HIGHWAY MATERIAL LABORATORY

MANUAL

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY SILCHAR

 Sieve analysis or aggregate gradation
Objective: To determine the particle size distribution of aggregates by means of sieve
analysis.
Introduction and theory: Sieve analysis helps to determine the particle size distribution of
the coarse and fine aggregates. In this test, we use different sieves as standardized by the IS
2386 (Part I) - 1963 code and then pass aggregates through them and thus collect different
sized particles retained over different sieves.
Coarse aggregate is the one retained on 4.75 mm IS Sieve. When the aggregate contains sizes
differently in suitable proportions, it is called graded aggregate. The workability of concrete
is also improved with well graded aggregate. Single size aggregates make the concrete harsh
and does not work well with trowel and between the cables, strands or sheathing. The coarse
aggregate may be of the following types –

 Crushed ravel or stone which is obtained by crushing of hard stone or gravel.

 Uncrushed stone or gravel resulting from natural disintegration of rock.
 Partially crushed stone or gravel which is obtained by blending of above two types.
The graded coarse aggregate is defined by its nominal size i.e., 40 mm, 20 mm, 16 mm, 12.5
mm, etc. For example, a graded aggregate of nominal size 12.5 mm means an aggregate most
of which passes the 12.5 mm IS Sieve. Because the aggregates are formed due to natural
disintegration of rocks or by the artificial crushing of rock or gravel, they derive their many
of the properties from the parent rocks. These properties are chemical, mineral composition,
petrographic description, hardness, strength, pore structure, colour, etc. Other properties
which are not possessed by parent rock or gravel are shape, size, texture, absorption, etc.
Furthermore, sub-classifications are there like in shape, round, angular varieties are there, in
unit weight classification normal weight, lightweight is there and many more. All these
properties may have a considerable effect on the quality in fresh and hardened states.

Within these limits, the nominal maximum size of coarse aggregate may be as large as
possible for low to moderately high strength concrete. The bigger the size of aggregate, lesser
is the surface area and hence less amount of water is required for wetting the surface and less
matrix or paste is required that lubricates the surface so as to reduce internal friction. For a
given quantity of water and paste, bigger size of aggregate will give higher workability.
Coarse aggregates are used in various tests like slump test, vee bee test, etc. in order to
ascertain the suitability of coarse aggregate in making better quality of concrete.

Apparatus required:
1. A set of IS Sieves of sizes – 80mm, 63mm, 50mm, 40mm,31.5mm, 25mm, 20mm,
16mm, 12.5mm, 10mm, 6.3mm,4.75mm, 3.35mm, 2.36mm, 1.18mm, 600µm,
300µm, 150µm and 75µm.
2. Balance or scale with an accuracy to measure 0.1 percent of the weight of the test
sample.
3. Mechanical sieve shaker.
 Fig.1 Mechanical shaker and sieves

Methodology:

1. The test sample is dried to a constant weight at a temperature of 110°C ± 5 °C and

weighed say W1.
2. The IS sieves are arranged in the order 63mm, 40mm, 20mm, 16mm, 12.5mm,
10mm, 4.75mm, 2.36mmwith lid and pan on top and bottom respectively.
3. The sample is placed on the topmost sieve and after the lid is attached the whole sieve
set is placed on a mechanical sieve shaker and sieved for about 15mins.
4. The weight of aggregates retained on each sieve is weighed and cumulative weight
passing through each sieve is calculated as a percentage of the total sample weight.
5. Fineness modulus is obtained by adding cumulative percentage of aggregates retained
on each sieve and dividing the sum by 100.
6. The particle size distribution curve is plotted using the data obtained.
Observation and result:

Spec. % passing
Sieve Weight Cumulative % %
Size Retained weight cumulative passing
(mm) (gm) retained weight
(gm) retained
40mm 20mm 12mm

63

40

20
 16

12.5

10

4.75

2.36

Conclusion: conclusion of the result

Graph:

Discussion:

 Past record investigate that aggregate gradation dictates the proportion of aggregate
to cement paste in concrete can play a major variable that determines the overall
durability of construction material.
 Aggregate gradation is defined as the particle size distribution of both the stone and
sand present in the concrete matrix.
 This property of aggregate has been heavily undergoing research for over a century
but the effects of which on concrete properties is still somehow misunderstood.
 This experiment proves to be a helpful tool to distinguish whether the cement paste
is mortar or concrete.

Precaution:

• The hand gloves should be worn during the experiment so as to avoid any injury.
• Safety shoes and aprons at the time of test must be worn for protection.
• Cleaning and drying before the commencement of test is recommended.
• Careful sieving should be adopted.
• The electric balance should be checked before weighing.
• Sieves should be arranged in correct order.
 Shape test of aggregate
Objective: Determination of the flakiness and the elongation index for the given aggregate.
sample.

Apparatus required:
 Thickness/Flakiness Index Gauge
 Length/Elongation Index Gauge
 Aggregate sample to be tested
 Balance
 Sieves

Theory:

This test is used to determine the particle shape of the aggregate and each particle shape
being preferred under specific conditions. The significance of flakiness & elongation index is
as follows

 The degree of packing of the particles of one size depends upon their shape.
 Due to high surface area to volume ratio, the flaky and elongated particles lower the
workability of concrete mixes.
 Flaky and elongated particles are considered undesirable for base coarse construction as
they may cause weakness with possibilities of braking down under heavy loads.
 BS-1241 specifies a Flakiness index not exceeding 30% irrespective of the aggregate
size.
 Maximum permitted Elongated index is 35, 40 or 45% for aggregate sizes 2 ½’’ – 2’’,
1 ½’’ – ¾’’ & ½’’ – 3/8’’.
 Both Flakiness and Elongation tests are not applicable to sizes smaller then 6.3mm i.e.
¼’’ sieve.
Particle shape and surface texture influence the properties of freshly mixed concrete more
than the properties of hardened concrete. Rough-textured, angular, and elongated particles
require more water to produce workable concrete than smooth, rounded compact aggregate.
Consequently, the cement content must also be increased to maintain the water-cement ratio.
Generally, flat and elongated particles are avoided or are limited to about 15 % by weight of
the total aggregate.

Flaky aggregate and flakiness index:

 A flaky particle is the one whose least dimension (thickness) is than 0.6 times the mean
size.
 These are the materials of which the thickness is small as compared to the other two
dimensions.
 Limit of flaky particles in the mixes is 30%. If the flaky particles are greater than 30%
then the aggregate is considered undesirable for the intended use.
 It is the percentage by weight of flaky particles in a sample.

Elongated aggregate and elongation index

 These are the particles having length considerably larger than the other two
dimensions and it is the particle whose greater dimension is 1.8 times its mean size.
Limit of elongated particles in the mixes is 45%. Thus, if the elongated particles are
greater than 45%, then the aggregate is considered undesirable for the intended use.
 It is the percentage by weight of elongated particles in a sample. The Elongated index
is calculated by expressing the weight of Elongated particles as percentage of total
weight of the sample.

Fig : Thickness Gauge- For Flakiness Index Thickness Gauge have width equal to 0.6 times
the mean dimension of the aggregate.
Fig.: Length Gauge- For Elongation Index Length Gauge have length equal to 1.8 times the
mean dimension of the aggregate.

Procedure:
1. A quantity of aggregate shall be taken sufficient to provide the minimum number of
200 pieces of any fraction to be tested.
2. The sample shall be sieved with the sieves specified in Table 1:

* This dimension is equal to 0.6 times the mean Sieve size

** This dimension is equal to 1.8 times the mean Sieve size
Table 1: Dimensions (Length and Thickness) of Gauges
3. Separation of Flaky material- Each fraction shall be gauged in turn for thickness on a
metal gauge of the pattern shown in Fig. 3, or in bulk on sieves having elongated slots. The
width of the slot used in the gauge or sieve shall be of the dimensions specified in co1. 3 of
Table 1 for the appropriate size of material.
4. The total amo0unt passing the gauge shall be weighed to an accuracy of at least 0.1
percent of the weight of the test sample.
5. The Flakiness Index is the total weight of the material passing the various thickness
gauges or sieves, expressed as a percentage of the total weight of the sample gauged.
6. Separation of Elongated Material- Each fraction shall be gauged individually for
length on a metal length gauge of the pattern shown in Fig. 4. The gauge length used shall be
that specified in co1. 4 of Table 1 for the appropriate size of material.
7. The total amount retained by the length gauge shall be weighed to an accuracy of at
least 0.1 percent of the weight of the test sample.
8. The elongation index is the total weight of the material retained on the various length
gauges, expressed as a percentage of the total weight of the sample gauged.

Observation and calculation:

Table1 Recordings for Flakiness Index

Passing through Retained on IS Flakiness Weight Passing on Percentage

IS Sieves(mm) Sieves (mm) Gauge (mm) Flakiness Gauge Weight Passing
(g) (%)
63 33.90
50 40 27.00
40 25 19.50
31.5 25 16.95
25 20 13.50
20 16 10.80
16 12.5 8.55
12.5 10 6.75
10 6.3 4.89
Total

Table 2. Recordings for Elongation Index

Passing through Retained on Elongation Weight Passing on Percentage

IS Sieves(mm) IS Sieves Gauge (mm) Elongation Gauge Weight Passing
(mm) (g) (%)
63 50 --
50 40 81.00
40 25 58.50
31.5 25 --
25 20 40.50
20 16 32.4
16 12.5 25.6
12.5 10 20.2
10 6.3 14.7
Total

Result & conclusion:

1. The Flakiness Index on an aggregate is = Total weight passing Flakiness Gauge x 100 /
Total weight of test sample =
2. The Elongation Index on an aggregate is = Total weight retained on Elongation Gauge x
100 / Total weight of test sample =

Precaution:
1. While sieving, care must be taken that the particles that are chocked in the sieve must no
be forced down into the next sieve. Such particles should be pushed back into the same
sieve.
2. While placing different fractions on the table, place them some distance apart so that no
two fractions may get mixed.
Be careful while selecting the opening of the flakiness and elongation gauges for any
particular fraction.
 Crushing Value of Aggregate
Aim: To assess the strength of coarse aggregates used in the pavement components under
gradually applied load and to determine the aggregates crushing value of the given sample of
aggregates.

Apparatus Required:
Crushing Machine, Tamping Rod, Trowel, Weighing Machine, Cylindrical Mould and
Plunger.

Theory:

Different rock samples give different compressive strength varying from minimum of about
45Mpa to maximum of 545Mpa. The compressive strength of parent rock does not exactly
indicate the strength of aggregates in concrete. For this reason assessment of strength of the
aggregates are made by using a sample bulk aggregates in standardized manner. The test
conducted to know the compressive strength of aggregate is known as aggregates crushing
value test. The crushing value of aggregates is rather insensitive to variation in strength of
weaker aggregates. For this reason, a simple test known as 10 percent fine value is
introduced. When the aggregates crushing value become 30% or higher, the results are likely
to be inaccurate.
The aggregates crushing value provides a relative measure of resistance to crushing under a
gradually applied compressive load. The principal mechanical property of aggregate required
in any construction is (i) satisfactory resistance to crushing under the roller during
construction (ii) adequate resistance to surface abrasion under traffic. Aggregates used in road
construction should be strong enough to resist crushing under traffic wheel load. If aggregates
are weak the stability of pavement structure is adversely affected. The strong aggregates will
have low crushing value and weak aggregates have high crushing value. The aggregate
crushing strength for various types of surface course of pavements should be high enough to
withstand the high wheel load, including the steel tires of loaded bullock-carts. However, low
strength aggregates having lesser crushing strength are used in base and sub-base courses of
pavements. IRC have specified aggregates crushing values of the coarse aggregates used for
cement concrete surface should not exceed 30%. For aggregates used for concrete other than
surfaces, the aggregates crushing values should not exceed 45%.
 Aggregate Crushing test mould

Flexible Pavements
Types of Roads / Pavements Aggregate Crushing Value Limit

Soling 50

Water bound macadam 40

Bituminous macadam 40

Bituminous surface dressing or thin premix carpet 30

Dense mix carpet 30

Rigid Pavements
Types of Roads / Pavements Aggregate Crushing Value Limit

Other than wearing course 45

Surface or Wearing course 30

Procedure:

1. The material for the standard test shall consist of aggregate passing a 12.5 mm IS Sieve
and retained on a 10 mm IS Sieve, and shall be thoroughly separated on these sieves
before testing.

2. The aggregate shall be tested in a surface-dry condition. If dried by heating, the period
of drying shall not exceed four hours, the temperature shall be 100 to 110°C and the
aggregate shall be cooled to room temperature before testing.

3. The appropriate quantity may be found conveniently by filling the cylindrical measure in
three layers of approximately equal depth, each layer being tamped 25 times with the
rounded end of the tamping rod and finally leveled off, using the tamping rod as a
straight-edge.

4. The weight of material comprising the test sample shall be determined (Weight 2) and
the same weight of sample shall be taken for the repeat test.

5. The cylinder of the test apparatus shall be put in position on the base plate and the test
sample added in thirds, each third being subjected to 25 strokes from the tamping rod.
The surface of the aggregate shall be carefully levelled and the plunger inserted so that
it rests horizontally on this surface, care being taken to ensure that the plunger does not
jam in the cylinder.

6. The apparatus, with the test sample and plunger in position, shall then be placed
between the platens of the testing machine and loaded at as uniform a rate as possible
so that the total load is reached in 10 minutes. The total load shall be 400 kN.

7. The load shall be released and the whole of the material removed from the cylinder and
sieved on a 2.36 mm IS Sieve for the standard test. The fraction passing the sieve shall
be weighed (Weight 3).

Observations & Calculations:

1. Weight of empty cylinder, W = 788.00 g

1
Empty weight Weight of cylinder Weight of aggregate Aggregate Crushing
of the cylinder with the passing through 2.36 Value (%)
(W ) in (g)
1 aggregates mm sieve (W ) in (g)
3

(W ) in (g)
2

788.00 3440.00 992.00 37.41

788.00 3343.00 984.00 41.71

Average Aggregate Crushing Value = 41.71+37⋅412 =39.56 %

Conclusion:

Since, Aggregate Crushing Value is above 35%, this aggregate would normally be regarded as
weak aggregate.
 Specific Gravity and Water Absorption Tests
Aim: To determine the specific gravity and water absorption of aggregates

Apparatus required: The apparatus consists of the following:

(a) A balance of capacity about 3kg, to weigh accurate to 0.5g, and of such a type
and shape as to permit weighing of the sample container when suspended in
water.
(b) A thermostatically controlled oven to maintain temperature of 100°C to
110°C.
(c) A wire basket o not more than 6.3 mm mesh or perforated container of
convenient size with thin wire hangers for suspending it from the balance
(d) A container for filling water and suspending the basket
(e) An air tight container of capacity similar to that of the basket (referred to in
“c” above
(f) A shallow tray and two dry absorbent clothes, each not less than 75×45 cm.

Theory: The specific gravity of an aggregate is considered to be a measure of strength or

quality of the material. Stones having low specific gravity are generally weaker than those
with higher specific gravity values. The specific gravity values of aggregates are made use of
for making weight- volume conversions and for calculating the void content in compacted
bituminous mixes.

Water absorption gives an idea of strength of rock. Stones having more absorption are more
porous in nature and are generally considered unsuitable unless they are found to be
acceptable based on strength, impact and hardness tests.

Procedure:

1) About 2 kg of coarse aggregate sample is washed thoroughly to remove fines, drain

and then placed in th wire basket and immersed in distilled water at temperature
between 22°C and 32°C and a cover of at least 5 cm of water above the top of basket.
2) Immediately after immersion the entrapped air is removed from the sample by lifting
the basket containing it 25 mm above the base of the tank and allowing it to drop 25
times at the rate of one drop per second.
3) The basket and the aggregate should remain completely immersed in water for a
period of 24 ± 1/2 hours afterwards.
4) The basket and the sample are then weighed while suspended in water at a
temperature of 22°C to 32ºC n case it is necessary to transfer the basket and the
sample to a different tank for weighing, they should be jolted 25 times as described
above in the new tank to remove air before weighing.
5) The weight is noted while suspended in water = W₁ g. The basket and the aggregate
are then removed from water and allowed to drain for a few minutes, after which the
aggregates are transferred to one of the dry absorbent clothes.
6) The empty basket is then returned to the tank of water, jolted 25 times and weighed in
water = W2g.
7)
 8) The aggregates placed on the absorbent clothes are surface dried till no further
moisture could be removed by this cloth.
9) Then the aggregates are transferred to the second dry cloth spread in single layer,
covered and allowed to dry for at least 10 minutes until the aggregates are completely
surface dry. 10 to 60 minutes drying
10)

Impact Test on Aggregate

Aim: To evaluate the toughness of aggregates to break down under application of impact and
to determine aggregate impact value of the given sample of aggregate.

Apparatus Required:

Impact Testing Machine, Temping Rod, Trowel, Cylindrical Mould, Levelling Rod and
Weighing Balance.

Theory:

Aggregates undergo significant wear and tear throughout their life. Aggregates must be hard
and tough enough to resist crushing, degradation and disintegration and be able to transmit
loads from the pavement surface to the underlying layers and eventually the sub grade.
Testing the strength of parent rock alone does not exactly indicate the strength of aggregates
in concrete. For this reason assessment of strength of the aggregates are made by using a
sample bulk aggregates in standardized manner. The principal mechanical property of
aggregate required in any construction is

1. Satisfactory resistance to crushing under the roller during construction

2. Adequate resistance to surface abrasion under traffic

Aggregates used in road construction should be strong enough to resist abrasion and crushing
and also the impact load. If aggregates are weak, then the stability of pavement structure will
be adversely affected. The toughness of aggregate is its ability to resist sudden load acting on
it. The movement of vehicles on the road sometimes gives rise to impact loading which
results in breaking of aggregates into smaller pieces. Therefore the aggregates should have
sufficient toughness to resist their disintegration due to impact. This characteristic of
aggregate is measured by impact value test.
In this test sample of standard aggregates kept in a mould which is subjected to fifteen blows
of metal hammer of weight 14 kg falling from the height of 38cms. The quantity of finer
materials resulting from pounding will indicate the toughness of the sample of aggregates. As
per IS 283-1970 Aggregates Impact Value is defined as the ratio of weight of fines formed to
weight of total sample taken and is expressed in percentage.
Aggregates Impact Value gives relative measure of resistance of aggregates to sudden shock
or impact, which in some aggregates differs from its resistance to slow compression load.
Impact Value should not be less than 45% for aggregates used for concrete other than
wearing surface and 30% for concrete used in wearing surface. Table below shows the
classification of aggregate with respect to aggregate impact value and limits of aggregate
impact value for different types of road construction suggested by Indian Road Congress.
 Aggregate Impact Value Classification

< 10% Exceptionally Strong

10 – 20% Strong

20 – 30% Satisfactory for road surfacing

> 35% Weak for road surfacing

Procedure:

1. The test sample shall consist of aggregate (350.00 g) the whole of which passes a 12.5
mm IS Sieve and is retained on a 10 mm IS Sieve. The aggregate comprising the test
sample shall be dried in an oven for a period of four hours at a temperature of 100 to
110°C and cooled.
2. The measure shall be filled about one-third full with the aggregate and tamped with 15
strokes of the rounded end of the tamping rod. Further similar quantity of aggregate
shall be added and a further tamping of 15 strokes given. The measure shall finally be
filled to overflowing, tamped 15 times and the surplus aggregate struck off, using the
tamping rod as a straight edge. The net weight of aggregate in the measure shall be
determined to the nearest gram (Weight W2).
 3. The impact machine shall rest without wedging or packing upon the level plate, block
or floor, so that it is rigid and the hammer guide columns are vertical.
4. The cup shall be fixed firmly in position on the base of the machine and the whole of
the test sample placed in it and compacted by a single tamping of 15 strokes of the
tamping rod.
5. The hammer shall be raised until its lower face is 380 mm above the upper surface of
the aggregate in the cup, and allowed to fall freely on to the aggregate. The test
sample shall be subjected to a total of 15 such blows each being delivered at an
interval of not less than one second.
6. The crushed aggregate shall then be removed from the cup and the whole of it sieved
on the 2.36 mm IS Sieve until no further significant amount passes in one minute. The
fraction passing the sieve shall be weighed to an accuracy of 0.1 g (Weight. W3).
7. The fraction retained on the sieve shall also be weighed (Weight W1) and, if the total
weight is less than the initial weight by more than one gram, the result shall be
discarded and a fresh test made. Two tests shall be made.

Observations:
Empty weight of Weight of cylinder with the Weight of aggregates passing through
the empty aggregates (W2) in (g) 2.36 mm sieve (W3) in
(g)
cylinder (W1) in
(g)
1911.5 2458 110

1911.5 2460 114

Calculation:

The ratio of the weight of fines formed to the total sample weight in each test shall he
expressed as a percentage, the result being recorded to the first decimal place:

Aggregate Impact Value = {W3/ (W2 – W1)} X 100

Where, W1 = weight of empty cylinder

W2 = weight of empty cylinder and aggregates retained on IS 10mm sieve

W3 = weight of aggregate passing through 2.36 mm sieve

Aggregate Impact Value (ACV) = 1102458-1911.5×100 = 20.13 %

Aggregate Impact Value (ACV) = 1142460-1911⋅5×100 =20.78 %

Therefore , the average value of Aggregate Impact Value

= (20.13% +20.78%)/2 =20.46 %

Conclusion:

Since the Impact Value of aggregate is in the range of 20% - 30% , it is classified under
toughness property: SATISFACTORY FOR ROAD SURFACING.

Los-Angeles abrasion test

Aim:
To determine the abrasion value of coarse aggregate by using Los - Angeles testing machine
with an abrasive charge.

Apparatus required:
Los Angeles Abrasion Machine, Abrasive Charges, Sieve Shaker, Trowel, Weighing
Machine, Steel Spherical balls.

Theory:
Aggregates undergo significant wear and tear throughout their life. Aggregates must be hard
and tough enough to resist crushing, degradation and disintegration and be able to transmit
loads from the pavement surface to the underlying layers and eventually the subgrade.
Testing the strength of parent rock alone does not exactly indicate the strength of aggregates
in concrete. For this reason assessment of strength of the aggregates are made by using a
sample bulk aggregates in standardized manner. The principal mechanical property of
aggregate required in any construction is

1. Satisfactory resistance to crushing under the roller during construction

2. Adequate resistance to surface abrasion under traffic

Aggregates used in road construction should be strong enough to resist abrasion and
crushing under traffic wheel load. If aggregates are weak the stability of pavement structure
is adversely affected. If the aggregates used are not resistant to abrasion it may cause
premature failure or a loss of skid resistance of pavements, also poor resistance to abrasion
can produce excessive dust. Abrasion test is carried out on the aggregate sample to test the
hardness property of aggregates and to decide whether they are suitable for different
pavement construction works. Los Angeles test is widely used to test abrasion of aggregate
and the method has been standardized in India (IS:2386 part-IV). The Los Angeles abrasion
test finds the percentage wear due to relative rubbing action between the aggregate and steel
balls.
 Los Angeles machine has a circular rotating drum of length 520 mm and internal
diameter 700 mm mounted on horizontal axis. An abrasive charge consisting of cast iron
spherical balls of 48 mm diameters and weight 340-445 g is placed in the cylinder along with
the aggregates based on the selected grading. The number of the abrasive spheres varies
according to the grading of the sample. The quantity of aggregates to be used depends upon
the grading and usually ranges from 5-10 kg. The cylinder is then locked and rotated at the
speed of 30-33 rpm for a total of 500 -1000 revolutions depending upon the gradation of
aggregates. After specified revolutions, the material passing 1.7 mm IS sieve is measured and
expressed as percentage total weight of the sample. This value is called Los Angeles abrasion
value.

The table below shows limits of Los Angeles abrasion value for different types of
road construction:

Max. permissible abrasion value

Type of Pavement
in %

Water bound macadam sub base course 60

WBM base course with bituminous surfacing 50

Bituminous bound macadam 50

WBM surfacing course 40

Bituminous penetration macadam 40

Bituminous surface dressing, cement concrete

35
surface course

Bituminous concrete surface course 30

Procedure:
1. We select the grading to be used in the test such that it conforms to the grading to be
used in construction to the maximum extent possible.
2. Sieve the sample in a 20mm, 12.5mm, and 10mm IS sieve.
3. We collect the sample retained on 10mm and 12.5mm sieve in a separate container
and weigh it to 5000g W1 (g).
4. Then we transfer the weighed aggregates and abrasive charges to the circular drum of
Los-Angeles machine and fix the cover.
5. We rotate the machine at a speed of 30 to 33 revolutions per minute. The machine
should be balanced and driven such that there is uniform peripheral speed.
6. The entire stone dust is sieved on 1.70 mm IS sieve and is placed in a mechanical
shaker.
7. We weight the material coarser than 1.70 mm W2(g) size.
8. Finally we note down the observation and Calculations.
Observations and calculations:

Type of aggregate taken = Coarse Aggregate

Grade of sample used = Grade B
Original Weight of the Aggregate (W1) = 5000 g
Weight of Aggregate retained on 1.70 mm sieve (W2) =2530.00 g
Percentage Wear = W1-W2W1×100
=5000-25305000×100
=49.40 %

Result:
The percentage of wear is 49.40 %.

TYPE OF WORK ABRASION VALUE

For Wearing Surfaces ≤30%

For Non Wearing Surfaces ≤50%

Discussions:
1. For an aggregate to perform satisfactory in pavement, it must be sufficiently hard to
resist the abrasive effect of traffic over long period of time. The soft aggregates will be
quickly ground to dust, whilst the hard aggregates are quite resistant to crushing effect.
2. The test also will determine the quality of the aggregate.
3. The L.A. Abrasion test is widely used as an indicator of the relative quality or
competence of mineral aggregates.

Precautions:

 Use hand gloves while removing containers from oven after switching off the oven.
 Use safety shoes, mask & aprons at the time of test.
 Before testing, machine should be checked.
 After test electric supply should be off.
 Thoroughly clean & dry the container before testing.
 The drum & the cover of the opening should be cleaned thoroughly before & after every
test.
 Ductility test on bitumen

Aim :
To determine the ductility value of asphaltic bitumen.

Apparatus required:
Briquette Mould, Ductility Setup, Water Bath, Bunsen Burner

Theory:
Bitumen is the residue or by-product obtained by the refining of crude petroleum. A wide
variety of refining techniques like straight distillation technique, solvent extraction technique
etc are used to produce bitumen of different consistency and other desirable properties.
Depending on the origin and other characteristics of the crude oil and property of bitumen
required, more than one processing method may be employed. The type of construction
decides the type of bitumen needs to be used. But in general good bitumen should have
following properties.

1. Temperature susceptibility of bitumen: the bitumen mix should not become too soft
or unstable during hot weather, and not become too brittle during cold weather.
2. Viscosity of the bitumen: at the time of mixing and compaction should be adequate.
This can be managed by the use of cutbacks or emulsions of suitable grades or heating
the bitumen and aggregates prior to mixing.
3. Affinity and adhesion of bitumen: There should be adequate affinity and adhesion
between the bitumen and aggregates used in the mix.

Ductility is one such property of bitumen which is dependent on the purpose of

construction. Ductility is the property that permits the material to undergo great deformation
or elongation. Indirectly, ductility measures the adhesive property of bitumen and its ability
to stretch. It is necessary that binder should form a thin ductile film around aggregates to
improve the interlocking of the aggregates in flexible pavements. It is important in pavement
to resist crack due to temperature or traffic stresses to avoid damage the pavement structure.
Specifically, the ductility of a bituminous material is defined as the distance in centimeters, to
which it will elongate before breaking when two ends of a briquette specimen of the material
are pulled apart at a specified speed and a specified temperature. A temperature of 25 ± 0.5
°C and pulling speed of 5 cm/min ± 5.0 % is to be maintained while carrying out the
experiment. The ductility of a bitumen specimen mainly gives information about the tensile
strength and ductility grade of bitumen.
 Briquette Mould

Due to temperature stress’s roads expand at daytime and contract at night. So, if the
bitumen is not adequately ductile cracking will occur. The ductility value of bitumen usually
varies from 5 to over 100 cm’s and several standards have specified minimum ductility
values for various pavement types. However a ductility value of 100 cm’s is specified
generally for bituminous construction. Ductility value of bitumen varies based on source of it,
the minimum values of ductility specified by ISI for various grades are as follows.

Source of Paving Bitumen and Penetration Grade Min ductility value (cm)

Assam Petroleum A25 5

A35 10

A45 12

A65, A90 and A200 15

 Bitumen from sources other than Assam Petroleum S35 50

S45, S65 and S90 75

Ductility testing machine

Procedure:
1. The bituminous material is heated to a pouring temperature (90C) and is poured to the
briquette mould on a brass plate
2. We place the sample in water bath maintain at a temperature of 27C for half an hour.
3. After half hour we remove the sample and mould assembly from the water bath. Trim
the specimen by leveling the surface using a hot knife. We replace the mould
assembly in water for 85 to 90 minutes.
4. We adjust the pointer of the machine to read zero.
5. We place the mould on the machine and hook the clips carefully on the machine
without causing any initial strain.
6. We than start the machine and apply the tension at a speed of 50 mm per minute.
7. Lastly we note down the observation and result.
 Ductility test (At the yield point) Ductility test(on the stage of failure)

Observations and calculations:

TRAILL INITIAL READING FINAL READING DUCTILITY VALUE

NO. (cm) (cm) (cm)
1 0 85 85
2 0 81 81
3 0 87 87
AVERAGE = 84.33

Result:
The average Ductility value is 84.33 cm.

Discussions:
The minimum ductility value for S90 grade of bitumen is 75 cm; hence bitumen with this
ductility value is suitable for pavement construction.

Precautions:
1. The plate assembly upon which the mould is placed shall be perfectly flat and level so that
the bottom surface of the mould touches it throughout.
2. In filling the mould, care should be taken not to distort the briquette and to see that no air
pocket is within the moulded sample.

and Elon
 Penetration test of Bitumen
Aim:
To determine consistency of bitumen or the grade of the bitumen by penetration test.

Apparatus required:
Penetration Setup, Mould, Needle, Bunsen Burner, Water Bath.

Theory:
Bitumen is the residue or by-product obtained by the refining of crude petroleum. A
wide variety of refining techniques like straight distillation technique, solvent extraction
technique etc are used to produce bitumen of different consistency and other desirable
properties. Depending on the origin and other characteristics of the crude oils and property of
bitumen required, more than one processing method may be employed. The type of
construction decides the type of bitumen needs to be used. But in general good bitumen
should have following properties.

1. Temperature susceptibility of bitumen: the bitumen mix should not become too soft
or unstable during hot weather, and not become too brittle during cold weather.
2. Viscosity of the bitumen: at the time of mixing and compaction should be adequate.
This can be managed by the use of cutbacks or emulsions of suitable grades or heating
the bitumen and aggregates prior to mixing.
3. Affinity and adhesion of bitumen: There should be adequate affinity and adhesion
between the bitumen and aggregates used in the mix.
Penetration is a measure of consistency. It quantifies the hardness or softness of bitumen by
measuring the depth in tenths of a millimeter to which a standard loaded needle will penetrate
vertically in 5 seconds under specified temperature, load and duration of loading. BIS had
standardized the equipment and test procedure. The penetrometer consists of a needle
assembly with weight of 100g and a device for releasing and locking in any position. The
bitumen is softened to a pouring consistency, stirred thoroughly and poured into containers at
a depth at least 15 mm in excess of the expected penetration. The test should be conducted at
a specified temperature of 25°C. It may be noted that penetration value is largely influenced
by any inaccuracy with regards to pouring temperature, size of the needle, weight placed on
the needle and the test temperature. A grade of 40/50 bitumen represents the penetration
value is in the range 40 to 50 at standard test conditions. Higher is the penetration of bitumen
softer is the consistency. This is one of the most widely used test for classifying bituminous
materials into different grades.

Penetration Test on Bitumen

The use of different grade of bitumen depends on climatic conditions and type of
construction. Commonly used grades are 30/40, 60/70 and 80/100. For bituminous macadam
and penetration macadam, IRC suggests bitumen grades 30/40, 60/70, 80/100. Generally, in
warmer regions, lower penetration grades are preferred to avoid softening and in colder
regions bitumen with higher penetration grades like 180/200 are used to prevent the
occurrence of excessive brittleness. The test is not intended to estimate consistency of softer
materials like cut back which are usually graded by viscosity test. High penetration grade is
used in spray application works.

Procedure:

1. Firstly the bituminous material is heated to a pouring temperature i.e. 90O C and is
poured to the mould.
2. We protect the sample from dust and allow it to cool in an atmosphere at a
temperature between 15oC to 30oC for one hour.
3. Then we place it along with the transfer dish in the water bath at 25oC.
4. We place the sample in position. Adjust the needle to touch the surface of the sample.
5. Make the pointer of the dial to read zero. Release the needle for exactly five seconds.
6. After each trail the sample and transfer dish is return to the water bath and wash the
needle with benzene and dry it.
7. Finally we note the observation and results.
 Observations and calculations:

TRAIL INITIAL READING FINAL READING PENETRATION VALUE

NO. (mm) (mm) (mm)
1 0
2 0
3 0
AVERAGE =

Result:
The average penetration value of the bitumen is 82.33
Discussions:
According to IRC, Bitumen grades 60/70 and 80/100 is suitable for bituminous macadam and
penetration macadam. Hence this sample of bitumen is suitable for road construction.
Penetration test of bitumen is applied exclusively to bitumen. Tars being soft, penetration
tests on these materials cannot be carried out.
Penetration value of different types of bitumen used in road construction range between 20 to
225. However, 30/40 and 80/100 grade bitumen is more common for road construction
depending upon the type of construction and climate conditions. In hot 30/40 bitumen is
preferred.
The value of temperature effects the use of the bitumen. Lower penetration grade is used
in warm climate condition to avoid softening and high penetration grade range of 180/210
are used in cold climate condition to prevent it from excessive brittleness.
In the last word, the Penetration test of Bitumen is used for the Garde of bitumen material in
terms of its hardness. A 70/100 grade bitumen shows that its penetration value lies between
70 & 100.

Precautions:

 The container should not be moved while needle penetrates into sample.
 The sample should be free from any external materials.
 Benzene is used to clean up the needle and dried before penetration.
 Softening point of bitumen

Aim of the experiment:

To determine the softening point of the given sample of bitumen.

Apparatus required:
Ring and Ball Apparatus, Water Bath with Stirrer, Steel Balls, Bunsen Burner.

Theory:
Bitumen is the residue or by-product obtained by the refining of crude petroleum. A
wide variety of refining techniques like straight distillation technique, solvent extraction
technique etc are used to produce bitumen of different consistency and other desirable
properties. Depending on the origin and other characteristics of the crude oils and property of
bitumen required, more than one processing method may be employed. The type of
construction decides the type of bitumen needs to be used. But in general good bitumen
should have following properties.

1. Temperature susceptibility of bitumen: the bitumen mix should not become too soft or
unstable during hot weather, and not become too brittle during cold weather.
2. Viscosity of the bitumen: at the time of mixing and compaction should be adequate.
This can be managed by the use of cutbacks or emulsions of suitable grades or heating
the bitumen and aggregates prior to mixing.
3. Affinity and adhesion of bitumen: There should be adequate affinity and adhesion
between the bitumen and aggregates used in the mix.

The softening point of materials like asphalt, bitumen have no definite melting point,
but when heated it gradually changes from brittle or very thick and slow-flowing materials to
more mobile liquid material. The softening point of bitumen or tar is the temperature at which
the substance attains particular degree of softening under specified conditions of test. The test
is conducted by using Ring and Ball apparatus. A brass ring containing test sample of
bitumen is suspended in liquid like water or glycerine at a given temperature. A steel ball is
placed upon the bitumen sample and the liquid medium is heated at a rate of 5 degree per
minute.
 Softening Point Test Setup

As per IS: 334-1982 it is the temperature in °C at which a standard ball passes

through a sample of bitumen in a mould and falls through a height of 2.5 cm. The binder
material used in pavement construction should have sufficient fluidity before its applications.
The softening point of the binder helps to know the temperature up to which a bituminous
binder should be heated for various pavement applications. Generally, higher softening point
represents lower temperature susceptibility of bitumen and is preferred in warmer regions.
Procedure:
1. Firstly the bituminous material is heated to a pouring temperature i.e. 90oC and is
poured into the rings on a metal plate.
2. After cooling for 30 mins in air, if required level the material in the ring by removing
the excess material with a warmed, sharp knife.
3. We assemble the apparatus in position. We put two balls into the moulded rings.
4. We fill the beaker with distilled water to a height of 50mm above the upper surface
of the rings.
5. We assemble the apparatus with the rings, stirrer, and ball guides in position.
6. We heat the water bath and stir the liquid so that the temperature rises at a uniform
rate of 5± 0.5oC per minute.
7. Finally we note down the observation and results.

Observations and calculations:

Temperature at which the ball 1 drops = 41oC
Temperature at which the ball 2 drops = 43oC
Average temperature = 42oC
Result:
Therefore the softening point of bitumen sample is 42oC. Bitumen with this softening point is
suitable for region lesser than this temperature.

Discussions:
The softening point is defined as the temperature at which a bitumen sample can no longer
support the weight of a 3.5-g steel ball. Basically, two horizontal disks of bitumen, cast in
shouldered brass rings are heated at a controlled rate in a liquid bath while each supports a
steel ball. The softening point is reported as the mean of the temperatures at which the two
disks soften enough to allow each ball, enveloped in bitumen, to fall a distance of 25 mm.
Determining softness temperature (softening point) of bitumen. Hard grade bitumen has a
high degree of softness temperature compared with soft bitumen grade. As the temperature
rises, the bitumen will change the nature of the solid state to the liquid bitumen hardness
decreases.

Precautions:

 Use hand gloves, apron while removing containers from hot plate after switching off the
hotplate.
 Use glycerin for remove of bitumen from the container.
 Use distilled water in test for accuracy result.
 Use safety shoes & Apron at the time of test.
 Equipment should be cleaned thoroughly before testing & after testing.
 The bulb of the thermometer should be at about the same level as the rings.
 Soundness test of aggregate

Aim of the experiment:

To determine the soundness test of aggregates.

Apparatus required:
The apparatus required for the test are containers for aggregates, sieves (63, 50, 40, 31.5, 20,
16, 10, 8, 4.75 and 4 mm), balance of capacity 5 kg to weight accurate to at least 0.1 g, wire
mesh basket and oven to maintain 105°C to 110°C.

Theory:
Soundness is the property of aggregate to resist disintegration when subjected to
freezing and thawing. The test is intended to study the resistance of Aggregate to weathering
condition in concrete or other applications. It carried out to judge the durability of soundness
of the aggregate. In order to quicken the effect of weathering due to alternate set-dry and or
freeze-thaw cycles in the laboratory, the resistance to disintegration of aggregate is
determined by soaking the aggregate specimen in saturated solution of solution sulphate or
magnesium sulphate.

Procedure:
1. Take individual samples in a wire mesh basket and immerse it in the solution of
sodium sulphate or magnesium sulphate for not less than 16 hours or more than 18
hours, in such a manner that the solution covers them to a depth of at least 15 mm.
2. After completion of the immersion period, remove the samples from solution and
allow it to drain for 15 minutes and place it in drying oven.
3. Dry the sample from solution until it attains a constant mass and then remove it from
oven and cool it to room temperature.
4. After cooling again immerse it in the solution as described in step 1.
5. The process of alternate immersion and dying is repeated until the specified number
of cycles as agreed between the purchaser and the vendor is obtained.
6. After completion of the final cycle and after the sample has been cooled, wash it to
free from sodium sulphate or magnesium sulphate solution. This may determined
when there is no reaction of the wash water with barium chloride.
7. Then dry each fraction of the sample to constant temperature of 105 to 110°C and
weigh it.
8. Sieve the fine aggregates over the same sieve on which it was retained before test.
9. Sieve the coarse aggregate over the sieve shown below for the appropriate size of
particles.

Size of Aggregate Sieve used to determine loss

63 mm to 40 mm 31.5 mm

40 mm to 20 mm 16.0 mm

20 mm to 10 mm 8.0 mm
 10 mm to 4.754 mm 4.0 mm

Observations and calculations:

Sieve size (mm) Grading Weight of Weight of Percentage Weighted

Passing Retained of Test Fraction Passing Finer Average
Original Fraction After Test Sieve After (Corrected
Sample Before (gm) Test (Actual Percentage
Percent Test (gm) Percentage Loss)
Loss)
63 40
40 20
20 10
10 4.75
Total

Result:
Where, W1 = Initial weight of sample (1 Kg).
W2 = Final weight of sample after 10 times.
PERCENTAGE LOSS = (100-82)x 100/100 %
= 18% which is less than 25 %

Discussions:
Since Number of cycle is 10 and re-agent used is Na2SO4 so maximum percentage loss is
25%. When the percentage loss is greater than 25% then, this test shows that aggregate
undergoes weathering process which ultimately decreases bearing strength. Hence, such
aggregates cannot be used in road pavement. Aggregate having percentage loss less than 25%
is used in road pavement.
 Stripping value of aggregate:

Aim of the experiment:

To determine the stripping value of road aggregates binders

Apparatus required:
 Thermostatically controlled water bath
 Oven to heat aggregate
 Sieves of sizes 20mm and 12mm
 Beaker of 500 ml capacity
 Mixture to mix aggregate and bitumen.

Theory:
Procedure:
1. 200 gram of clean and dry aggregate passing 20mm IS seive and retained on 12.5 mm
sieve are heated up to 150 degree Celsius when these are to be mix with bitumen.
2. Bitumen binder amounting to 5% by weight of aggregate is heated to 160 degrees
Celsius
3. The aggregate and binder are mixed thoroughly till they are completely coated and
mixture is transferred to the beaker and allowed to cool at room temperature for about
2 hours
4. Distilled water is then added to immerse the coated aggregates
5. The beaker is covered and kept in a water bath maintained at 40 degree Celsius for 24
hours
6. After 24 hours the beaker is taken out ,cooled at room temperature and the extent of
stripping is estimated visually while the specimen is still under water.

Observations and calculations:

Type of binder 60/70
Percentage of binder use 5 percent by weight
Total weight of aggregate 200g
Total weight of binder 10.0g
Temperature of water bath – 40 Celsius

Observation Number Stripping % Average

1 2
2 4 3 percent
3 3
Result:
Coat Retained 97 percent
The Result is reported as the percentage of stone surface that remains coated after the
specified periods, the mean value of at least three visually estimated values being rounded off
to nearest 5%

By visual estimation stripping value of road aggregate is= …………95……………..%

Discussions and conclusion:

Indian Road Congress (IRC) has specified the maximum stripping values as 5 percent for
aggregates to be used in bituminous construction like surface dressing penetration macadam,
bituminous macadam and the carpet.
Some type of aggregate have lesser affinity with bitumen in comparison with water and hence
stripping value of the bituminous binder is done when the mix is immersed in water.
 Specific gravity of bitumen

Aim of the experiment:

To determine the specific gravity of the given sample of bitumen.

Apparatus required:
Specific Gravity bottle, Weighing Balance, Distilled Water.

Theory:
Bitumen is the residue or by-product obtained by the refining of crude petroleum. A
wide variety of refining techniques like straight distillation technique, solvent extraction
technique etc are used to produce bitumen of different consistency and other desirable
properties. Depending on the origin and other characteristics of the crude oils and property of
bitumen required, more than one processing method may be employed. The type of
construction decides the type of bitumen needs to be used. But in general good bitumen
should have following properties.

1. Temperature susceptibility of bitumen: the bitumen mix should not become too soft
or unstable during hot weather, and not become too brittle during cold weather.
2. Viscosity of the bitumen: at the time of mixing and compaction should be adequate.
This can be managed by the use of cutbacks or emulsions of suitable grades or heating
the bitumen and aggregates prior to mixing.
3. Affinity and adhesion of bitumen: There should be adequate affinity and adhesion
between the bitumen and aggregates used in the mix.

In pavement constructions density property of binder is in great use to classify a

binder and its quality. In general use the weight of the bitumen is converted into volume
using density values when it is used with aggregates. The density of bitumen indirectly
conveys the quality of bitumen as it is greatly influenced by its chemical composition.
Increase in aromatic type mineral impurities cause an increase in specific gravity. Therefore it
is important to know the specific gravity of run and cut-back bitumen to understand the rate
of spread, volumetric conversion of mix design etc. Specific gravity of bitumen is expressed
as the ratio of the mass of a given volume of the material at 25°C to that of an equal volume
of water at the same temperature. The specific gravity of pure bitumen ranges from 0.97 to
1.02 according to Indian standard (BIS) minimum specific gravity of paving bitumen at 27°C
shall be 0.99 for grades A25, A35, A45, A65, S35, S45 and S65, 0.98 for A90 and S90 and
0.97 for A200. The higher specific gravity will be obtained if the bitumen contains mineral
impurities. Specific gravity is obtained as,

Specific Gravity =

W1= Empty weight of pycnometer

W2 = Empty weight of pycnometer + Bitumen

 W3 = Weight of pycnometer+ Water+ Bitumen

W4 = Weight of pycnometer+ Water

Procedure:
1. Firstly we cleaned and dried Specific Gravity bottle is weighed along with stopper W1
(g).
2. Then the specific gravity bottle is filled with distilled water and is placed in water
bath maintained at 27oC.
3. The Specific gravity bottle containing distilled water is now weighed W2 (g).
4. Now the bituminous material is heated to a pouring temperature 90oC.
5. The Specific gravity bottle containing bitumen is now weighed W3 (g).
6. Again the remaining space in the specific gravity bottle is filled with distilled water
and stopper is placed.
7. Now specific gravity bottle along with water and bitumen is placed in water container
for atleast half an hour at temperature 27oC.
8. The Specific gravity bottle containing bitumen + distilled water is now weighed W4
(g).
9. Finally we note down the observation and results.

Observations and calculations:

Weight of empty Specific Gravity bottle (W1) = 42.52 g
Weight of empty Specific Gravity bottle + water (W2) = 73.98 g
Weight of empty Specific Gravity bottle + Bitumen (W3) = 64.00 g
Weight of empty Specific Gravity bottle + Bitumen + Water (W4) = 74.30
Specific Gravity of Bitumen = (W3-W1)/ ((W2-W4) – (W1-W3))
= (64-42.52) / ((73.98-74.30) – (42.52-64.00))
= 1.0151

Result:
Specific Gravity of the bitumen is 1.0151.
Since the Specific Gravity value of bitumen ranges from 0.97 to 1.02 according to BIS, This
Bitumen is suitable for pavement construction.
Discussions:
The test is based on the principle that specific gravity is the ratio of the mass of a given
volume of bitumen to the mass of an equal volume of water, both taken at a specified
temperature. This test can also be used to determine the specific gravity of road tars, creosote
and anthracene oils as per IS: 1202 – 1978. The specific gravity of bitumen varies from 0.97
to 1.02. The specific gravity of any grade of bitumen to be used in payments should not be
less than 0.99

Precautions:

 It is necessary that all precautions are taken in making the specific gravity bottles
thoroughly cleaned and dried in the first weighting.
 The surface of the specific gravity bottle should be cleaned dry after filling with water,
before weighing.
 The test temperature should be firmly adhered to.
 Inaccurate balance would never give reproducible results.
 Flash and fire point test

Aim of the experiment:

Determine the flash and fire point of bitumen.

Apparatus required:
 Pensky-Martens closed tester

 Thermometer
Theory:
This test is done to determine the flash point and the fire point of asphaltic bitumen and
fluxed native asphalt, cutback bitumen and blown type bitumen as per IS: 1209 – 1978.
The principle behind this test is given below:

 FlashPoint – The flash point of a material is the lowest temperature at which the
application of test flame causes the vapours from the material to momentarily
catch fire in the form of a flash under specified conditions of the test.

Fig 1: Flash Point Stage of Bitumen

 FirePoint – The fire point is the lowest temperature at which the application of test
flame causes the material to ignite and burn at least for 5 seconds under specified
conditions of the test.
 Fig 2 : Fire Point Stage of Bitumen

Necessity of this test:

It is necessary because at higher temperatures bituminous materials leave out volatiles.
These volatile vapors contain hydro carbons. So, they can catch the fire easily and will
cause flash at one point and if it is further prone to heat the material may ignite and burn.

Catching fire is very dangerous during mixing of bitumen especially during its
application. So, it is necessary to recognize the safe temperature values of bitumen
grades for mixing as well as for applying. The limited values of temperature can be
determined by conducting Flash point and Fire point test on bitumen.
 Fig 3: Pensky-Martens Apparatus

Recommended Values

For any type of Bitumen grade

Minimum Flash point value should be = 175oC
Minimum Fire point value should be = 175oC
+
5oC.

Procedure:
1. Heat the bitumen to above its softening point generally 75oC to 100oC and stir
this softened bitumen thoroughly to remove air bubbles.
2. Fill the cup with softened bitumen up to the filling mark provided on the cup.
Now place the lid and close the cup.
3. Other accessories like thermometer and flame exposure are suitably fixed in
their respective positions. Now lit up the flame and set the size of flame to
4mm in diameter.
4. The bitumen getting heated and preferred rate of heating should be 5oC to 6oC
per minute.
5. Stirring of sample should be simultaneously done along with heating using
stirrer device.
6. The rate of stirring should be approximately 60 revolutions per minute.
7. Observe the thermometer carefully and when the temperature is 17oC below
the actual flash point (175OC) lit up the test flame.
8. The test flame size should be of 4mm diameter and carry it close to the
heating sample.
9. Apply the test flame for every 1OC rise from this point and remember
during application of test flame the stirring should be stopped.
10. When the sample catches the flame and forms Flash, note town the temperature
at that point which is Flash point of the bitumen.
11. Heat the sample further with the same previous rate and apply the test flame
for every 2OC rise when the material catches the fire and burns at least for 5
seconds, note the temperature at this point which is the fire point of the
bitumen.
12. Repeat the experiment for 2 more times and the average of the three
readings should be taken as Flash point and Fire point of the given sample.

Observations and calculations:

Property Test Mean

1 2 3
Flash point 253 251 250 251.3
 Fire point 258 257 255 256.67

Result:
 Flash point of the bitumen = 251.3OC
 Fire point of the bitumen = 256.67OC

Discussions:
The determination of flash point is helpful in assessing the safe limits of heating the
bitumen. The heating temperature of bitumen should be limited well below the flash
point.

Precautions:
 The test flame should neither be larger than stipulated nor be applied more frequently
than specified as the surface layer may get heated.
 The bluish halo that sometimes surrounds the test flame should not be confused with the
true flash.
 Viscosity test of asphalt binder by vacuum capillary viscometer

Aim of the experiment:

To determine the viscosity of asphalt binder by vacuum capillary viscometer
Apparatus required:

The following testing equipment is needed to measure absolute viscosity of viscosity graded
paving bitumen (IS:73-2006) at 60 C in accordance with IS:1206 which uses a vacuum
capillary viscometer. It should be noted that any other viscometer such as rotational
viscometer cannot be used to measure the absolute viscosity at 60 C since the bitumen in non
Newtonian in nature at this temperature.
Complete Absolute Viscosity Testing Equipment conforming to IS:1206 (Part 2) Method for
Testing Tar and Bitumen Materials: Determination of Absolute Viscosity with the following
components:

1. Constant Temperature Bath – A suitable bath for immersion of at least 6 vacuum

capillary viscometer tubes with a digital temperature controller. The accuracy of the
temperature in the bath should be +/- 0.1 C throughout the bath.
2. Silicone Bath Oil suitable up to 150 C
3. Vacuum System – Capable of maintaining a vacuum within +/- 0.05 cm of the desired
level up to and including 30 cm of mercury. The system shall consist of vacuum pump,
moisture trap, vacuum regulator, manometer with electronic controller, bleed valve, all
interconnecting tubing/piping, and any other accessories as needed to complete the
vacuum system.
4. Thermometer for Bath – Mercury in glass, range 37.8 to 82 C, and graduations of 0.2
C.
5. Timing Device – A stop watch or stop clock capable of reading up to ½ second.
6. Vacuum Capillary Viscometers– With manufacturers’ calibration certificate,
viscometer holder and silicone cork. Size 12 and Size 13 (one each) [Size 12 is suitable
for testing VG-10 and Size 13 is suitable for testing VG-20, VG-30, and VG-40
bitumen.]
7. Viscometer Stand – for holding 6 viscometers.
8. Installation of the quoted instrument in client’s laboratory and operational training.

Procedure:

1. Heat the bitumen sample to a temperature not more than 90 C above its approx.
softening point until has become sufficiently fluid (like motor oil) to pour easily.
2. Transfer about 20 ml into a suitable containerand maintain at a temperature of 135 +/-
5.5 C stirring occasionally to allow entrapped air to escape.
3. Pour the hot bitumen in the Canning-Manning vacuum viscometer through the larger
diameter filling tube A so that bitumen is within +/- 2 mm of the fill line E. Place the
charged viscometer in an oven or bath maintained at 135 +/- 5.5 C for a period of 10 +/-
2 minutes to allow larger air bubbles to escape.
 Fig:- Vacuum Capillary Viscometer

Testing:

1. Maintain the test bath temperature at 60 +/- 0.1 C. Place the charged viscometer
vertically in the test bath with the help of a holder so that that the uppermost timing mark
is at least 2 cm below the surface of the bath liquid .
2. Establish a vacuum of 30 +/- 0.05 cm of mercury in the vacuum system and connect to
the viscometer with the valve closed. After the viscometer has been in the bath for 30 +/-
5 min, open the valve and allow the bitumen to flow in the viscometer.
3. Measure the time required (to within +/- 0.5 sec) for the leading edge of the meniscus to
pass between successive pairs of timing marks.
4. Report the first flow time which exceeds 60 sec between a pair of timing marks, noting
the identification of the pair of the timing marks.

Calculation:
Calculate and report the absolute viscosity in poises to three significant figures as follows:
Viscosity in poises = K t
Where:
K = Calibration factor in poise per second supplied with the viscometer tube for the pair of
timing marks where the flow time exceeded 60 seconds.
t = flow time in seconds
Viscosity in poises = 15.2 x 68.6 = 1042.7 POISES

Conclusion:

Report the test temperature and vacuum level with the viscosity test results such as viscosity
in poises @ 60 C and 300 mm mercury vacuum.
Kinematic viscosity at 135 C also needs to be determined for the paving bitumen as specified
in IS: 73-2006. At this temperature, bitumen flows readily so no vacuum needs to be applied.
Follow IS: 1206 (Part III) Methods for Testing Tar and Bituminous Materials: Determination
of Kinematic Viscosity, to select the proper viscometer tube given in there. The same oil bath
as used for absolute viscosity can be used, just the viscometer tube will be different . As an
alternate, one can also use a rotational viscometer which will also give the same results
because the bitumen is Newtonian in nature at 135 C. The purchase and use of rotational
viscometer is encouraged because it can also be used for modified binders and also for
Superpave Performance Graded (PG) binders, which are expected to be adopted in the near
future. Again, rotational viscometer cannot be used to measure the absolute viscosity at 60 C.
 Viscosity test of asphalt binder by saybolt furol
viscometer
Aim :
To determine viscosity of asphalt binder by SayboltFurol Viscometer

Apparatus required:
 Viscometer- A SayboltFurol Viscometer.
 Filter Funnel- It is equipped with interchangeable 150 μm (no. 100) and 75 μm
 (no. 200) wire cloth.
 Thermometer
 Water Bath- Capable of maintaining the required testing temperature within the
 specified limit
 Receiving flask.

Theory:
Until the advent of the Superpave mix design system in the early 1990s, the viscosity of
asphalt binders was the key measure used in purchase specifications. As a result, many
sections that are now reaching their design lives and, as a result, are included in the LTPP
database, contain various measures of viscosity. Over the years, four primary types of
viscosity measures have been adopted: (1) ring and ball temperature (R&BT), (2) penetration
(at various temperatures), (3) absolute viscosity at 140 °F (60 °C), and (4) kinematic viscosity
at 275 °F (135 °C). These measures have been used together or separately in various grading
schemes. With the exception of penetration, these viscosity measures are beyond the range of
temperature conditions typically needed for modulus prediction. As a result, a certain amount
of processing the available data is necessary. In this appendix, the steps necessary to properly
analyze available viscosity data are presented.

Temperature susceptibility relationship

Although the relationship between viscosity and temperature is highly nonlinear, it has been
found that when proper transformations are made to temperature and viscosity, a linear
relationship exists. This relationship is commonly referred to as the “A-VTS relationship.”
The plateau region is based on arguments that are, in turn, based on the chemical structure of
asphalt binder and suggest that the maximum viscosity for asphalt binder is 2.7 x 1012 cP
(0.0027 x 1012)Pas For the purposes of this report, this same limiting criterion was also
adopted.
 Graph. A-VTS relationship

Where:

η = Viscosity (cP).
A = Intercept of temperature susceptibility relationship.
VTS = Slope of temperature susceptibility relationship.
TR = Temperature in Rankine.
Temperature in Rankine at which the viscosity is equal to 2.7 x 1012 cP (0.0027 x
Tcritical = 12
10 Pas).

Because the A-VTS relationship is linear, only two of the four viscosity measures are needed
to completely characterize the relationship. The following sections provide the equations
necessary to convert the four measures to actual viscosity.

The softening point of asphalt binder is also known as R&BT. According to literature on the
topic, this temperature, measured in Fahrenheit, corresponds to the temperature at which
asphalt binder has a viscosity of 13,000 P (1,300 Pas).

Penetration
In this test, a 3.5-oz (100-g) needle is used to penetrate an asphalt sample for 5 s. The amount
of penetration, measured in tenths of a millimeter, is the penetration number for the asphalt
binder at the particular test temperature. The measurement temperature typically used for
specification purposes is 77 °F (25 °C); however, other temperatures, including 39.2 and 115
°F (4 and 46 °C), may also be measured. Penetration values are converted to viscosity .

Where:

η = Viscosity (P).
PEN = Penetration number at a given test temperature.
Absolute viscosity
The absolute viscosity is the viscosity of asphalt binder measured at 140 °F (60 °C). Because
this quantity is typically reported in poise instead of centipoise, the only conversion needed is
to multiply the given quantity by 100.

Kinematic viscosity
The kinematic viscosity of asphalt binder is determined at 275 °F (135 °C) via AASHTO
T201-03. Kinematic and absolute viscosities are related by the density of the medium under
investigation. For LTPP purposes, it is assumed that the density for all binders is equal to 0.6
oz/in3 (1.03 g/cm3).

Where:
η = Absolute viscosity .
ν = Kinematic viscosity .
ρ = Density ((g/cm3)).

Procedure:
 Preparation of apparatus:
1. Universal orifice or furolorifice is used.
2. The viscometer along with the bath should be setup in area where there is
no rapid change in temperature.
3.The receiving flask is kept beneath the viscometer tube.
 The test temperature should be set in bath.
 The flask is immersed in boiling water for 30 min.
 It is mixed well; the sample is removed from the water bath and the sample is strained
through 75 μ wire cloth in the filter funnel directly into the viscometer till the level is
such that it I about to overflow.
 The sample is stirred in viscometer using an appropriate viscosity thermometer.
 The receiving flask is checked to be in correct position. The cork is then removed
from viscometer and the timer is started.
 The timer is stopped as soon as the oil meniscus reached the graduation mask on the
receiving flask.
 The efflux time is repeated in seconds.
 Fig: SayboltFurol Viscometer

Observation and result :

i. Test temperature= 25 C
ii. Time taken to flow 50 c.c of binder=
iii. Viscosity=
iv. The viscosity of bituminous material is ____________.
v. The kinematic viscosity of given sample is ___________.

Conclusion:
1. The determination of time of flow of binder through the orifice gives an indirect
measure of viscosity of tars and cutbacks. Higher the duration of flow greater is the
viscosity.
2. Viscosity of binder is one of the criteria for their classification. The viscosity should
fall within range.
3. Binders having very low viscosity can be advantageously used in exceptionally cold
weather conditions.
4. High viscosity binder should be heated before their application.
 California Bearing Ratio Test on Soil
Aim:To determine California Bearing Ratio value of soil by conducting load penetration test.

Apparatus Required – CBR Setup, CBR Mould, Filter Paper, Rammer, Plunger, Space
Disc, Surcharge Weight, Slotted Weight.

Theory –
The California Bearing Ratio (CBR) test is a penetration test meant for the estimation of
subgrade strength of roads and pavements. The results found by these tests are used with the
empirical curves to find the thickness of pavement and its component layers. This is the most
commonly used method for the design of flexible pavement. California Division of Highway
developed CBR test as a method of classifying and evaluating soil-sub grade and base course
materials for flexible pavements. An empirical test, the CBR test has been used to find the
material properties for pavement design.
It is a penetration test in which a standard piston, with a diameter of 3 in or 76 mm, is used to
penetrate the soil at a standard rate of 1.25 mm/minute. The pressure up to a penetration of
12.5 mm and its ratio to the bearing value of a standard crushed rock is defined as CBR. In
most of the cases, CBR value decreases as the penetration value increases. The ratio is
usually determined for the penetration of 2.5mm and 5.0mm.
In some cases, the ratio at 5 mm may be greater than that at 2.5 mm. If this occurs, the ratio at
5 mm must be used. The CBR is a measure of resistance of a material to penetration of a
standard plunger under controlled density and moisture conditions. The test procedure should
be strictly adhered, if a high degree of reproducibility is desired.
The CBR test is conducted on a remolded or undisturbed specimen in the laboratory. The test
is simple and has been widely investigated for field correlations of flexible pavement
thickness condition.
CBR apparatus consists a mould of 150 mm diameter with a base plate and a collar, a loading
frame and dial gauges for measuring the penetration values and the expansion on soaking.
The specimen in the mould is soaked in water for four days and the swelling and water
absorption values are noted. The surcharge weight is placed on the top of the specimen in the
mould and the assembly is placed under the plunger of the loading frame.
Load is applied on the sample by a standard plunger with diameter of 50 mm at the rate of
1.25 mm/min. A load penetration curve is drawn. The load values on standard crushed stones
are 1370 kg, 2055 kg, 2630 kg, 3180 kg and 3600 kg at 2.5 mm, 5.0 mm, 7.5 mm, 10.0 mm
and 12.5 mm penetrations respectively. CBR value is defined as the percentage of the actual
load causing the penetrations of 2.5 mm or 5.0 mm to the standard loads mentioned above.
The test is carried out on the undisturbed specimens and on remoulded specimens which may
be compacted either statically or dynamically. For light compaction, compact the soil in 3
equal layers, each layer being given 55 blows with 2.6 kg rammer. For heavy compaction
compact the soil in 5 layers, 56 blows to each layer with 4.89 kg rammer.
Generally, the CBR value at 2.5 mm will be greater that at 5 mm and in such a case the
former shall be taken as CBR for design purpose. If CBR for 5 mm exceeds that for 2.5 mm,
the test should be repeated. The CBR can therefore be mathematically expressed as below:

CBR = pps × 100

Where, p = measured pressure for site soils [N/mm2]

ps = pressure to achieve equal penetration on standard soil [N/mm2]

Figure : Schematic Diagram of CBR Experimental Setup.

The California Bearing Ratio (CBR) test is a strength test that compares the bearing capacity
of a material with that of a well-graded crushed stone. The harder the surface, the higher the
CBR value. Typically, a value of 2% equates to clay, while some sands may have a CBR
value of 10%. High quality sub-base will have a value of between 80-100% (maximum).
As per IRC: 37-2001, if the maximum variation in CBR values among the three specimens
tested in the laboratory exceed the permissible variation in CBR values for different ranges
(as given in the table below), the CBR test should be repeated on additional three specimens
and the average value of six specimens is to be accepted as the CBR value.

CBR value Maximum permissible variation in CBR values between 3 individual

(%) test value (±, %)
 <5 1

5 - 10 2
11 – 30 3

31 or above 5

Procedure –

 Normally 3 specimens each of about 7 kg must be compacted so that their compacted

densities range from 95% to 100% generally with 10, 30 and 65 blows.
 Weigh of empty mould.
 Add water to the first specimen (compact it in five layer by giving 10 blows per
layer).
 After compaction, remove the collar and level the surface.
 Take sample for determination of moisture content.
 Weight of mould + compacted specimen.
 Place the mold in the soaking tank for four days (ignore this step in case of unsoaked
CBR.
 Take other samples and apply different blows and repeat the whole process.
 After four days, measure the swell reading and find %age swell.
 Remove the mould from the tank and allow water to drain.
 Then place the specimen under the penetration piston and place surcharge load of
10lb.
 Apply the load and note the penetration load values.
 Draw the graphs between the penetration (in) and penetration load (in) and find the
value of CBR.
 Draw the graph between the %age CBR and Dry Density, and find CBR at required
degree of compaction.

Observation –

Diameter of plunger = 50 mm
Area of plunger = 19.63cm2

Optimum moisture content = 15%

Therefore, Load (kg) = Proving Ring Reading ×5 ×10002259.81

Axial Load (kg/cm2) = Load (kg)Area of Plunger

Penetration Proving Ring Readings Load (kg) Axial Load (kg/cm2)

0 0 0 0
0.5 14 31.71 1.62
1 26.2 59.35 3.02
1.5 33.1 74.98 3.82
2 36.4 82.46 4.20
 2.5 41.3 93.56 4.77
3 46.2 104.66 5.33
4 48.9 110.77 5.64
5 53.6 121.42 6.19
7.5 59.4 134.56 6.85
10 67 151.77 7.73
12.5 73 165.36 8.42

Graphical Representation –

Observation and Results –

Unit standard load for 2.5 mm = 70 kg/m2

Unit standard load for 5 mm = 100 kg/m2

California Bearing Ratio,

CBR2.5 mm = Load Corresponding To 2.5mm penetration (Pr) Standard load corresponding

to 2.5mm penetration (Ps) × 100

= 4.7770 × 100
= 6.81 %

CBR5 mm = Load Corresponding To 5mm penetration (Pr) Standard load corresponding to

5mm penetration (Ps) × 100

= 6.19105 × 100 = 5.9%

Conclusion –

Since the soil is within the specified range it is suitable for pavement construction.
 Traffic volume study

Aim of the experiment:

Traffic Volume Study

Theory:
The term traffic volume study can be termed as traffic flow survey or simply the traffic
survey. It is defined as the procedure to determine mainly volume of traffic moving on the
roads at a particular section during a particular time.
Traffic volume study is expressed as the number of vehicles crossing a section of road per
unit time. The experiment is done by manual or automatic counters. In this study, the type of
vehicles and the number of vehicles are to be counted including the direction of vehicles.
On the basis of the number and type of vehicles crossing a given section of road per hour, we
have the PCU (Passenger Car Unit) values.

Methods of traffic volume study

Following are the means of conducting traffic survey:

1. By Toll Plaza Ticketing

2. Registration offices
3. Statistical Approach
4. By Interviewing
5. By Check posts
6. Modern Global Positioning Systems

Below is the detailed theory of TVS

1. Toll Plaza Ticketing:
Toll Plazas are now a day constructed for the collection of revenue from the road users. This
process is very efficient for collection of revenue because many people who are using the
road have to pay that thus playing an important role in the establishment of economy. Toll
Plaza may also be used for conducting the traffic survey. As every vehicle passing through it
have to pay the tax and a receipt is handed over to the persons, thus in this way by calculating
the no of receipts for a particular type of vehicle, it can be know that how much cars, buses,
trucks and other vehicles have left the city and entered.
2. Registration Offices:
Every new vehicle has to be registered from the government when it is bought by its owner.
Registration offices are located in every district level and the persons residing nearby are
bound to register their vehicle from the prescribed office. For the purpose of conducting
traffic survey, record from these offices can be taken for a particular year. Thus this record
will enable us to determine the no of new vehicles entered in the roads. However this method
has some draw backs because when an old vehicle sold by a person, after that the sold
vehicle, which was registered in the particular district, may move from that district to a new
place.
3. Statistical Approach:
This method is applicable when the records for the past countries are maintained effectively
and efficiently. Thus by using statistical approaches of approximation may be used to predict
future predictions about traffic flow on the road.

4. By Interviewing:

Interview is a best method to understand daily routine of a person. Traffic survey interview
requires the knowledge about daily traffic density at different places during different times of
a day. This can be conducted by a group of persons standing at the different entrance points
of a city and inquiring one by one about their routine so that a proper data about the traffic
density at a particular point could be maintained and by using this data, better management
techniques regarding traffic flow could be utilized by respective departments. This method is
quit cumbersome because many of the transporters will not stop to persons for even a second.

5. Check Posts:

Check posts are provided at the entrance and exit points of a city or a province. The primary
purpose of these is to maintain the legal entry and exit so that thefts & other criminal cases
could be avoided as far as possible. Check posts can also be utilized to conducted traffic
survey. If the proper record regarding the entrance and exit of vehicles is maintained than it is
very easy to determine the no of vehicles entering and leaving the city daily.

6. Global Positioning System:

GPS, formally known as the Navstar Global Positioning System, was initiated in 1973 to aid
navigation systems. By creating a system that overcame the limitations of many existing
navigation systems, GPS became attractive to a broad spectrum of users. GPS has been
successful in navigation applications because GPS is accessible using small, inexpensive
equipment. GPS has also played role in many new applications like highway design etc.
This technique has got a new utilization now a day in traffic surveys in major countries like
USA, China and other developed country. This technique is equipped with a built in chips
and navigation control room. The chip is fitted in the vehicle and that is always in record
present in the control room. Thus record about exact no of vehicles even at a particular road
in the city is available at every instant. This is also called "Automated Surveillance
Technique".

Other methods:
(i) MANUAL COUNTS: In this method the traffic volume data is collected manually by a
group of people recording the number of vehicles passing on a pre-determined location.
(ii) AUTOMATIC COUNTS: In this method various instruments are used to collect the
traffic volume data. Some of the instruments are:
Pneumatic tubes, Inductive loops, Weigh-in-motion sensor, Bending tapes, Piezo-electric
cable, Video camera.
Observations:

PCU for rural highways per hour:

S. No Vehicle Type PCU

1 Passenger car, jeep, van, agricultural tractor, auto-rickshaw 1
2 Truck, bus, agricultural tractor-trailer 3
3 Motor-cycle, scooter and cycle 05
4 Cycle-rickshaw 1.5
5 Horse-drawn vehicle 4
6 Bullock-cart 8
Small bullock cart 6
7 Hand-cart 6

PCU values for urban highways per hour:

S. Vehicle Class PCU values of vehicle classes

No Urban roads mid- Signalized Car Parking (parallel
block section intersection parking)
1 Car 1.0 1.0 1.0
2 Bus and Truck 2.2 2.8 3.4
3 Auto rickshaw 0.58 0.4 0.4
4 Two wheeler auto 0.4 0.3 0.2
mobile
5 Pedal cycle 0.7 0.4 0.1
6 Bullock cart 4.6 3.2 1.2
7 Hand cart 4.6 3.2 1.3

Importance of traffic volume study:

Traffic survey is very important to be performed because it can:
1. Increase the efficiency and life of roads
2. Reduces traffic volume at a particular section
3. Provide better means for development of infrastructures
4. Provide better means to utilize other roads in case of special events in the city
5. Provide estimate of no vehicles against no of persons

Thus traffic survey is very important for development of better infrastructure to the
cities and finally to the country.