Sound

Production and transmission of sound

 Sound is produced by transverse vibrations of a source (e.g. drum skin or guitar string)
 Sound energy is transmitted when mechanical vibrations are set up in the medium around the
vibrating source (air, water, glass etc)
 The direction of vibration of the medium is parallel to the direction in which the sound energy
travels

 The speed of the wave on the guitar string depends on the tension in the string, the thickness
and length of the string. It is NOT the speed of sound in air.

 Typical speed of sound in air = 343 m/s at standard temperature and pressure

Longitudinal nature of sound (transmission of sound in air)

 When a source (like a drum skin or guitar string) vibrates, it causes air particles near it to vibrate
 Air particles move forward and backward repeatedly according to the frequency at which the
source vibrates.
 Where air particles are pushed close together, a region of compression where air pressure is
higher is set up
 Where air particles are farther apart, a region of rarefaction, where air pressure is lower
than atmospheric pressure is set up.
 The distance from one compression (or rarefaction) to the next compression (or
rarefaction) is one wavelength λ
 The time taken for a complete wave to form is the period T
 Frequency f refers to the number of complete sound waves produced in 1 second.
 The wave equation v = fλ applies

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A = amplitude, the maximum distance each particle moves from the equilibrium distance

Loudness and pitch of sound

 Loudness of a sound is related to the amount of energy in a sound wave. The larger the
amplitude, the larger the amount of energy being transmitted and the louder is the sound.
 The pitch is related to the number of complete waves produced in 1 second or the
frequency of the sound.

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Speed of sound in solid, liquid and gas
 Sound travels fastest in solid, followed by liquid and gas.
 This is due to the spacing between particles.
 Particles in a solid are closely packed hence they collide more frequently compared to
liquids and gases. Therefore sound travels fastest in solids.

Determining speed of sound (direct method)

Method 1

 Connect the loudspeaker to the display

 Move the microphone about 2.0 m from the loudspeaker and connect it to the display.
 Trace (a) corresponds to the signal from the loudspeaker.
 Trace (b) corresponds to the signal picked up by the microphone.
 The time interval between the 2 signals is d
 The speed of sound is calculated using speed = 2.0 m/time d

Method 2
 Person A and B stand 200 m apart.
 Person A fires a starting pistol.
 Person B starts a stopwatch when he sees the smoke from the pistol and stops the pistol when
he hears the sound.
 Speed of sound = 200 m/ time taken
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 Assumption = time taken by light to travel from starting pistol to B is negligible compared to the
time taken by sound to travel the same distance (or time taken by light to travel from starting
pistol to recorder is negligible as speed of light is much higher than speed of sound)
 To eliminate the effect of wind, repeat the procedure with person B firing the starting pistol
now and use the average of the time recorded to calculate the speed

Echo
 Sound is able to reflect off surfaces and this is used by bats in echolocation to determine the
exact location of prey or the submarines to detect underwater targets
 When the bat gets nearer to its prey, it increases the frequency at which pulses are sent. This
allows the bat to determine the location of its prey with greater accuracy.
 Sonar (Sound Navigation and Ranging) – passive (receive only) and active (send and receive)
 Radio waves can be used for the same purpose (Radar – Radio detection and Ranging)

Ultrasound and Uses of ultrasound

 Human audible range = 20 Hz to 20 000 Hz
 Below 20 Hz = infrasound
 Ultrasound is sound with frequency above the human audible range of 20000 Hz
 Advantages
o travel slower than light – signals can be displayed
o Able to penetrate opaque objects

Ultrasonic imaging Monitor growth of foetus. High frequency sound wave that bounces off
the surface of a denser object
Ultrasound gel is used to ensure a tight bond between the transducer
and the skin so that the waves transmit directly to the tissues under the
skin
Ultrasonic cleaning Cavitation bubbles produced by high frequency sound waves in a
cleaning liquid produce a high force on surfaces when they burst. The
force is used to remove contaminants from hard to reach surfaces
Detect flaws in A high frequency ultrasonic wave, which propagates through a medium,
materials and when there is a crack in the path of a wave, part of the energy will
be reflected from the flaw surface.

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 Chapter 16 Static Electricity

Types of charges

 A negative charge refers to an electron

 A positive charge refers to a proton or an atom which has lost electrons (ion)

Unit of charge

 1 electron has a charge of 1.6 × 10─19 C

 1 Coulomb of electric charge is made up of 6.25 × 10─18 electrons

Law of electrostatics

 Like charges repel and unlike charges attract

Testing the charge on an object

 Charged object attracts uncharged object

 Charged object also attracts object with the opposite charge
 Therefore, the only test for a charged object is repulsion

Electric field

 An electric field is a region in which an electric charge experiences a force

 (By convention) Direction of an electric field line is the direction of the force exerted on a small
positive test charge placed in the field
 Field line is perpendicular to the surface of the charged object
 Field lines always point away from a positive charge and towards a negative charge

Electric field of an isolated point charge

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Electric field between two isolated point charges

Electrostatic charging by friction (rubbing)

Explanation:

 Electrons which are loosely attached (attracted) to the atoms at the surface of the material are
removed due to friction and deposited on the surface of the other material.
 Rubbing transfers electrons, which are negatively charged, from the surface of one material to the
other.
 The triboelectric series categorises materials based on their tendency to become positively or
negatively charged

Positive Negative
Air, human body, glass, nylon, wool Teflon, silicon, vinyl, polyethylene, rubber
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*Take note: the charge on an object refers to excess charge

Electrostatic charging by induction

(1) Charging 2 conductors

(2) Charging one conductor

How is charge distributed on the surface of a conductor?

Charge density is highest where a surface is most sharply curved. Flat surfaces have a low charge density
compared with curved surfaces and charge density is highest at corners, edges and points on conductors.
(This does not apply to insulators because charge cannot flow to establish any particular distribution)

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Discharging

Hazards of electrostatic charging

(1) Electrostatic discharge

Electric charges can accumulate on trucks due to friction between the road and the rotating tyres of the
trucks. When a sudden discharge occurs, it may cause sparks, and ignite flammable items that the trucks
may be carrying. To prevent this, some older petrol tankers have metal chain at the rear of the vehicle. This
chain hangs close to the ground, and provides an earthing path for excess charges.

(2) Anti-static bags

Electrostatic discharge can also damage electronic equipment, such a circuit boards and hard drives. To
protect these equipment, they are usually packed in antistatic packaging. Antistatic materials have a thin
layer of metallised film, which acts an an electrostatic shield for the equipment placed inside. (like a Faraday
cage)

(3) Lightning

 A thundercloud is electrically charged due to the turbulent winds and moving particles of ice and
water within the cloud
 Negatively charged base of cloud induces positive charge on the ground and the buildings below.
 Positive charge builds up at the points of the lightning conductor causing surrounding air particles to
be ionised. The ionised air particles then stream towards the cloud.
 The steady leakage of positive charge towards the clouds from the points and the flow of electrons
(from air) down the lightning conductor to earth helps to prevent a large build-up of charge on the
highest point of the building.

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O Level 2015

Applications of electrostatic charging

(1) Electrostatic precipitator

 Used to remove smoke and dust from the waste gases going up the chimneys of factories and power
stations.
 The wire grid is kept highly charged so that dust particles in the gas going up the chimney are given
the same charge.
 The charged particles are repelled from the wire grid and attracted to the earthed plates where they
become deposited.
 These plates are tapped from time to time so that the dust particles fall down the chimney and are
removed at the bottom.

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(2) Fingerprinting

 Metal plate with a coating of fine powder is given a large electrical charge. The specimen is given the
opposite charge.
 The powder is repelled from the metal towards the specimen.
 When the powder hits the specimen, it is stuck to the ridges of the fingerprint
 Elsewhere, the powder is repelled and falls back on to the metal plate.

(3) Photocopier

 Surface of drum is covered with selenium, which becomes conducting when exposed to light.
 Toner is sprayed on drum and sticks to part of the drum
 Paper is passed over the drum and the toner powder sticks to the paper
 The powder on the paper is melted and forms a permanent image on the paper

Method 1 (O level 2012)

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Method 2 (O level 2007)

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(4) Spray painting

A fine needle at the tip of the spray paint gun is charged negatively. This gives all the paint droplets exiting
the spray gun a negative charge. If the object to be spray-painted is given a positive charge, then the paint is
attracted to it covering the object evenly on all sides.

Additional information

If a negatively charged rod is brought close to a small piece of paper (which is an insulator). The excess
electrons on the rod repel the electrons in the atoms which make up the paper, but attract the positively
charged nuclei. Since paper is an insulator, the repelled electrons are not free to move through the paper.
Instead, the atoms in the paper polarize: i.e., their nuclei move slightly towards, and their electrons slightly
away from, the rod. The attractive force between the excess electrons in the rod and the atomic nuclei in
the paper is slightly greater than the repulsion between the electrons in the rod and those in the paper,
since the electrons in the paper are, on average, slightly further away from the rod than the nuclei. Thus,
there is a net attractive force between the rod and the paper. In fact, if the piece of paper is sufficiently light
then it can actually be picked up using the rod. In summary, whenever a charged object is brought close to
an insulator, the atoms in the insulator polarize, resulting in a net attractive force between the object and the
insulator.