Chapter I Power electronics
CHAPTER I
POWER ELECTRONICS DEVICES
I. Introduction
Energy is a critical need in every human endeavor. The capabilities and flexibility of
modern electronics must be brought to bear to meet the challenges of reliable, efficient
energy. It is essential to consider how electronic circuits and systems can be applied to
the challenges of energy conversion and management. This is the framework of power
electronics, a discipline defined in terms of electrical energy conversion, applications,
and electronic devices.
Power electronics involves the study of electronic circuits intended to control the flow
of electrical energy. These circuits handle power flow at levels much higher than the
individual device ratings. In other words, Power electronics can be defined as a branch
of electrical engineering devoted to conversion and control of electric power, using
electronic converters based on semiconductor power switches.
Why Power Electronics?
Power electronics is a branch of electronics that deals with the application of electronic
devices and associated components to the conversion, control, and conditioning of
electric power. Power electronics converters modify the primary characteristics of
electrical power: the basic form AC or DC, voltage, current, frequency, and power
factor.
Sources Receptors
Power
electronics
Figure 1. Power electronics, the link between sources and receptors.
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The control of electric power allows for the regulation of nonelectrical parameters like
the intensity of lighting, the speed of a motor, the rate of an electrochemical process,
or the temperature of an oven.
Power electronics systems are used in a wide range of applications and have the
potential to impact any area of global industrial and social activity. From cellphones to
pacemakers, and utilities to automobiles, power electronics, and the engineering
behind those electronics are very influential in peoples’ daily lives.
The demand for electrical energy grows in direct relation to the improvement of the
quality of life. In the 21st Century, the technologies associated with the manipulation
and conservation of energy sources are of vital importance to ensure a comfortable
standard of living. Power electronics has a crucial role in the efficient use of electrical
energy and environmental control.
Power engineering reaches sectors such as residential, industrial, commercial,
medical, communications, transportation, aerospace, and military.
Some of the applications of power electronics are power conditioning, electrochemical
processes, temperature and lighting control, renewables power conversion, medical
applications, communications, computer industry, computer networks, electric power
networks, military, and transportation.
Figure 2. Relation of Power Electronics with other Disciplines.
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The block diagram of a typical power electronic system is shown in the figure below.
Figure 3. Block diagram of basic power electronics system
A power converter is an electrical circuit that changes the electric energy from one form
into the desired form optimized for the specific load. A converter may do one or more
functions and give an output that differs from the input. It is used to increase or
decrease the magnitude of the input voltage, invert polarity, adapt the shape, voltage,
current and frequency to the receptor. It is composed of semiconductor devices that
operate as switches and reactive components (Inductors and/or capacitors) that
permits energy stocking.
Power converter
Receptor
Figure 4. Power converter structure
II. History of power electronics
Power electronics emerged in the early 1900s, with the introduction of the mercury arc
rectifier (Peter Cooper Hewit in 1902). Then gradually appeared the triode (Lee De
Forest, 1906), the controlled grid high vacuum tube rectifier (Lee De Forest 1906), the
metal tank rectifier (Errol Shand, 1925), the ignitron (Joseph Slepian,1930s). All
applied to energy control until the 1950s.
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In 1948 the first electronic revolution began with the invention of the silicon transistor
at Bell Laboratories.
Figure 5. William Shockley, John Bardeen & Walter Brattain co-invented the transistor at
Bell Laboratories.
Another device that emerged was the thyristor, a name given to any semiconductor
switch that bistable operation depends on p-n-p-n regenerative feedback.
The silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR) is the best known of all thyristor devices and was
first introduced in 1954 by Bell Laboratories. The unijunction transistor (UJT) was first
introduced in 1948 but commercialized in 1952.
The second electronic revolution was in 1958 with the development of the commercial
thyristor by General Electric Company. This ushered in a new era of power electronics.
Power semiconductor devices introduced to date are the bipolar junction transistor
(BJT), metal-oxide-field effect transistor (MOSFET), gate turn-off switch (GTO), MOS
Controlled Thyristor (MCT), and hybrid devices such as insulated-gate bipolar junction
transistor (IGBT).
III. Types of power electronics conversions
As mentioned in the previous sections, power electronic circuits control the input and
output power. There are several types of power converters based on the type of
application. When we consider the power source, there are two main types of power
sources, namely alternating current (AC) and direct current (DC). This forms four basic
types of power electronics circuits shown in the figure below.
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❖ AC-to-DC Converters (commonly known as rectifiers)
The input AC voltage is converted to DC voltage at required levels. A diode bridge
rectifier is traditionally used for these applications. But this configuration results in
currents that have high peak values and high harmonic content. Boost converters are
commonly used to draw currents that are in phase with the AC voltage.
❖ DC-to-DC Converters (commonly known as choppers)
The DC power input, whether unregulated or regulated, is converted to regulated DC
power at the output. Without power electronic converters, it is very difficult to generate
variable DC power. With the availability of different configurations of DC-to-DC
converters, DC power at desired levels has become indispensable. Buck, boost, and
buck-boost converters are three basic converters that can step down, step up, and
provide both levels, respectively.
❖ DC-to-AC Converters (commonly known as inverters)
The input DC power from batteries is inverted to provide AC power. This AC power is
used to control AC motors with precision and efficiency. A combination of AC-to-DC
and DC-to-AC converters are used in high-power transmission where two different
grids are connected without worrying about synchronization.
❖ AC-to-AC Converters (commonly known as cycloconverters)
The AC input that has a variable magnitude and frequency is processed to provide an
AC output that has both regulated magnitude and frequency. Wind power generation
is a popular application of these types of converters. The output of the wind generator
varies in both magnitude and frequency depending on the wind speed. To connect this
power to the grid or a load, the voltage and frequency need regulation. This
functionality is provided by the AC-to-AC converters.
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Figure 6. Typical power conversion categories used in power electronics technology.
IV. Semiconductor power devices
Power electronics uses semiconductors operating as "switches". A “switch” can be
formed by a single semiconductor or by a series or parallel grouping of several
semiconductors.
Figure 7. Classification of semiconductor power electronics switching devices.
To show the role that a “switch” can fulfill, we indicate (figure 6.) in the plane [voltage
vK at the terminals - current iK crossing the switch]:
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• Segments of I-V characteristic where it operates.
• The changes of characteristics it can assure.
A semiconductor switch, like a mechanical switch, is equivalent to a resistor:
▪ very low when closed,
▪ very high when open,
Its operating point can only be in quadrants 1 and 3 of the plane [vK, iK] where vK/iK is
positive. The passage of one of these quadrants to the other can only be done by passing
through the point O.
• The low voltage found across its terminals when it is closed is called Forward
voltage drop.
• The weak current which crosses it when it is blocked is called leakage current.
Figure 8. Symbol and characteristics of power switch.
Since a static switch works by all or nothing, its operating point can only move on the
following segments:
▪ OA, closed with forward current (iK>0, vK>0 very low);
▪ OB, open with forward bias (vK>0, iK>0 very low);
▪ OC, closed with reverse current (iK<0, vK<0 very low);
▪ OD, open with reverse bias (vK<0, iK<0 very low);
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According to the set of quadrants comprising the switch’s voltage/current
characteristic; we thus distinguish two-segment, three-segment and four-segment
switches.
the way or ways in which the transitions from the closed state to the open state or the
reverse transition could be:
➢ Natural switching (spontaneous, uncontrolled): switching results from the
natural evolution of current and voltage at the terminals under the action of the
circuit in which the switch is introduced (internal action).
➢ Commanded switching (forced, provoked): the changeover is due to an external
action of control on the switch.
A semiconductor power device has two major power losses: Conduction power losses,
and switching power losses:
o Conduction losses occur when the device is in full conduction. The current in
the device is whatever is required by the circuit and the voltage at its terminals
is the voltage drop due to the device itself. These losses are in direct relationship
with the duty cycle.
𝑣
𝑃𝑠_𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 = ∫ (𝑣𝐾 (𝑡) × 𝑖𝐾 (𝑡)) 𝑑𝑡 (𝑊)
𝑆𝑤𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔
o Switching losses occur when the device is transitioning from the blocking state
to the conducting state and vice-versa. This interval is characterized by a
significant voltage across its terminals and a significant current through it. The
energy dissipated in each transition needs to be multiplied by the frequency to
obtain the switching losses;
1 𝑣
𝑃𝑐_𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 = ∫ (𝑣 (𝑡) × 𝑖𝐾 (𝑡)) 𝑑𝑡 (𝑊)
𝑇 (𝑇) 𝐾
A Semiconductor power device that does not dissipate power is considered as ideal
switch if:
✓ The forward voltage drop at its terminals is zero when it is ON: vk=0.
✓ The leakage current through it is zero when it is OFF: ik=0.
✓ Its switching time is zero.
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IV.1 Power diode
Among all the static switching devices used in power electronics (PE), the power diode
is perhaps the simplest. It is a two-terminal device, and terminal “A” is known as the
anode whereas terminal “K” is known as the cathode. If terminal A experiences a higher
potential compared to terminal K, the device is said to be forward biased and a current
called forward current (IF) will flow through the device in the direction as shown. This
causes a small voltage drop across the device (<1V), which in ideal condition is usually
ignored. On the contrary, when a diode is reverse biased, it does not conduct and a
practical diode do experience a small current flowing in the reverse direction called the
leakage current. Both the forward voltage drop and the leakage current are ignored in
an ideal diode. Usually in PE applications a diode is considered to be an ideal static
switch.
Switch OFF Switch ON
Figure 9. Power diode symbol and characteristics
The switching of a diode is spontaneous:
• It switches ON when the voltage at its terminals is positive vD>0.
• It switches OFF as soon as the current passing through it is canceled iD=0.
It has two segments in its characteristic, it conducts a forward current and blocks the
reverse voltage.
IV.2 Thyristors
IV.2.1 The thyristor SCR (Silicon Controlled rectifier)
Like the diode, the Thyristor is a unidirectional device, that is it will only conduct
current in one direction only, but unlike a diode, the thyristor can be made to operate
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as either an open-circuit switch or as a rectifying diode depending upon how the
thyristors gate (G) is triggered. Once it is “ON”, it behaves like a rectifying diode.
The switching of a Thyristor SCR is semi-controlled:
• It switches ON by sending current pulses to its gate when the voltage at its
terminals is positive vTh>0.
• It switches OFF as soon as the current passing through it is canceled iTh=0.
It has three segments in its characteristic, it conducts a forward current and blocks
forward and reverse voltages.
Switch ON
Switch OFF
G : Gate
Figure 10. Thyristor (SCR) symbol and characteristics.
IV.3.2 The thyristor GTO (Gate Turn-Off)
A gate turn-off thyristor (GTO) is a special type of thyristor, which is a high-power (.e.g.
1200V AC) semiconductor device. It was invented by General Electric. GTOs, as
opposed to normal thyristors, are fully controllable switches which can be turned on
and off by their gate lead.
The switching of a Thyristor GTO is fully controlled:
• It switches ON by sending current pulses to its gate when the voltage at its
terminals is positive vTh>0.
• It switches OFF by sending negative current pulses to its gate.
It has three segments in its characteristic, it conducts a forward current and blocks
forward and reverse voltages.
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Switch ON
Switch OFF
Figure 11. Thyristor GTO symbol and characteristics.
IV.2.3 The TRIAC (Triode Alternating Current)
It is a semi-controlled switch (controllable at the switching ON). The TRIAC switching
ON is as in the thyristor. It is equivalent to two thyristors mounted in antiparallel; but
the difference is that it has only one trigger. We provoke the switching OFF of a TRIAC
for vA1A2>0 or vA1A2<0, by sending positive or negative command pulses between the
trigger and the terminal marked A1.
Switch ON
Switch ON
Figure 12. TRIAC symbol and characteristics.
It has four segments in its characteristic, it conducts a forward and reverse current
and blocks forward and reverse voltages.
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IV.3. Transistors
IV.3.1 BJT (Bipolar Junction Transistor)
A bipolar junction transistor is a three-terminal semiconductor device that consists of
two P-N junctions which are able to amplify or magnify a signal. It is a current
controlled device. The three terminals of the BJT are the base, the collector, and the
emitter.
Collector
Switch ON
Switch OFF
Emitter
Figure 13. BJT symbol and characteristics.
The switching of a bipolar transistor is fully controlled:
• It switches ON by injection of sufficient controlling current iB in the circuit
Base-Emitter.
• It switches OFF by imposing a zero current at the base terminal iB=0.
It has two segments in its characteristic, it conducts a forward current and blocks
forward voltages.
IV.3.3 MOSFET (Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor)
MOSFETs are electronic devices used to switch or amplify voltages in circuits. It is a
voltage-controlled device and is constructed by three terminals. The terminals of
MOSFET are named as follows: Gate, Drain and Source.
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G : Gate Switch ON
Switch OFF
Figure 14. MOSFET symbol and characteristics.
The switching of a MOSFET is fully controlled:
• It switches ON by applying of sufficient controlling voltage vGS between its gate
and source.
• It switches OFF by imposing a zero voltage between its gate and source current
vGS=0.
It has two segments in its characteristic, it conducts a forward current and blocks
forward voltages.
IV.3.2 IGBT (Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor)
IGBT is a three-terminal power semiconductor device primarily forming an electronic
switch. It was developed to combine high efficiency with fast switching. It consists of
four alternating layers (P–N–P–N) that are controlled by a metal–oxide–
semiconductor (MOS) gate structure. The terminals of IGBT are named as follows:
Gate, Collector and Emitter.
The switching of an IGBT is fully controlled:
• It switches ON by applying of sufficient controlling voltage vGE between its gate
and emitter.
• It switches OFF by imposing a zero voltage between its gate and emitter current
vGE=0.
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G : Gate Switch ON
Switch OFF
Figure 15. IGBT symbol and characteristics
It has two segments in its characteristic, it conducts a forward current and blocks
forward voltages.
V. Characteristics of power semiconductor devices
Relative power and frequency capabilities of different semiconductor devices are
shown in table 1. And illustrated in Figure 14.
Table 1. Maximum current/voltage and operation frequency of semiconductor devices.
Maximum Control
Component Frequency
Current/Voltage signal
Diode 12kA/6,5kV 20 kHz /
Thyristor 9kA/8,5kV 500 Hz Current
Thyristor GTO 6kA/6kV 1 kHz Current
Triac 0,1kA/1,4kV 500 Ha Current
Transistor
1,2kA/1,7 kV 20 kHz Current
bipolaire
IGBT 3,6kA/6,5 kV 20 kHz Voltage
MOSFET 1,8 kA/1,7 kV 1 MHz Voltage
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Figure 16. Power capability and operation frequency of semiconductor power devices
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