables or machinery should not be allowed to affect the compass.
 The azimuth mirror, for taking the bearings on various headings, must be cleaned
and checked for precision.
 The lubber line should be in the vessel’s fore-and-aft line.
 The period of the compass card is checked by deflecting it a few degrees with a
magnet. If the pivot is in good condition the card should return to, and settle in, its
original position with no jerkiness or sticking.

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The compass adjuster will perform the following additional preparations:
 The soft iron correctors in the form of spheres should be in a middle adjustment
position on the brackets to port and starboard of the binnacle.
 The Flinder’s Bar brass holder should be attached forward of the compass with
the top of the bar level with the compass card. The soft iron correctors must be
checked for any damage.

Prior to the actual swing it should be established that no other ships are within at least a
mile, to allow the ship to manoeuvre safely.

11.3 CORRECTING FOR Z.

The compass adjuster will normally perform the following alongside, before the ship
leaves port for adjustments offshore.

The adjuster will check his Vertical Force Instrument (VFI), which allows errors to be
detected without heeling the ship. This instrument consists of a magnetised needle
pivoted horizontally through its centre of gravity so that, when the needle is set in the
plane of the magnetic meridian, it will align itself with the direction of the earth’s
magnetic field.

In the Northern hemisphere the North end of the needle will tilt downwards, and in the
Southern hemisphere the South end will tilt downwards. The force causing the needle to
tilt is the vertical component Z of the earth’s field.

The effect of Z may be counteracted by sliding a weight along the needle until it remains
balanced in a horizontal position. The distance of the weight from the pivot is
proportional to Z and may be measured by reading off a graduated scale on the needle.

The VFI is first levelled ashore where it is free of any disturbing fields and the reading on
the scale is noted. The compass is taken out of the binnacle and set aside. The VFI is
then placed in the binnacle with the ship heading East or West.

If the weight is left in the same position on the instrument as was noted ashore, the
needle will generally be found to be inclined at an angle to the horizontal. This is
because the effect of Z will be either increased or decreased by the vertical permanent
and induced magnetism of the ship’s structure.

To eliminate these affects permanent magnets are placed vertically in the bucket below
the compass position. The strength of these heeling error magnets should produce a
vertical field equal and opposite to that of the ship. The needle of the VFI would then lie

69
horizontal to indicate that the vertical field at the compass position is made equal to the
earth’s vertical field only.

In practice this adjustment is incomplete because it is also necessary to make allowance

for the effect of athwartships soft iron, which causes deviation when the ship is heeled
but has no effect when the ship is upright.

11.4 OBTAINING DEVIATIONS.

Deviations are obtained by steadying the ship on course intervals of 15 degrees. A

compass swing through 360 degrees should always be done slowly to allow for Gaussin
error. (This is explained in clause 11.8)

A conspicuous landmark with a charted position or a transit bearing of two conspicuous

objects should be chosen. If the objects are sufficiently distant and the vessel is swung
in a relatively small diameter circle the magnetic bearing should not change appreciably
during the operation.

For example, if a ship swings in a circle of a quarter mile radius the bearing of a mark 15
miles away should not vary more than 1 degree from the mean bearing.

During the swing one person will be taking magnetic compass bearings of the chosen
mark while another person will be taking gyro bearings of the mark at the same time.
The two bearings are compared to provide the compass error. This error consists of both
deviation and variation. The variation for the ship’s location can be found on the chart.

The method for finding the deviation is: True bearing +/– Variation +/– Magnetic bearing
+/– Deviation +/– Compass bearing.

During the swing the compass adjuster will be placing the various correctors based on
the results of the above equation.

11.5 THE ORDER FOR PLACING CORRECTORS.

During the adjustment it is important to remember the specific order for placing
correctors because they do interact, and in some cases produce effects in addition to
those they are designed to counteract.

The following is the correct order:

 Soft iron correctors: a) Flinders Bar, and b) Spheres
 Heeling error (vertical) magnets
 Horizontal magnets. (Fore-and-aft and athwartships)

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11.6 FULL CORRECTION METHOD (ANALYSIS METHOD).

The values of the five coefficients may be calculated if deviation is observed with the
ship’s head on eight equidistant points of the compass. The Full Correction Method is
achieved by the following sequence:

 Induced B. Head East (or West) and insert a sufficient length of Flinders Bar to
correct an estimated amount of Induced B.
 Coefficient D. Head NE, SE, SW and NW to calculate Coefficient D. Apply the
soft iron spheres on either side of the compass position on the last heading.
 Lambda. Head North, East, South and West to calculate Lambda 2 and correct
on the last heading by using the soft iron spheres.
 Heeling Error. Head East (or West) while the compass has been replaced with a
VFI. Corrections are made by inserting vertical magnets in the bucket beneath
the compass position.
 Permanent B. Head East and then West to calculate Permanent B. Correct on
the last heading by placing permanent fore and aft magnets in the racks within
the binnacle.
 Permanent C. Head North and South to calculate Permanent C. Correct on the
last heading by placing permanent magnets athwartships in the racks within the
binnacle.
 Steps 5 and 6 above are interchangeable because the larger of Permanent B or
C should be corrected first.
 A final swing is made to list the deviations on all cardinal and intercardinal
headings and adjustments are made to the correctors if necessary.

Note that the Full Correction Method is time-consuming and is therefore seldom used,
except for new ships before entering service.

Other conditions requiring this method are:

 after major structural alterations;
 after a collision or stranding resulting in structural damage and repairs;
 after electrical alterations especially in the vicinity of the compass position;
 after the ship has been struck by lightning;
 after a long lay-up; and
 after a large fire.

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11.7 TENTATIVE CORRECTION METHOD.

This is a far quicker method suitable for existing ships requiring compass adjustment,
and steps 1, 2, 3 and 4 are often carried out before the ship leaves the berth.

 Induced B. An estimated length of Flinders Bar is inserted or an existing Bar is

left as is.
 Coefficient D. The spheres are shipped in mid-position on either side of the
compass or existing spheres are left as is.
 An assumed value of Lambda 2 is used to adjust the spheres.
 Heeling Error. A VFI is used and vertical corrector magnets placed in the bucket
below the compass position.
 Permanent B. Head East (or West) and remove all deviation with permanent
horizontal fore and aft magnets placed in racks within the binnacle.
 Permanent C. Head North (or South) and remove all deviation by using
permanent horizontal athwartships magnets placed in racks within the binnacle.
 Coefficient D. Head NE (or SW, or SE, or NW) and remove all deviation by
adjusting the positions of the soft iron spheres.
 Permanent B. Head opposite to Step 5 and remove half of the deviation if it is
found to be in excess of 2½º, by adjusting the fore and aft magnets.
 Permanent C. Head opposite to Step 6 and remove half of the deviation if it is
found to be in excess of 2½º, by adjusting the athwartships magnets.
 Coefficient D. Head opposite to Step 7 and remove half of the deviation if it is
found to be in excess of 2½º, by adjusting the soft iron spheres.
 Tabulate the remaining deviations found after a further swing and checks on
each of the eight equidistant points of the compass.

The Tentative Method should be used at least once per year, or after a routine
drydocking and overhaul. It should also be used:
 after carriage of magnetic cargoes, or loading/discharging by magnets;
 after adjusting correctors during a voyage;
 on occasions where the magnetic latitude is considerably different to that of the
previous swing; and
 when the ship’s service area is different to the magnetic latitude of the previous
swing.

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A Deviation Check Swing should be done: after any adjustments to correctors; and
whenever convenient, eg. waiting for a pilot, if there is sufficient time.

A Deviation check should be done at least once per watch, allowing several minutes to
elapse after altering course to allow for Gaussin and Retentive Errors.

11.8 ERRORS AND PRECAUTIONS

11.8.1 Gaussin Error.

If a vessel is swung too rapidly while a deviation table is being compiled, coefficients A
and E may appear, but these will not be real effects. They are caused by electrical
currents in the hull arising from the rapid rotation of the ship in the earth’s field, and by
the lag in the change (hysteresis) of induced poles in the ship’s soft iron.

When the direction of a magnetic field changes in relation to the ship’s soft iron the
magnetism induced in the iron will also change to a new value. This effect causes a
deviation whenever a vessel changes course.

This effect is known as Gaussin Error. It is appreciable when a vessel changes course
quickly but decreases to zero after the ship has settled on a new course and the new
induction has had time to settle in.

When swinging the ship for a table of deviations a ship should be steadied on each new
heading for at least 2 minutes, so that the entire swing should not be less than 45
minutes.

11.8.2 Retentive Error.

When a vessel steers a steady course for many days the vibration of the ship and
influence of the earth’s magnetic field combine to cause a gradual magnetic change,
though temporary, in the vessel’s hard iron. This effect is known as sub-permanent
magnetism.

If the vessel changes course the sub-permanent magnetism will be retained but it will
decay gradually. The error caused is known as Retentive Error.

The magnitude of this error can be as much as 20 degrees although errors of 5 to 15

degrees are more common. The effect can last from a few minutes to a day while the
average period is about one hour after 3 or 4 days on the same course.

Retentive Error has similarities to Gaussin Error but it differs as to its cause and the
duration of its effects. Gaussin Error is of no importance except when swinging the
vessel for a table of deviations, but there are obvious dangers with Retentive Error.
11.8.3 Effects of lightning.

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When a ship is struck by lightning her magnetism will be affected to an unknown degree
and it will be linked to the intensity of the electrical charge. The effects are likely to be
temporary but there have been cases of ships taking several months for their magnetic
state to return to stability.

A solution, which has been found effective, is to reverse the direction of athwartships
magnets in the binnacle while the ship is still magnetically unstable. However, this is a
temporary solution at best and the compass should be corrected by a licensed compass
adjuster as soon as possible.

12. THE GYROSCOPIC COMPASS

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12.1 THE FREE GYROSCOPE.

A basic gyroscope consists of a spinning wheel with a greater mass along its rim than at
its centre. The wheel is free to turn about two axes at right angles to each other and the
spin axis. This free gyroscope has two inherent properties: Gyroscopic Inertia and
Precession.

When a free gyroscope is spinning rapidly it possesses considerable directional stability

(inertia), which means that it will resist any tendency to change the direction along which
its spin axis is lying.

The earth itself is similar to a free gyroscope with its spin axis always pointing at the
Pole star, which appears to remain in a constant position in space.

To create a free gyroscope a spinning wheel can be supported in gimbals so that the
centre of gravity of the wheel is lying at the level of the gimbal axes. All pivots should be
as friction free as possible.

It will be found that the axis of the gyroscope tends to point in a fixed direction in space
and will have an apparent movement due to the rotation of the earth. A free gyroscope
possesses three degrees of freedom. It is free to:
 spin about its spin axis;
 turn about the horizontal axis (tilt); and
 turn about the vertical axis (azimuth).

12.2 EXPLANATION OF TERMS USED

12.2.1 Inertia.

Newton’s First Law of Motion states that inertia is the property by which matter continues
in its existing state of rest or motion in a straight line unless that state is changed by an
external force.

12.2.2 Linear Momentum.

If a large bulk carrier and a small cargo vessel are moving at the same speed it will be
easier to stop the small vessel. Also, if two ships of the same size and deadweight are
moving at different speeds it will be easier to stop the slower vessel.

It follows that a moving object has inertia towards changes in its path and this inertia
depends on the product of its mass and velocity. The product of mass and velocity is
called Linear Momentum.

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12.2.3 Newton’s Second Law of Motion.

This law states that, if an external force is applied to an object, then the applied force will
be proportional to the rate of change of Linear Momentum.

12.2.4 Units Newton.

One Newton (N) is equal to the amount of force required to give a unit mass of one
kilogram an acceleration of one metre per second squared. 1 N = kg. m/s²

12.2.5 Torque.

Torque may be explained as a force that causes rotation. If a force of F Newtons is

acting at right angles to a radius of D metres from a point P then the turning moment or
torque about point P is FD Newton metres.

12.2.6 Moment of Inertia of a spinning wheel.

If there were two flywheels, one heavy and one light, both spinning at the same speed, it
will be easier to stop the light one. However, inertia does not only depend on the mass of
the flywheel, it also depends on the distribution of the mass.

If most of the flywheel’s mass is near the circumference it will be harder to stop than a
flywheel with most of the mass near the centre. The two factors, mass and distribution of
mass, provide the term “Moment of Inertia of a spinning wheel”.

12.2.7 Gyroscopic inertia.

This is the tendency of a free gyroscope, when spinning, to maintain a fixed direction in
space, regardless of the movement of its support.

Gyroscopic Inertia depends on:

 the speed of rotation of its spinning wheel; and
 the mass and distribution of the mass of its spinning wheel.

Although there is no movement of the gyro axle in space there will be an apparent
movement due to the rotation of the earth. A star represents a fixed direction in space
and the apparent movement of the gyro axle will be to follow the path of an imaginary
star on the celestial sphere.
12.2.8 Tilt.

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If a free gyroscope is situated at the equator and lying with its axis East-West and
horizontal, it can be imagined that the axis is pointing to a star which has zero
declination and is about to rise.

The East end of the axis will follow the star and tilt upwards as the star rises. After six
hours the axis will be vertical, and after twelve hours the axis will be horizontal again.
The original East end of the axis will be pointing to the star setting in the West. This
means that after one sidereal day (23h 56min) the gyroscope will have tilted through
360º and the imaginary star will again be rising.

If the same gyroscope had been lying horizontally on the equator with its axis pointing
North-South the North end would have been pointing towards the Pole star. It would
have had no apparent movement relative to the earth while the earth rotates.

The rate of tilting therefore varies from zero, when the axis is lying North-South, to a
maximum when the axis is lying East-West.

A free gyroscope situated at the North pole with its axis horizontal would have an
apparent turntable motion due to the earth’s rotation. Its axis would be following an
imaginary star on the horizon that does not rise or set.

The rate of tilting therefore varies from a maximum at the equator (0º latitude) to zero at
the pole (90º latitude).

12.2.9 Drift.

This is the apparent motion of a gyroscope in azimuth. A free gyroscope situated at the
North pole with its axis horizontal will have an apparent movement in the horizontal
plane.

When viewed from above its axis would appear to move in a clockwise direction,
because the earth would be moving in a counter-clockwise direction as it rotates. This
turntable motion causes the gyroscope to drift through 360º in a sidereal day.

A free gyroscope situated at the equator with its axis horizontal will not drift at all,
irrespective of whether its axis is set in a North-South or East-West line.

The rate of drift of a gyroscope therefore varies from a maximum at the poles to zero at
the equator.

Note that at intermediate latitudes there will be both tilt and drift.

12.2.10 Precession.

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If a torque is applied to one end of a spinning gyro axle the axle will move in a direction
at right angles to the applied torque.

This property of a spinning gyroscope is termed Precession, and its direction can be
determined by imagining the direction of the applied torque to be rotated 90º in the
direction of spin.

The amount of Precession caused by a given torque can be found by the following
formula: P = T ÷ IS where P is Precession; T is the torque; I is the Moment of Inertia
of the gyroscope wheel; and S is the rate of spin.

12.3 THE CONTROLLED GYROSCOPE

To make a gyroscope North-seeking torques will have to be introduced to oppose the

natural movement of drift and tilt. To offset the drift of the North end of a gyro spin axis
towards the East gravitational control is employed in two ways: a top heavy control and a
bottom heavy control.

12.3.1 Top heavy control.

A modified gyroscope is used with its rotor enclosed in a case that has a weight attached
to the top. With the spin axis parallel to the earth’s surface and lying in a North-South
direction the weight has no effect because it is equally displaced about the horizontal
axis.

As the North end drifts Eastwards and begins to tilt up the weight will create a torque
about the horizontal axis. This will cause a precession about the vertical axis. To oppose
the drift of the North end towards the East the rotor will have to be spinning anti-
clockwise when viewed from the South.

Initially the rate of precession is less than the rate of drift, and both drift and tilt continue,
until the greater angle of drift will cause a greater torque to be applied by the unbalanced
weight. Eventually the rate of precession becomes greater than drift and tilt, and the
north end of the spin axis will begin to move back towards the meridian.

When the axis reaches the meridian it will be at maximum tilt and maximum precession.
This will cause the North end to precess to the West of the meridian where the tilt will
decrease and the rate of precession will decrease.

Eventually the spin axis will be horizontal but, because the North end is West of the
meridian, it will begin to tilt downwards. The weight will now cause precession to aid drift
back towards the meridian.

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The North end will precess past the meridian but with the North end at maximum tilt
downwards. As the North end drifts Eastwards the process begins again. The repeated
process causes the spin axis to oscillate about the meridian.

In the Sperry Mk 14 gyrocompass top heavy control is achieved by using a mercury

ballistic consisting of two pairs of bottles linked by pipes and arranged North-South on
either side of the rotor. When the rotor is tilted mercury flows to the low side and the
imbalance is transferred to the rotor casing through a link pin at the bottom, and this
provides the required torque.

12.3.2 Bottom heavy control.

The natural tendency is for a gyro axis’ North end to drift Eastwards and tilt upwards due
to the rotation of the earth. A bottom weight will cause a torque about the horizontal axis
and the rotor will have to be spinning clockwise, when viewed from the South, to cause
the North end of the axis to precess to the West.

In a Brown’s gyrocompass a set of oil bottles on either side of the rotor casing,
connected by pipes, are used for a bottom heavy effect.

This is achieved by causing air to be blown into the oil-filled bottle on the low side and
this air forces the oil into the bottle on the high side. The weight of the oil causes a
gravitational force which is transferred to the rotor.

Air pressure is provided by the rotor which is fitted with blades, and air is drawn in
through holes in the rotor case as wheel spins. The air is passed through a knife-edge
bearing to the air nozzle, located on the East side of the rotor case.

Only one pair of bottles, known as the working bottles, are used for gravity control.

12.3.3 Damping.

The oscillation path of an undamped gravity-controlled gyro is an ellipse with its minor
axis on the meridian and its major axis parallel to but above the horizon in the Northern
hemisphere. At the equator the major axis coincides with the horizon and in the
Southern hemisphere it is below the horizon. The dimensions of the ellipse are
determined by the amount of precession and the initial position.

A gyro with gravity control will make elliptical oscillations about the meridian and will
continue to do so indefinitely unless some means of damping is provided. A controlled
gyroscope can be converted to a gyrocompass by introducing a small additional torque
in either tilt or azimuth.

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The resulting additional precessions are used to damp out oscillations and convert the
path of the gyro axis North end into a spiral. It will finally settle in a stable position on or
near the meridian.

12.3.4 Damping in Tilt – the Sperry Mk 14.

In the top heavy gravity control Sperry Mk 14 an additional horizontal torque is created,
resulting in precession in tilt. To achieve this the small link pin at the bottom of the rotor
case is offset by 3mm towards the East. The torque from the mercury ballistic acts
through this link pin, but due to the offset it acts in a direction slightly away from the
vertical.

This torque can therefore be resolved into a vertical and, a much smaller, horizontal
torque. The vertical torque provides the gravity control while the horizontal torque affects
damping.

The additional small horizontal torque will cause an additional precession in tilt to
counter the natural tilt when East of the meridian. It also increases the rate of
downwards tilt when West of the meridian.

The result is a spiral path and the gyro will eventually settle with its North end tilted
slightly upwards and to the East of the meridian in the Northern hemisphere. In this
settled position the Eastwards drift is balanced by Westerly precession, which is why a
slight tilt is necessary.

This tilt also causes a downwards precession, due to damping, which can only be
countered by tilting upwards. This defines the settling position therefore as East of the
meridian.

At the equator the settling position is horizontal and on the meridian, and in the Southern
hemisphere the North end of the axis is tilted slightly downwards and to the West of the
meridian.

12.3.5 Damping in Azimuth – the Brown’s gyrocompass.

In this bottom heavy gravity control system an additional small vertical torque is created.
This results in an additional small precession in azimuth, opposite to the precession
used for gravity control.

To have the desired effect it is necessary for the vertical torque to operate with a
delayed action. In other words, it must be out of phase with the torque used for gravity
control, otherwise the effect will be to reduce control.

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This is achieved by a pair of oil bottles, known as the damping bottles, acting in
opposition to the working bottles. A needle valve in the North damping bottle causes the
delayed action a quarter of a period after the action by the working bottles.

This delayed action results in a progressive reduction in precession when the gyro axis
is West of the meridian, and an increase in precession when East of the meridian. This
modifies the path of the North end of the gyro axis to a spiral, with a final settling position
on the meridian but tilted slightly upwards.

This final tilted position causes sufficient Westerly precession to counter natural
Eastward drift.

12.4 THE GYROCOMPASS.

12.4.1 Gyrocompass components.

A basic gyrocompass system consists of a master unit, a control cabinet, a power supply
unit, a speed unit, and auxiliary electrical transmission and alarm units.

The master unit is the heart of the compass system and it contains the gyroscopic North-
seeking compass, sensitive elements and related electrical components. The control
cabinet is the nerve centre of the system, containing the computing and amplifying
components. Its control panel provides the operator with various options for proper
operation of the compass.

On small vessels only one unit is usually installed but larger vessels may have two
master units with both in operation at all times. The indicators for both units should be
constantly available and monitored for comparison and checking.

Gyro repeater compasses mounted on bridge wings and a repeater at the steering
position give the true course of the ship. Repeaters are accurate electronic
servomechanisms which reproduce the master gyrocompass course.

Most repeaters are self-synchronous which means that, in the event of a power failure,
they will automatically line up with the transmitter when power is restored. Repeaters are
usually provided with a damping device to prevent oscillation when the ship’s heading
changes rapidly.

12.4.2 Preparation for use.

The gyrocompass is normally kept in continuous operation while at sea and there is
normally a stand-by power supply. An indicator in the wheelhouse should show any
malfunction of the compass or failure in the ship’s main power supply, when the stand-by
power should cut in immediately.

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When in port for any length of time (unusual except for layup periods) the gyro can be
switched off. In older types several hours were needed when restarting the gyro, for the
rotor to maintain operating speed and for the axis to settle on the meridian. Modern
gyrocompasses achieve settling within an hour. For all short periods alongside in port
the gyro should be left running.

The instruction manual contains all the relevant information which a navigator should
familiarise himself with.

12.4.3 Limitations.

Although a modern gyrocompass is robust and capable of accuracy to within 1 degree in

harsh weather conditions there are certain limitations that every navigator should be
aware of.

The gyro requires a constant and stable power supply, and if its operation is interrupted
for any length of time it requires time to settle into reliable operation. It requires care and
attention according to manufacturer’s instructions, and awareness that accuracy
decreases in latitudes higher than 75 degrees. We shall deal with causes of inaccuracy
in the next section.

12.5 GYROCOMPASS ERRORS.

12.5.1 Damping error.

This is the name given to the difference between the true meridian and the settling
position of the North end of gyro’s axis. Compasses damped in azimuth have no
damping error.

The Sperry gyro has an error of 0º at the equator increasing to 3º at 60º North or South.
The error is Easterly in the Northern hemisphere and Westerly in the Southern
hemisphere.

12.5.2 Latitude, Course and Speed Error (also known as Steaming Error).

On a stationary vessel a gyrocompass will indicate true North (if we ignore damping
error). If the vessel steams in a Northerly direction there will be a tendency for the North
end of the gyro axis to tilt upwards, and this is caused by gyroscopic inertia.

The upwards tilt will cause Westerly precession resulting in a settling position
Westwards of the true meridian. This settling position will be at right angles to the
resultant motion of the ship, caused by its own motion and the rotation of the earth.

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Steaming error is Westerly in the Northern Hemisphere and Easterly in the Southern
Hemisphere. When heading East or West, or when the vessel is stopped, there is no
error. On northerly or southerly courses or at high speeds Steaming Error is greatest.

12.5.3 Ballistic Deflection.

If we consider a vessel in 60º North steaming North at 20 knots and the Steaming Error
is 2½º West.

If the vessel stops or alters course to due East or due West the Steaming Error should
be zero. The gyro will have to move 2½º to its new settling position and, with damping,
will take time to settle by making progressively smaller oscillations about the meridian.

The same process should occur, to a lesser or greater degree, on any other alteration of
course or speed which results in a North/South speed change. The result should be an
unsteady and unreliable compass after altering. Fortunately, this is not so.

In addition to the change in Steaming Error another phenomenon takes place when a
vessel’s North/South speed is changed, either due to an actual change in speed or due
to an alteration of course.

If we consider a Sperry compass in the above example, there would be a surge of

mercury into the North pots, causing a torque on the North end of the axis and Easterly
precession.

If we consider a Brown’s compass in the example, extra oil would be blown into the
South working bottle, resulting in a similar Easterly precession.

This resultant precession is known as Ballistic Deflection and its magnitude is

independent of the duration of the manoeuvre. Instead, it depends on the variation in
North/South speed and the ballistic properties of the particular compass, and it occurs
only during the manoeuvre.

It is fortunate that the precession caused by Ballistic Deflection is in the same direction
as the change in Steaming Error.

12.5.4 Schuler Tuning.

If the amount of precession due to Ballistic Deflection can be made exactly equal to that
caused by the change in Steaming Error the gyro will precess immediately to its new
settling position and not wander.

To achieve this it is necessary for the period of an undamped gyro to be exactly 84½
minutes, the same period as a pendulum which has a length equal to the radius of the

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earth. Max Schuler discovered this in 1923 and Schuler Tuning is the name given to the
method of creating such a period in a gyrocompass.

The period of a gyro will vary inversely as the cosine of the latitude therefore the period
is made equal to 84½ minutes in one latitude only, and that is 45º. In other latitudes the
Ballistic Deflection will not be exactly equal to the change in Steaming Error. However,
the resultant wander of the compass after a manoeuvre is not an appreciable amount
that will affect its efficiency.

In high speed craft the resultant wander is appreciable and therefore those types of
vessel will have a provision for establishing the 84½ minute period in all latitudes. The
methods used may be either varying the spin of the rotor or varying the surface area of
the ballistic in the pots.

12.5.5 Ballistic Tilt.

When altering course, with a top heavy gravity control gyrocompass, mercury is forced
to the opposite pots by Ballistic Deflection. The displaced weight is transmitted to the
rotor through the link pin, which is offset for damping purposes.

Due to the same cause a small precession in tilt will occur and, when the gyro axis has
reached its new settling position, it will have a tilt that is incorrect for that latitude. A small
wander will result and the North end of the gyro axis will spiral until it settles with the
correct amount of tilt for the latitude.

This effect is known as Ballistic Tilt and the resultant error will be at a maximum value
approximately 21 minutes after the manoeuvre is completed. However, even under
severe conditions the error is unlikely to be more than 1½º and there are no
arrangements to counter Ballistic Tilt.

This phenomenon does not occur with a bottom-heavy gravity controlled compass
because it is damped in azimuth.

12.5.6 First Rolling Error.

If a disc shape is used as a pendulum bob there is a tendency for it to turn while
swinging so that its greatest moment of inertia lies in the plane of the swing. This is true
unless its greatest moment of inertia lies at right angles to the plane of the swing, when
there is no tendency to turn, ie turning moments are equal and opposite.

The same phenomenon occurs when a gyrocompass is swinging in its gimbals while the
ship is rolling.

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If the compass is swinging in a North/South or an East/West direction there will be no
tendency to turn and therefore no error.

If the ship is rolling such that the compass is swinging Northeast/Southwest or

Southeast/Northwest the effect is at maximum. There will be a tendency for the gyro to
turn into the plane of the swing and cause an unwanted torque, with a resultant error on
the compass.

The tendency for this error to occur is countered in both top and bottom heavy type
compasses by attaching compensator weights to the vertical ring. These weights are
arranged to make the moment of inertia about the gyro equal about any axis.

12.5.7 Second Rolling Error.

This is sometimes referred to as Intercardinal Rolling Error. It is similar to the First

Rolling Error in that it occurs under the same set of circumstances, but it is due to a
different cause.

When the compass is swinging in a North/South plane there is a surge of ballistic from
the North to the South pots and vice versa. The result is an equal and opposite torque
and there is no error.

When the compass is swinging in an East/West plane there is no displacement of

ballistic, but gravity control is not acting in a true vertical sense. However, this action
produces horizontal torques which are equal and opposite with no resultant error.

When the compass is swinging intercardinally both of the above effects are present and
will combine to produce a torque which is in the same direction on both sides of the
swing. This results in a precession in tilt and subsequent wander of the compass, and
the effect is cumulative which means that the error will become greater as long as the
compass continues swinging in the NE/SW or NW/SE plane.

Second Rolling Error is countered by restricting the bore of the pipes connecting the
ballistic pots. This causes the displacement of ballistic to lag one quarter period behind
the period of roll of the ship.

However, because the period of roll of the ship is variable, and depends on many
unpredictable factors, an average is chosen and the bore of the pipes made accordingly.
Additional small weights are fitted on top of the ballistic pots to compensate for any
residual error when the period of roll of the ship is different from the average value.

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13. THE FIBRE-OPTIC GYROCOMPASS (FOG)

13.1 Operating Principle.

In contrast to a gyrocompass, which uses the moment of inertia of a rapidly spinning

wheel, the FOG uses the Sagnac interferometer. This effect is named after its inventor,
the French physicist George Sagnac.

In a ring with radius R, a light wave enters the ring at P and splits into two waves. These
waves follow a circular light path in opposite directions, one clockwise and the other anti-
clockwise.

The fibre-optic light path is identical in both directions and consequently both light waves
arrive back at the point of entry P simultaneously. The waves rejoin and leave the ring.
The transit time of each wave through the ring can be measured with a very sensitive
detector. The above explains the basic working of the interferometer.

Assume now that the light path itself rotates while the light waves are travelling through
the ring. If the light path rotates clockwise the point P will move towards the wave
travelling anti-clockwise and away from the wave travelling clockwise. One wave will
travel a longer distance to reach point P and the other will travel a shorter distance.

The difference in time between the waves arriving at point P can be detected. If the
difference is divided by the wavelength of the light wave the difference in units of
wavelength is obtained. The difference can then be expressed as a phase shift between
the light waves, and this phase shift is known as the Sagnac phase.

The rotation of a circular light path of two waves travelling in opposite directions results
in a phase shift. The rate of rotation of the interferometer can also be converted to a

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phase shift, and the sensitivity of this rotation depends on the tube diameter and length
of the fibre-optic ring.

A relationship is established between the Sagnac phase and the phase shift of the
interferometer to provide a digital signal. This signal provides the course reading for an
indicator in the wheelhouse.

13.2 FOG COMPONENTS.

13.2.1 The light source.

A super luminescent diode (SLD), which is a modified form of semi-conductor laser, is

used as the light source. [LASER = Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of
Radiation]. A diode is like a one-way valve to ensure the light wave moves in one
direction.

13.2.2 The light path.

The light path is a coil of optical fibre made from quartz glass and surrounded by a
plastic coating. To ensure the light path is identical in both directions a single mode fibre
is used. The sensitivity of the interferometer increases with length of fibre and diameter
of the coil. The optical fibre is normally 500m long and the coil has a diameter of 8cm.

13.2.3 The processing unit.

The light wave returning from the interferometer is passed to a light-sensitive detector
and converted into electrical current. The electrical signal is amplified and converted into
a digital signal which can be processed by computer.

This signal processing is carried out in the same period of time that the light wave
requires to travel through the fibre-optic coil of 500m. The time period is less than 2
microseconds.

13.3 THE GYROCOMPASS FUNCTION.

The basis of all non-magnetic compasses is the establishment of a plane which is

positioned permanently in space, the Space Oriented Plane (SOP). This SOP has a
reference aligned to true North. From this reference line all movements can be detected,
measured and displayed.

Rate of turn sensors are required for the measurement of the speed of rotation of the
earth and level sensors are required for horizontal positioning.

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In a FOG the SOP is not defined mechanically. The only existing plane for reference is
the ship-fixed plane on which the FOG is mounted (known as strap-down technology).

From a certain point in time onwards angular rates of the ship-fixed plane about all axes
are measured from this starting point, which is stored in the process computer as a
virtual plane. The angular differences with the ship-fixed plane are known as Eulerian
angles.

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14. THE SATELLITE COMPASS

Satellite-based ship heading sensors have been available since 2003, providing a low
cost, compact and viable alternative to the gyrocompass or fibre-optic compass. Settling
time is instantaneous and reliability is on a par with GPS equipment.

Using advanced inertial algorithms, a satellite compass system processes information

from GPS receivers, together with data from integrated rate of turn sensors and
accelerometers, to produce a stable and reliable heading reference. The system can
also provide output data for roll, pitch, position, SOG (Speed Over Ground), COG
(Course Over Ground) and ROT (Rate of Turn). SOG accuracy is achieved by decoding
the Doppler shift* in received satellite signals.

All output data can be interfaced with other navigation equipment, including repeaters,
radars, autopilots, ECDIS, AIS and voyage data recorders.

The system's integrated heading monitor can continually check the GPS output against
the magnetic heading sensor. In case of degradation or loss of GPS signals, an alarm
will sound and the system automatically changes to a gyrocompass or transmitting
magnetic compass for uninterrupted navigation.

*Doppler shift is the change in frequency or wavelength of a sound wave in relation to an

observer who is moving relative to the wave source. A common example of Doppler shift is the
change of pitch heard when a vehicle approaches, passes and moves away from an observer.

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