GOVERNMENT OF KERALA

DEPARTMENT OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION

APPLIED PHYSICS – II
FOR
DIPLOMA IN ENGINEERING
(Revision 2021)

Published by

STATE INSTITUTE OF TECHNICAL TEACHERS

TRAINING & RESEARCH, KALAMASSERY
Email: [email protected]
Website: www.sitttrkerala.ac.in

i
APPLIED PHYSICS – II FOR DIPLOMA IN ENGINEERING (Semester 2)

Authors:

Dr. Jayachandran K
Assistant professor of Physics
Government Polytechnic College, Cherthala

Dr. Radhakrishnan A N
Assistant professor of Physics
Government Polytechnic College, Kaduthuruthy

Vinod N
Professor in Physics
NSS Polytechnic College, Pandalam

Prasanth Narayanan
Assistant professor of Physics
Government Polytechnic College, Kumily

Abhilash A
Assistant professor of Physics
Government Polytechnic College, Adoor

Advisory Board:

Tony E J
Joint Director, SITTTR

Ramesh K M
Former Joint Director, SITTTR

Chandrakantha A S
Deputy Director, SITTTR

Swapna K K
Project Officer, SITTTR

Dr. Wilson K C (Subject Expert)

Assistant Professor of Physics
Maharajas College, Ernakulam

ii
 Preface

This book, drafted as per the revised syllabus and evaluation criteria of the Department of
Technical Education, Government of Kerala, is designed and prepared in compliance with the
State Institute of Technical Teachers' Training & Research (SITTTR). Outcome-Based
Education (OBE) adopted in technical education suggests the need for developing the abilities in
students that would enable them to grasp the concepts on their own rather than learn by heart the
complicated terms and definitions. Outcome-Based Education (OBE) also recommends that the
students should be able to apply the basic knowledge to solve engineering problems. In
preparing the book, great care has been taken to present the subject matter in a clear and simple
way keeping in mind the new approach to learning Physics as contemplated by Outcome Based
Education (OBE).

The book is divided into four chapters corresponding to four modules in the revised syllabus.
In each chapter, a considerable amount of conceptual learning sections, analytical problems, and
questions are included, to equip the students to face the newly introduced OBE-based internal
evaluation as well as end semester examination. Small and simple sentences have been used
throughout the book to get rid of the hurdles of the English language. The diagrams are neatly
rendered and the mathematical steps are simplified. The revised syllabus and a model question
paper are also added at the end of the book. The content hopes to meet all the requirements of
science such as concepts, attitudes, creativity, and applications, and to make the teaching and
learning process interesting, understandable, and enjoyable for young minds. Much pain has
been taken to explain the difficult points in a manner that an average student can easily grasp
even the tough topics. The main strength of the book lies in the subject matter and the experience
that a student will get in solving problems of Physics. The conceptual learning sections included
will transcend the boundaries of the syllabus and hopes to enhance the scientific aptitude of
students.

. Suggestions and positive criticism for the improvement of this book from any quarter would
be thankfully accepted and will be applied in the next revised edition. This book will fulfill the
requirements of students and teachers of technical education. We hope that this book will
definitely deepen the interest of students.

Authors
iii
iv
 Acknowledgments

We express our sincere gratitude to Sri. Tony E J, Joint Director, SITTTR and Sri. K M
Ramesh, former Joint Director, SITTTR. We express special gratitude to Smt. Chandrakantha A
S, Deputy Director, SITTTR who encouraged us in this venture. We are thankful to Smt. Swapna
K K, Project Officer, SITTTR for supporting us. We are also thankful to Dr. Wilson K C,
Assistant Professor of Physics, Maharajas College, Ernakulam for reviewing our book and
suggesting improvements to the contents of the book. We thankfully recognize all those who
inspired and helped us in this endeavor.

Authors

v
vi
 Table of Contents

Page
Preface iii
Acknowledgment iv
Table of Contents v

Chapter 1: Wave motion and its applications 1

1.1 Periodic Motion 1
1.2 Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM) 2
1.2.1Examples of Simple Harmonic Motion 3
1.2.2Projection of a uniform circular motion along a diameter 3
1.2.3Expression for the displacement of a particle executing SHM 4
1.2.4 Expressions for velocity and acceleration of a particle
5
executing SHM
1.2.5Period (T) 5
1.2.6Frequency (f) 5
1.3Waves 6
1.3.1 Transverse waves 7
1.3.2 Longitudinal waves 8
1.3.3 Characteristics of a wave 9
1.3.4 Relation between wave velocity, frequency, and wavelength 10
1.3.5Sound waves 12
1.3.6Light waves 13
1.3.7 Principle of superposition of waves 13
1.3.8 Beats 15
1.3.9 Ultrasonic waves 16
1.4The acoustics of buildings 17
1.4.1 Reverberation 18
1.4.2 Reverberation time 18
1.4.3 Methods to control reverberation time 18
1.4.4 Echo 19
1.4.5 Noise 19

vii
Chapter 2: Optics 22
2.1 Introduction to Optics 22
2.2 Reflection of light 23
2.2.1Laws of reflection 24
2.3 Refraction of light 25
2.3.1 Laws of refraction 25
2.3.2 Refractive index 26
2.3.3 Some practical examples of refraction 27
2.3.4 Spherical lenses 29
2.3.5Image formation by convex lens 31
2.3.6Lens formula 34
2.3.7Power of a lens 35
2.3.8Magnification of a lens 36
2.3.9Combination of lenses 36
2.3.10 Lens defects 42
2.4Optical Instruments 43
2.4.1Simple microscope 43
2.4.2 Astronomical Telescope 44
2.5Total internal reflection 45
2.5.1Applications of total internal reflection 46
2.5.2Optical fiber 48
2.5.3Use of optical fibers in the medical field 49
2.5.4Use of optical fibers in telecommunication 49

Chapter 3: Electromagnetism 53
3.1 Electric charge 53
3.1.1 Coulomb’s Law 54
3.2 Electric field 54
3.3ElectricPotential 55
3.4Capacitor 55
3.5Electric current 56
3.5.1Direct current(DC) and alternating current(AC) 56
3.6Ohm’s Law 58
3.6.1 Verification of Ohm’s law 58
3.6.2 Specific resistance 59
3.6.3 Specific conductance 59

viii
 3.6.4 Factors affecting the resistance of a conducting wire 60
3.6.5 Carbon resistors 60
3.7Kirchhoff’s laws 63
3.7.1 Kirchhoff’s first law (Junction rule) 63
3.7.2 Kirchhoff’s second law (loop rule) 63
3.7.3 Wheatstone’s Bridge 64
3.7.4 Meter Bridge 65
3.8Series and Parallel combination of resistors 67
3.8.1Series combination 67
3.8.2Parallel Combination 68
3.9 Magnetic field 73
3.10 Magnetic Flux 74
3.11 Electromagnetic Induction 74
3.12 Lorentz Force 75
3.13Force on a current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field 76
3.13.1 Fleming’s Left hand rule 76
3.14 Moving Coil Galvanometer 77
3.15 Conversion of galvananometer into ammeter and voltmeter 78
3.15.1 Conversion of galvanometer to ammeter 79
3.15.2 Conversion of galvanometer to voltmeter 79

Chapter 4: Modern Physics 84

4.1 Semiconductors 84
4.1.1 Energy Bandgap in Solids 84
4.1.2 Intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors 86
4.1.3 p-n junction 90
4.1.4 p-n junction diode 90
4.1.5Forward bias 91
4.1.6Reverse bias 92
4.1.7 I-V Characteristics of p-n junction 94
4.1.8Applications of diodes 95
4.1.9 Transistors 96
4.2Photoelectric Effect 97
4.2.1Laws of photoelectric effect 98
4.2.2Einstein’s explanation of photoelectric effect 98
4.2.3Photocells 99
4.2.4Applications of Photoelectric Effect 100

ix
 4.2.5Solar cells 100
4.2.6 Applications of solar cells 101
4.3LASER 101
4.3.1 Principles of laser action 102
4.3.2 The basic operation of a laser device 103
4.3.3 Methods for producing population inversion 103
4.3.4 Characteristics of laser 104
4.3.5 He-Ne laser 104
4.3.6 Semiconductor laser 105
4.3.7 Applications of lasers 105
4.4Introduction to Nanotechnology 106
4.4.1Distinguishing properties of nanomaterials 107
4.4.2Characteristics of nano materials 107
4.4.3 Developments of nanoscience into nanotechnology 107
4.4.4 Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) 108
Bibliography 111
Revised Syllabus 112
Model question paper 118

x
 Chapter 1
Wave motion and its applications

Conceptual Learning 1.1

Can you classify the following motions?

1. Pendulum

2. Guitar strings

3. The hands of a clock

4. The swing

5. The movement of spring

6. Motion of planets around the sun

7. Heart beat

8. Tuning fork

1.1 Periodic Motion

We have learned about one-dimensional motion. But this motion is non-repetitive. We have
learned about uniform circular motion also where the motion is repeated after a certain interval of
time, which is periodic. A particle that moves periodically about an equilibrium position is said to
be oscillating or vibrating. In vibratory motion, bodies move to and fro or back and forth over the
same path. They repeat over and over a fixed series of motions returning to each position at regular
intervals of time. The pendulum of a clock executes to and fro motion about a mean position. The
membranes in drums vibrate to and fro about their mean position.

Thus, a motion that repeats itself at regular intervals of time is called periodic motion. There
are many examples for periodic motion such as
a) Vibrations of strings of musical instruments
1
 b) The motion of the earth and other planets around the sun
c) Vertical oscillations of loaded spring
d) Oscillations of a simple pendulum
e) Vibrations of atoms in a crystal

If a body moves in a circular path, it is said to describe circular periodic motion and if the
motion is repeated along a line it is said to describe a linear periodic motion. Periodic motion is
also called harmonic motion.

1.2 Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)

Simple harmonic motion is a particular case of periodic motion and is the most fundamental
type of periodic motion. Simple harmonic motion can be defined as a motion in which the
acceleration of the body is directly proportional to its displacement from a fixed point and is
always directed towards the fixed point.
A body undergoing periodic motion has an
equilibrium position inside its path. When the
body is at this position no net external force acts
on it. Therefore, if it is left there at rest, it remains
there forever. If the body is given a small
displacement from the position, a force comes
into play that tries to bring the body back to the
Fig. 1.1 Oscillation of a ball in a bowl
equilibrium point giving rise to oscillations or
vibrations. A ball placed in a bowl will be in equilibrium at the bottom. If displaced a little from
the point, it will perform oscillations in the bowl.

The properties of simple harmonic motion are:

a) The motion should be periodic
b) When displaced from the mean position, a restoring force, directed towards the mean
position and trying to bring it to the mean position must act on the body.
c) The restoring force should be directly proportional to the displacement of the body
from its mean position.

2
1.2.1 Examples of Simple Harmonic Motion
a) Swings that we see in the park.
b) The pendulum oscillates back
and forth from the mean
position.
c) The motion of vibrating mass
attached to a spring.
d) When a tuning fork is made to
vibrate, the prongs of the
tuning fork perform to and fro Fig. 1.2 Oscillations of a simple pendulum
motion. The to and fro motion of the prong is simple Harmonic.
e) The oscillations of Mercury contained in a U tube when the liquid column in one
limb is depressed and released is simple Harmonic.

Conceptual Learning 1.2

Have you done the simple pendulum experiment? If not, experiment in your laboratory and

answer the following:

a) Find the dependent factors of the period of the simple pendulum.

b) Find the independent factors of the period of the simple pendulum.
c) Why pendulum clocks are not suitable for use in a spaceship?
d) Write some effects of friction on the oscillations of a body.

1.2.2 Projection of a uniform circular motion along a diameter

Consider a particle moving along a circle of radius ‘a’ with a constant speed v as shown in Fig.
1.3. Let the particle be at a point P at any time t. Draw a perpendicular from point P on the vertical
|
diameter YY on the circle. Let N be the projection (foot of the perpendicular) of the point P. When
the particle is at X, the projection is at O. When the particle moves from X to Y the projection
moves from O to Y. When the particle reaches 𝑋 | the projection comes back from Y to O. When

3
the particle reaches Y | the projection

also reaches Y | and when the particle

comes to X, the projection comes back to
O. As a particle moves along the circle,
the projection moves along the diameter
𝑌𝑌| .Now if in the place of projection, we
have a particle to move as the projection
moves, under the influence of some
force, the particle will be said to be
performing a linear simple harmonic
|
motion along YY .
Fig. 1.3 SHM as a projection of circular motion

Hence simple harmonic motion may be considered as the projection of a uniform circular
motion on the diameter of the circle.

1.2.3 Expression for the displacement of a particle executing SHM

Consider a particle moving along the circumference of a circle of radius ‘a’ (OP = a) with O
as the center and with constant speed v in the anticlockwise direction as shown in Fig. 1.3. Let ω
be the angular velocity of the particle. Let the particle makes an angular displacement  = ωt in
moving to a point P in t seconds. From point P, draw perpendiculars to both the diameters of the
circle. The foot of the perpendiculars M and N are the projections of point P on the X-axis and Y-
axis respectively. As P moves on the circle in the anticlockwise direction, M and N execute simple
harmonic motion about the center O on X and Y axes respectively.
From fig. 1.3,
𝑂𝑀 = 𝑂𝑃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡
and
𝑂𝑁 = 𝑂𝑃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡

OM and ON are displacements along X-axis and Y-axis respectively of the points M and
N from the mean position O. Let OM = x and ON = y. Hence the displacements of a particle
executing simple harmonic motion along X and Y axes are given by

4
 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡
𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡

1.2.4 Expressions for velocity and acceleration of a particle executing SHM

The displacement of a particle executing simple harmonic motion is given by
𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
The velocity of the particle executing SHM is
𝑑𝑦
= 𝑎𝜔 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡
𝑑𝑡
The acceleration of the particle executing SHM is
𝑑2𝑦
= −𝑎𝜔2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
𝑑𝑡 2
𝑑2𝑦
= −𝜔2 𝑦
𝑑𝑡 2
This equation shows that the acceleration of the particle executing SHM is
proportional to the displacement from its mean position and is always directed towards the center
as indicated by the negative sign in the above equation. The above equation can also be written
as
𝑑2𝑦
+ 𝜔2 𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑡 2
This is the differential equation for SHM.

1.2.5 Period (T)

The time required to complete one vibration is known as period and denoted by T. If ω is the
angular velocity and T is the period, then
2𝜋
𝜔=
𝑇
2𝜋
𝑇=
𝜔
1.2.6 Frequency (f)
The number of vibrations made by the body in one second is known as the frequency of the
vibrating body and is denoted by the letter f. Frequency is the reciprocal of the period. If T is the
period of the vibrating body and f its frequency, then

5
 1
𝑓=
𝑇
The SI unit of frequency is Hertz (Hz).

Conceptual Learning 1.3

a) A boy is swinging in a swing. If he stands up how will the period be affected? Explain.
b) On taking the pendulum to the top of a mountain, the pendulum will take more time to
complete one oscillation. Will you agree with the statement? Explain.
c) The human heart is found to beat 72 times in a minute. Calculate its frequency and
period.
d) The period of oscillation of a simple pendulum is 0.25 s. How many oscillations will it
make in one second?

1.3 Waves
When a stone is dropped on the surface of
still water, waves are produced at the point where
the stone strikes the water. When the stone hits
the surface of the water, the water molecules get
disturbed and begin to vibrate up and down about
their mean position executing simple harmonic
motion. This up and down motion of an
individual particle affects the neighbouring Fig. 1.4 Waves produced in water
particles and is gradually handed to all the neighbouring particles. As soon as the stone strikes the
surface of water ripples are produced which travel outwards in the form of a widening circle from
the point of disturbance as a center.

If we place corks near the center of the disturbance at certain distances, we find that when the
ripple reaches cork, it will simply move the cock up and down and no movement of cork takes
place in the direction of the propagation of disturbance. This shows that it is only the disturbance
that travels out towards while the water particles keep on moving up and down and continue to

6
impart motion to the neighbouring particles. It may be noted that each particle starts vibrating a
little later than its predecessor. This type of motion is called wave motion.

The propagation of disturbance from one point to another without the translatory motion of
the particles of the medium is called wave motion. Wave motion is a periodic motion in which the
particles of the medium execute the simple harmonic motion.

Waves are patterns of disturbances that transport energy and information. Waves help us to
transmit signals of communication. When a sound wave is propagated through a medium, the
particles of the medium execute the simple harmonic motion. Various forms of energy such as
light, heat, sound, X-ray radiation extra are transmitted by wave motion. A wave motion takes
place even without a medium. Such waves are called electromagnetic waves. light waves, X-rays,
𝛾 - rays, etc are electromagnetic waves. There are two types of wave motions namely transverse
and longitudinal.

1.3.1 Transverse waves

Consider the waves produced on the surface of the water. The particles on the surface of the
water which were originally at rest start vibrating up and down whereas the waves travel along the
water surface. Here the vibration of the particles is at right angles to the direction of wave
propagation. Such waves are called transverse waves.
If the particles of a medium vibrate about their mean positions, in a direction perpendicular
to the direction of propagation of the disturbance, the wave motion is called transverse wave
motion.
In a transverse wave, the points of maximum elevation are called crests and the points of
maximum depression are called troughs. Examples of transverse waves: Water waves, heat waves,
light waves are transverse waves.
Another simple way of demonstrating transverse waves is as follows. Take a long string, tie
one end of the string to a hook fixed in a wall and hold the other end of the string in your hand.
After stretching the string till it becomes horizontal move your hand up and down many times.
Several humps will be seen moving from the hand to the hook. All the particles of the string vibrate
in a direction at right angles to the direction of propagation of the wave.

7
 Fig. 1.5 Transverse wave propagating in positive X- direction

1.3.2 Longitudinal waves

If the particles of a medium vibrate about their mean positions in a direction parallel to the
direction of propagation of the disturbance, the wave motion is called longitudinal. Sound waves
in a gas are longitudinal. When sound waves propagate through a gas, the particles of the medium
vibrate to and fro parallel to the direction of propagation of the wave.

For example, let a tuning fork be set into vibrations when the prong moves out, it compresses
the air medium just in front of it. This region of increased pressure is called compression. This
pulse of compression moves outwards. When the prong moves in the reverse direction, a region of
low pressure called rarefaction is produced. This pulse of rarefaction also moves out towards.
Hence in longitudinal wave motion, condensations and rarefactions are alternatively formed.

Example: sound waves.

8
 Fig. 1.6 Longitudinal wave propagating in positive X- direction

Table 1.1 Differences between transverse and longitudinal waves

Transverse waves Longitudinal waves

1. The vibration of the particles of the 1. The vibration of the particles of the
medium is at right angles to the direction medium is along or parallel to the
of propagation of the wave. direction of propagation of the wave.
2. A transverse wave consists of a series of 2. A longitudinal wave consists of a series
alternate crests and troughs. of alternate compressions and
rarefactions.
3. Transverse waves can travel without the 3. Longitudinal waves require a medium for
help of a medium propagation
4. There is no pressure variation in the 4. There is pressure variation in the medium
medium which is maximum at compression and
minimum at rarefaction.

1.3.3 Characteristics of a wave

a) Amplitude (a): The amplitude of a wave is the maximum displacement of any particle of
the medium in the path of the wave.
b) Phase (ϕ): It represents the state of vibration of the particle of a medium with respect to
its mean position.
c) Period (T): The time taken by a vibrating particle to complete one vibration is called the
period.

9
 d) Frequency (f): The frequency of a wave is the number of vibrations made by any particle
of the medium in one second. If T is the period of vibrations of the particles of the medium,
the frequency is given by

1
𝑓=
𝑇
e) Wavelength (λ): It is the distance travelled by the wave in the time in which the particle
of the medium completes one vibration or it is the linear distance between any two nearest
particles of the medium which are in the same state of vibration. In the case of a transverse
wave, the distance between two adjacent crests or troughs is equal to the wavelength. In
the case of a longitudinal wave, the distance between two successive compressions or
rarefactions is equal to the wavelength.
f) Wave velocity (v): The distance travelled by a wave in one second is called the velocity.

1.3.4 Relation between wave velocity, frequency, and wavelength

The velocity of the wave is the distance travelled by the wave in one second.
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
i.e., wave velocity =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
Wavelength λ is the distance travelled in T seconds, then wave velocity is given by
𝜆
𝑣=
𝑇
The relation between frequency and period is

1
𝑓=
𝑇
∴ 𝑣 = 𝑓𝜆

i.e., wave velocity is the product of frequency and wavelength.

10
Example 1.1
Calculate the wavelength of the waves generated by a tuning fork of frequency 500 Hz. The
velocity of sound in air is 340 m/s.
Solution:
f = 500 Hz
v = 340 m/s
λ =?
v=fλ
λ = v / f = 340/500 = 0.68 m

Example 1.2
A tuning fork makes one complete vibration in 1/200 second. If the velocity of sound in air is
340m/s, find the wavelength of the sound waves produced by the tuning fork.
Solution:
Time period, T = 1/200 s
f = 1/T = 200 Hz
v = 340 m/s
λ =?
v=fλ
f = v / λ = 340 / 200 = 1.7 m
Example 1.3
The human ear can hear frequencies between 20 Hz and 20 kHz. What wavelengths correspond to
these two frequencies if the velocity of sound is 330 m/s.
Solution:
f = 20Hz
In first case, v = 330m/s
v=fλ
λ=v/f
= 330 / 20
= 16.5 m
In second case, f = 20000 Hz

11
 λ = v / f = 330 / 20000 = 0.0165 m

Example 1.4
Determine the frequency of light of wavelength 600 nm. Velocity of light is 3 x 108 m/s.
Solution:
λ = 600 x 10-9 m
v = 3 x 108 m/s
f =?
v=fλ
f=v/λ
= 3 x 108 / 600 x 10-9
= 5 x 1014 Hz

Example 1.5
What is the speed of a sound wave that has a wavelength of 2 m and a frequency of 170.5 Hz?
Solution:
λ = 2m
f = 170.5 Hz
v =?
v=fλ
= 170.5 x 2
= 341 m/s

1.3.5 Sound waves

Sound is produced by a vibrating body. If a bell is struck with the hammer sound is produced
due to the vibrations set up in the bell. As the vibrations die down the intensity of sound diminishes.
If the ringing bell is touched with fingers, the sound ceases because the vibrations are stopped by
the fingers. Sound waves are longitudinal. When a body vibrates, it produces compressions and
rarefactions in the surrounding medium that travels forward as sound waves. When the sound
waves reach our ear, the eardrum is set into vibrations, producing the sensation of hearing. The

12
sound waves, whether they travel through solids, liquids or gases are longitudinal. The following
points may be noted about the sound waves.
a) Sound waves are longitudinal.
b) Material medium is necessary for the transmission of sound from one place to
another.
c) The velocity of sound is greater in solids and liquids than in gases.

1.3.6 Light waves

Light is a form of energy which help us to see things. When light falls on an object, it gets
scattered. This scattered light enters the eye and forms an image of the object on the retina of the
eye. This is how we see things. Light waves travel along straight-line paths. It travels at a speed of
3 x 108 m/s in air or vacuum. Light waves are electromagnetic waves that do not require a medium
for their propagation. Visible light is having wavelengths in the range of 400 – 700 nm. Light
waves are transverse waves.

Conceptual Learning 1.4

a) We see the lightning before we hear the thunder. Why?
b) Sound travels faster on a rainy day than on a warm day. Why?
c) We can recognize our friends from their voices. Why?

1.3.7 Principle of superposition of waves

Suppose two persons are holding a string at the two ends and move their hands to produce two
wave pulses. One wave pulse is travelling from left to right and the other from right to left. Let the
two wave pulses A and B be of equal amplitude propagating in opposite directions as shown in
fig.1.7 (a). The two pulses travel towards each other and mix each other into a single wave pulse
as shown in fig.1.7 (b). It is clear from the figure that the resultant wave pulse has a displacement
equal to twice the magnitude of either pulse. This kind of superposition is said to be constructive.
After some time, the two wave pulses A and B travel retaining their original shape and direction
as shown in fig.1.7 (c).

13
 Fig 1.7 Constructive superposition of two wave pulses

Fig 1.8 Destructive superposition of two wave

pulses

14
 Now suppose that the second wave pulse is inverted with respect to the first wave pulse, but
still travelling in the opposite direction as shown in fig. 1.8 (a). These two wave pulses superpose
with each other and the resultant wave pulse has zero displacements as shown in fig. 1.8 (b). After
crossing each other, they continue to move forward retaining their original shapes as in fig. 1.8 (c).
Thus, it is seen that the resultant waveform is the algebraic sum of individual waves. This rule of
the addition of individual waveforms to determine the resultant waveform is called the
superposition principle.

The principle of superposition of waves states that if two or more waves travel in a medium,
each wave produces its own displacement and the resultant displacement of a particle at any point
is the vector sum of the displacements due to each wave. The superposition principle can be applied
to the phenomenon of beats.

1.3.8 Beats
When two sound waves of equal amplitudes and slightly different frequencies travelling in the
same direction arrive simultaneously at a point, the intensity of sound caused by the superposition
of two waves fluctuates.
The periodic variations in the intensity of sound due to the superposition of two sound waves
of slightly different frequencies are called beats.
When the intensity rises to the maximum, we use the term waxing of sound and when it falls
to the minimum, we use the term waning of sound. One waxing and one waning constitute one
beat. The number of beats produced per second is called beat frequency.
When sound travels through air, condensations and rarefactions are produced. If two
condensations due to two notes reach the ear simultaneously, the sound heard will be the
maximum. The same is the case with two rarefactions also. These correspond to the waxing of
sound intensity. But if the condensation due to one note and the rarefaction due to the other reach
the ear simultaneously, the sound heard will be a minimum. It corresponds to a waning of sound
intensity. This explains the production of beats. Applications of beats are:
a) Beats are used in tuning musical instruments.

b) Beats can be used to find the frequency of the given tuning fork.

c) Beats can be used in the detection of harmful gases in mines.

15
 .

Fig 1.9 Formation of beats by the superposition of two sound waves

of equal amplitude and slightly different frequencies

Conceptual Learning 1.5

a) Can you differentiate sound waves and ultrasonic waves?

b) Have you heard about infrasonic, supersonic, and subsonic (infrasonic) waves?

c) Try to find some properties of infrasonic, supersonic, and subsonic waves.

d) What is Mach number significant for?

e) Give two examples of natural events that produce infrasonic sound.

1.3.9 Ultrasonic waves

The frequency of sound between 20 Hz and 20 kHz is called audible frequency. Sounds of
frequency below 20 Hz are called infrasonics. Sound waves having a frequency above 20 kHz are

16
called ultrasonic waves. Due to high frequency, human ears cannot detect ultrasonic waves. Bats
can produce and detect ultrasonic waves. Ultrasonic waves produced by the bats, get reflected by
some objects in their way. When the reflected waves are received by the bats, they get an idea of
the distance of the obstacle in their path. This is how bats can fly in the darkness.
Ultrasonic waves have a large number of practical applications. Some applications of
ultrasonics waves are listed below:
a) Echo depth sounding: Ultrasonic waves are used for detecting submarines and other
underwater obstructions. Ultrasonic sound is also used for gauging the depth of seawater.
A beam of ultrasonic sound is directed towards the bottom of the sea and the total time for
the wave to go to the bottom and come back is measured. Knowing the velocity of the
ultrasonic waves, the depth of the sea can be calculated.
b) SONAR: SONAR is the abbreviation of Sound Navigation and Ranging. It is a technique
used for detecting and determining the distance and direction of underwater objects. In the
military field, SONAR is used to detect, identify, and locate submarines. Nonmilitary uses
of sonar include fish finding, mapping of the sea bottom, etc.
c) Detection of flaws in metals: Ultrasonic waves can be used to detect cracks or cavities in
metal castings.
d) Soldering and metal cutting: Ultrasonic waves can be used for drilling and cutting
processes in metals.
e) Scanning: An ultrasound scan uses high-frequency sound waves to make an image of a
person's internal body structures. Doctors commonly use ultrasound to study a developing
foetus.

Conceptual Learning 1.6

a) How do bats find food?

b) List out the animals that communicate using infrasonic and ultrasonic sounds.

1.4 The acoustics of buildings

The branch of science which deals with the planning of a building or a hall intending to provide
the best audible sound to the audience is called acoustics of the buildings.

17
 The intensity of sound heard by the audience must be sufficiently loud and uniform throughout.
The successive sounds in speech or music should not overlap for clear hearing. When a speaker
speaks or music is played in a hall, sound waves are produced which spread out until they strike
the walls, ceiling, or floor of the hall. Here the sound waves are partially reflected and partially
absorbed. The amount of reflection and absorption depends upon the character of the surface. A
hard and smooth surface reflects most of the sound and absorbs little of it. A porous surface absorbs
most of the sound and reflects little of it. The greater the absorption of sound in a hall the lesser
the reflection of sound and hence more is the clarity.
1.4.1 Reverberation
When sound is produced in an open space, it is heard by the listener once, as the wave travels
across him. When sound is produced in a room or hall, sound persists even after the original sound
has ceased. This is due to the repeated reflections of sound from walls, floor, ceiling, etc. This
reduces the clarity of the sound.

The prolongation of audible sound in a room or hall after the sound has ceased to emit
sound is called reverberation.
1.4.2 Reverberation time
It is the time for which the sound persists in a room or hall after the original sound is cut
off. This time is measured from the instant the source stops the emitting sound. To produce the
best sound effects, the reverberation time should be as small as possible. The reverberation time
can be decreased by increasing sound absorption in it. When sound falls on the walls, seats, or
audience, it is either reflected or absorbed. If a greater part of it is absorbed, then the reverberation
will be small. On the other hand, if most of the sound is reflected by the walls, floor, or audience,
the sound will continue for some time after the source has been discontinued. In such a case, the
reverberation will be large. The optimum reverberation time should be 0.5 seconds for speech and
1.0 to 1.5 seconds for music. The reverberation time of a room depends upon the total volume of
the room and the absorbing power of the walls and does not depend upon the positions of the
source and listener.

1.4.3 Methods to control reverberation time

The reverberation time of a room or hall can be decreased by increasing the absorption of
sound in it. This can be done by the following methods:

18
 a) By providing a few open windows.
b) By covering the walls with absorbent materials such as perforated cardboards, heavy
curtains, carpet on the floor, etc.
c) By providing rough and decorative materials on the walls and ceilings.
d) Cushioned seats. Such seats not only provide greater comfort but also act as good
absorbers of sound.
e) No large concave, spherical or cylindrical surfaces on the walls or ceiling of the hall
or auditorium. This will avoid excessive reflections of sound.

1.4.4 Echo
If the time interval between the instance of hearing the original sound and the reflected sound
from the reflecting surface is greater than 1 / 10th of a second, the original sound and the reflected
sound can be separately heard. Such a reflection of sound is called echo. Echoes are generally
heard in halls whose ceilings are sufficiently high. To avoid Echoes, the ceilings should be covered
with suitable sound absorbents. The roof and walls of the auditorium or cinema hall are generally
covered with sound-absorbent materials like draperies or compressed fiberboard to reduce
reverberation. These materials reduce the formation of echoes by absorbing sound waves.

1.4.5 Noise
Any undesired sound is known as noise. Noise entering a hall or auditorium may be airborne
or structure-borne. The airborne noise originates in the air and travels through the air to the
boundaries of the hall or auditorium. External noise can mix up with the sound of speech or music
in the hall and can create confusion for the audience. This includes noise travelling through the
air, noise due to vibration of structures, etc. The external noises can be reduced by making the hall
soundproof and constructing small soundproof cabins for the machinery.

Conceptual Learning 1.7

a) Collect more information on the acoustics of buildings.
b) When one speaks in an empty hall, the speech may not be clear. But the speech
becomes clear in the crowded hall. Give your explanation.

19
 PRACTICE PROBLEMS

1. The frequency of the fundamental note of a tuning fork is 256 Hz. If the velocity of air is 330
m/s. Calculate the wavelength of the wave produced. [Ans:1.289 m]
2. The wavelength of sound waves of frequency 210 Hz is 7 m in water. What is the speed
of sound in water? [Ans: 1470 m/s]
3. A string produces a sound wave of frequency 996 Hz. If the speed of sound in air is 332 m/s.
Determine the wavelength of sound waves in the air. [Ans: 0.33 m]
4. The velocity of the radio wave is 3 x 108 m/s. Find the wavelength of radio waves being
broadcast at a frequency of 500 kHz. [Ans: 600m]
5. When an ultrasonic pulse is sent through the sea vertically down, a delay of 12 seconds was
observed in detecting the reflected signal. If the velocity of sound is 330 m/s, calculate the
depth of the sea. [Ans:1980 m]
6. Thunder is heard after 2.5 s of seeing light. Find the distance to the origin of lightning. The
velocity of sound in air is 330 m/s. [Ans 825 m]
7. The separation between the trough and crest of a wave is 6 x 10-8 m. Calculate the frequency,
assuming a wave having velocity 3 x 108 m/s. [Ans 2.5 x 1015 Hz]
1
8. A tuning fork makes one complete vibration in 250 s. If the velocity of sound in air is 340 m/s,

find the wavelength of the sound waves given out by the tuning fork.
[Ans 1.36 m]
9. A body vibrating with a certain frequency sends waves 2 m long through a medium A and
1.5 m long through medium B. The velocity of waves in A is 10 m/s. What is the velocity of
the wave in B? [Ans: 7.5 m/s]
10. A station broadcasts a wavelength of 2 m. What is the frequency of the wave if the velocity of
the radio wave is 3 x 108 m/s? [Ans: 1.5 x 108 Hz]

QUESTIONS

1. Distinguish between transverse waves and longitudinal waves.

2. Define SHM. Give two examples.
3. Derive expressions for displacement, velocity, and acceleration of a particle executing SHM.
4. What are the characteristics of a wave?

20
5. Derive a relation between velocity, frequency, and wavelength.
6. Explain the phenomenon of beats.
7. A vibrating tuning fork is carried at a high speed towards a wall. An observer hears beats.
Why?
8. What are ultrasonics? Mention three applications of ultrasonics.
9. Explain the terms reverberation, reverberation time
10. Distinguish between echo and reverberation.
11. What is meant by saying that an auditorium has good acoustical properties?

12. Match the following

Column A Column B
Transverse wave Superposition of waves of nearly equal frequencies
Longitudinal wave Light
Beats Frequency above 20 KHz
Ultrasonic waves Sound

21
 CHAPTER 2

OPTICS

Conceptual Learning 2.1

Try to explain, before you proceed.

1. If you enter a dark room, you cannot see anything. If you switch on a bulb, you can

see the objects in the room. Can you say what helps you to see the objects in the

room?

2. How can we see objects?

3. Write some examples of natural and artificial sources of light.

4. Have you heard about the term ‘luminous?

5. Have you heard about the term ‘transparency’?

6. Write some properties of light and try to explain them.

7. Can you explain some phenomena of light?

8. Do you know the meaning of the term ‘monochromatic’?

2.1 Introduction to Optics

Optics is a branch of physics which deals with the study of light. Light is a form of energy that
produces a sensation of sight. Light travels with constant velocity in a medium. The velocity of
light in free space or vacuum is 3 x 10 8 m/s. What gives us light? It is the luminous objects that
can emit light of their own. Sun, stars, candles, bulbs, etc. are some luminous sources. Sun is the
primary source of light on earth.

22
 Optics is classified into ray optics (geometrical optics) and wave optics. The property of light
traveling in a straight line is called rectilinear propagation of light. Ray optics deals with the
reflection of light from plane surfaces, spherical mirrors, refraction of light in a medium, refraction
of light through prisms, and curved surfaces such as lenses. The direction along which light energy
is propagated is known as the ‘ray of light’.

Conceptual Learning 2.2

Find the examples of materials with the following optical properties
1. Optical medium
2. Transparent
3. Opaque
4. Translucent

2.2 Reflection of light

When a ray of light, travelling from one optical medium to another optical medium, strikes the
surface of separation of two media, the following situations can arise:
a) Reflection
b) Absorption
c) Refraction

The phenomenon due to which a ray of light, travelling from one optical medium to another,
optical medium, bounces off from its surface with a change of angle, is called reflection of light.
Reflection of light from surfaces can be classified into the following categories:
a) Regular reflection: When a beam of light on striking some smooth and polished surface,
is reflected as a parallel beam of light.
Eg: Reflection takes place from mirrors, polished metals, etc.
b) Irregular reflection (diffused reflection): When a beam of light, on striking some rough
surface, is reflected in different directions.
Eg: Reflections from walls, stones, trees, etc.

23
 Fig. 2.1 Reflection of light from a plane surface

Fig. 2.1 shows the reflection of light from a smooth surface. We can define some terms related
to the reflection of light from a surface as follows:
a) Incident ray: A ray of light which travels towards a reflecting surface.
b) Reflected ray: A ray of light bounces off the reflecting surface into the same optical
medium.
c) Point of incidence: The point on the reflecting surface, where incident ray strikes.
d) Normal: The perpendicular drawn at the point of incidence to the reflecting surface.
e) Angle of incidence (i): The angle between the incident ray and normal.
f) Angle of reflection (r): The angle between the reflected ray and normal.

Conceptual Learning 2.3

Analyze the advantages of regular and irregular reflection.

2.2.1 Laws of reflection

A light ray is reflected from a plane smooth surface according to two laws of reflection:
a) The incident ray, the reflected ray, and the normal to the surface lie in the same plane at
the point of incidence.
b) The angle of incidence is always equal to the angle of reflection.

24
2.3 Refraction of light

Fig. 2.2 Refraction of light when light travels from (a) Rarer medium
to denser medium and (b) Denser medium to rarer medium
When light travels from one medium to another medium in an oblique direction, it deviates
from its path. This is known as the refraction of light. The phenomenon of bending of light when it
travels from one medium to another is known as refraction. When light travels from a rarer
medium to a denser medium (eg. From air to glass), light bends towards the normal at the point of
incidence as shown in Fig. 2.2 (a). When light travels from a denser medium to a rarer medium,
light bends away from the normal as shown in Fig. 2.2 (b). The angle between the incident ray and
the normal is known as angle incidence (i). The angle between the refracted ray and the normal is
known as the angle of refraction (r). The angle between the incident ray and the refracted ray is
called the angle of deviation (d).

2.3.1 Laws of refraction

Refraction of light occurs due to a change in the speed of the light as it enters from one
transparent medium to another. It is experimentally observed that refraction of light at the interface
of two media occurs according to certain laws called laws of refraction. The two laws of refraction
are:

25
 a) The incident ray, the refracted ray, and the normal at the point of incidence, all lie in the
same plane.
b) The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is a
constant for a given pair of media. This law is known as Snell’s law of refraction and it is
mathematically expressed as
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖
= 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑟

where ‘i’ is the angle of incidence in the first medium and ‘r’ the angle of refraction in the
second medium and the constant is known as the refractive index of the second medium with
respect to the first medium denoted as 𝑛21 . Then by Snell’s law,
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖
= 𝑛21
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑟
2.3.2 Refractive index
Refractive index is a physical quantity related to the speed of propagation of light in different
media. Refractive index of a medium is defined as the ratio of the speed of the light in vacuum (c)
to the speed of the light in the medium (v). The refractive index of the medium (n) is given by

𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑚

𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 =
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚
𝑐
𝑛=
𝑣
Light travels fastest in a vacuum with a speed of 3 × 108 m/s. The speed of the light in the air
is only slightly less than that in the vacuum. Here n is the absolute refractive index of the medium
defined with respect to air (vacuum). The Refractive index of the air (vacuum) is taken as 1. We
can also define the refractive index of the medium using Snell’s law of refraction. The refractive
index of a medium is defined as the ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the
angle of refraction when light travels from air to the medium. Medium of high refractive index is
called a denser medium and medium of low refractive index is called a rarer medium. When light
travels from medium 1 to medium 2, then
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 1
= 𝑛21 =
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 2
𝑛2
∴ 𝑛21 =
𝑛1

26
where 𝑛2 and 𝑛1 are the refractive indices of medium 2 and medium 1 respectively. Similarly,
the refractive index of glass with respect to water can be written as
𝑛𝑤
𝑛𝑔𝑤 =
𝑛𝑔

Table 2.1 Refractive index of some transparent media

Substance Refractive index
Air (vacuum) 1
Ice 1.31
Water 1.33
Ethyl alcohol 1.36
Paraffin oil 1.44
Crown glass 1.48 to 1.62
Flint glass 1.54 to 1.80
Diamond 2.42

2.3.3 Some practical examples of refraction

Fig. 2.3 Twinkling of a star due to refraction of light at atmospheric layers

b)

27
a) Twinkling of stars: The twinkling of stars is due to the refraction of light from the star at
different layers of the atmosphere. The density of different layers of the atmosphere
continuously changes. So due to the refraction of light at these layers, the apparent image of
the star appears to be at S1. The position of S1 also changes with time. Thus, the star appears
to be twinkling.

b) Apparent shift in the position of the sun at sunrise and sunset: Sun is visible before
sunrise and after sunset because of atmospheric refraction. The density of atmospheric air
decreases as we go up. So, the rays coming from the sun deviate towards the normal after
refraction at each layer. If the sun is below the horizon at S, light appears to come from S 1 as
shown in fig. 2.7. For an observer on earth. So, the observer can see the sun before sunrise.

Fig. 2.4 Apparent Shift in the position sunrise due to atmospheric refraction

28
Similarly, we can explain the same phenomenon at sunset. Therefore, due to refraction, the sun
appears to rise early by 2 minutes and set late by 2 minutes. The day thus becomes longer by about
4 minutes.

Conceptual Learning 2.4

A tank filled with water to a height of 12.5 cm. The apparent depth of a needle lying at the
bottom of the tank is measured by a microscope to be 9.4 cm. If the water is replaced by a
liquid of refractive index 1.63 up to the same height. What distance would the microscope
have to be raised to focus the needle?

2.3.4 Spherical lenses

A lens is made of transparent
materials bound by two refracting
surfaces. If the two surfaces are
curved, they are known as spherical
lenses. They are mainly divided into
two; convex and concave. If the
middle part of the lens is thicker than
the edges it is s convex lens. If the
middle part of the lens is thinner than
the edges it is a concave lens. Now, we
Fig. 2.5 (a) Convex lens and (b) Concave lens
define some quantities related to
spherical lenses.
a) Optic centre: The geometric centre of the lens is called the optic centre.
b) Centre of curvature: The centre of the sphere of which the lens forms a part is called the
centre of curvature of the lens. There are two centres of curvatures for a lens as shown in
fig. 2.5.
c) Principal axis: The principal axis of a lens is the line joining the centres of curvature.

29
 Fig. 2.6 Principal axis and centre of curvatures of
(a) a convex lens and a concave lens

c) Principal focus: There are two principal foci each on either side of the lens. The
definition of principal focus is different for the two types of spherical lenses.

i. Convex lens: A parallel beam of light parallel to the principal axis after refraction
converges to a fixed point on the principal axis. This fixed point is called the principal
focus.
ii. Concave lens: A parallel beam of light parallel to the principal axis after refraction
diverges from a fixed point on the principal axis. This fixed point is called the principal
focus.

Fig. 2.7 Principal focus of (a) a convex lens and a concave lens

30
2.3.5 Image formation by convex lens

Image formation by spherical lenses can be understood by drawing ray diagrams. For
constructing ray diagrams, we may draw at least two incident rays which are refracted by the
convex lens according to the following rules:

1) Any incident ray traveling parallel to the principal axis of a convex lens will refract through
the lens and travel through the principal focus on the opposite side of the lens.
2) The ray that travels through the principal focus on the way to the lens will refract and travel
parallel to the principal axis.
3) An incident ray that passes through the optic centre of the lens will pass through the lens
without any deviation in its direction.
A convex lens can form two types of images namely real image and virtual image. If the
refracted rays intersect on the other side of the lens, the image formed will be a real image. If the
refracted rays appear to diverge from a point on the same side of the lens, the image formed is
virtual. Real images can be captured on a screen whereas virtual images cannot be captured on a
screen. Real images are inverted whereas virtual images are erect. The location, size, and nature
of the image formed by a convex mirror mainly depend on the distance of the object from the
optic centre of the lens.

a) Object at infinity: When the object is at infinity or a very large distance, the rays from the
object are always parallel to the principal axis of the convex lens. The parallel rays from
the object, after refraction, converge to the principal focus on the other side of the lens and
produce the image as shown in fig.2.8. The image formed is real, inverted and highly
diminished.

Fig. 2.8 Image formation by convex lens – Object at infinity

31
b) Object beyond 2F: When the object is just beyond 2F, the image is formed between F
and 2F on the other side of the lens as shown in fig. 2.9. The image is real, inverted, and
smaller than the object.

Fig. 2.9 Image formation by convex lens – Object beyond 2F

c) Object at 2F: When the object is at 2F, the image is formed exactly at 2F on the other
side of the convex lens. The image formed is real, inverted, and exactly the same size as
that of the object.

Fig. 2.10 Image formation by convex lens – Object at 2F

32
d) Object between 2F and F: When the object is between 2F and F, the image is formed
beyond 2F on the other side of the convex lens. The image formed is real, inverted, and
larger than the object.

Fig. 2.11 Image formation by convex lens – Object between 2F and F

e) Object at F: When the object is at F, the refracted rays travel parallel to each other, and
the image is formed at infinity.

Fig. 2.12 Image formation by convex lens – Object at F

f) Object is between F and O: When the object is between F and O, the image is formed
on the same side of the convex lens. The image is virtual, erect, and larger than the
object.

33
 Fig. 2.13 Image formation by convex lens – Object between F and O

Table 2.2 Position, nature, and size of the image formed by a convex lens

Image formed by convex lens

Position of Object
Position Nature Size
At infinity At F Real and inverted diminished
Beyond 2F Between F and 2F Real and inverted diminished
At 2F At 2F Real and inverted Same size
Between 2F and F Beyond 2F Real and inverted Enlarged
At F Infinity - -
Same side of the Virtual and erect
Between F and O Enlarged
object

2.3.6 Lens formula

The lens equation is a relation connecting the focal length of a lens with the distance of the
object and image from the lens. The distance between the object and the optic center of the lens is
called object distance (u). The distance between the image formed and the optic center of the lens
is called image distance (v). If f is the focal length of the lens, then the lens formula is given by

34
 1 1 1
− =
𝑣 𝑢 𝑓
For applying the equation, we need to find whether u, v, and f are positive or negative. The sign
convention used for the lens is given below:

Positive

Negative Lens Positive

Negative

Fig. 2.14 Sign convention for lenses

From the sign convention, it is clear that

a) The focal length of a convex lens is positive and that of a concave lens is negative
b) The object distance is always negative since the object is in front of the lens
c) If a real image is formed by a lens (always on the right side of the lens), the image
distance is positive.
d) If a virtual image is formed by a lens (always on the left side of the lens), the image
distance is negative.

2.3.7 Power of a lens

The ability of a lens to bend the light falling on it is called the power of a lens. The power of
a lens is defined as the reciprocal of the focal length of the lens. If f is the focal length of the lens,
then its power (P) is given by
1
𝑃=
𝑓
The unit of power is m-1 or diopter (D). The power of a convex lens is positive and that of a
concave lens is negative.

35
2.3.8 Magnification of a lens
Magnification (m) of a lens is defined as the ratio of the height of the image to the height of
the object. If ℎ𝑜 is the height of the object and ℎ𝑖 is the height of the image, then linear
magnification is given by
ℎ𝑖
𝑚=
ℎ𝑜
From sign convention, object height is always positive since it is above the principal axis. If the
image is erect (above principal axis), image height is positive. If the image is inverted below the
principal axis), the image height is negative.
Magnification can also be defined as the ratio of image distance to object distance. If u is the
object distance and v is the image distance, then magnification is given by
𝑣
𝑚=
𝑢
This relation is true for both convex and concave lenses and real as well as virtual images.
Magnification is negative for real images and positive for virtual images.

2.3.9 Combination of lenses

When a number of lenses are kept in contact, it will act as a single lens known as an effective
lens or equivalent lens. Lenses are usually combined to

i) Increase magnification
ii) Make image erect
iii) Reduce defects

Consider a number of lenses of focal length 𝑓1 , 𝑓2 , 𝑓3 etc. are kept in contact. The effective
focal length of the combination is given by
1 1 1 1
= + + + …
𝑓 𝑓1 𝑓2 𝑓3
The effective power of lens combination is given by
𝑃 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2 + 𝑃3 + ⋯
where 𝑃1 , 𝑃2 ,𝑃3 etc. are the powers of individual lenses. If 𝑚1 , 𝑚2 , 𝑚3 etc. are the magnifications
produced by the lenses, then the net magnification produced by the combination is given by
𝑚 = 𝑚1 × 𝑚2 × 𝑚3 × …

36
Example 2.1
An object of height 1.5 cm is placed perpendicular to the principal axis of a convex lens of focal
length 10 cm. Find the position, nature, and size of the image formed when it is placed at a distance
of 25 cm from the lens.
Solution: Focal length, f = 10 cm
Object distance, u = -25 cm
Height of the object, ℎ𝑜 = 1.5 cm
1 1 1
− =
𝑣 𝑢 𝑓
1 1 1
+ =
𝑣 25 10
𝑣 = 16.67 cm
ℎ𝑖 𝑣
Magnification, 𝑚 = =
ℎ𝑜 𝑢
𝑣 16.67
Height of the image, ℎ𝑖 = ℎ𝑜 × 𝑢 = 1.5 × − 25
= −1𝑐𝑚
A diminished image is formed at a distance of 16.67 cm on the other side of the lens. The image
is real and inverted.

Example 2.2
At what distance from a convex lens of focal length 15 cm should an object be placed so as to
produce an image magnified 4 times if the image is real.
Solution:
Focal length, f = 15 cm
𝑣
𝑚 = = −4
𝑢
𝑣 = −4𝑢
1 1 1
− =
𝑣 𝑢 𝑓
1 1 1
− =
−4𝑢 𝑢 𝑓
−5 1
=
4𝑢 𝑓

37
 4𝑢 = −5𝑓 = −5 × 15 = −75
−75
𝑢= = −18.75 𝑐𝑚
4
The object is placed at a distance of 18.75 cm from the convex lens.

Example 2.3
It is desired to project the image of an object magnified tenfold on a wall 10 cm from the lens.
Calculate the focal length of the lens and the position of the object.
Solution:
m= -10; v = 10 cm; f =? u = ?
𝑣
𝑚=
𝑢
𝑣 −10
𝑢= = = −1 𝑐𝑚
𝑚 10
1 1 1
− =
𝑣 𝑢 𝑓
1 1 1
+ =
10 1 𝑓
10
𝑓= = 0.91 𝑐𝑚
11
Example 2.4
A converging lens forms a real image. If the image is twice the size of the object and 108 cm from
it, calculate the focal length and power of the lens.
Solution:
Since the image is real, the magnification (m) is negative, object distance (u) is negative and image
distance (v) is positive.
𝑣
𝑚= = −2
𝑢
∴ 𝑣 = −2𝑢
We have,
−𝑢 + 𝑣 = 108
−𝑢 − 2𝑢 = 108
−3𝑢 = 108

38
 108
𝑢= = −36 𝑐𝑚
−3
∴ 𝑣 = −2𝑢 = −2 × −36 = 72 𝑐𝑚
From the lens formula,
1 1 1
= −
𝑓 𝑣 𝑢
1 1 1
= +
𝑓 72 36
72 × 36
𝑓 = = 24 𝑐𝑚
72 + 36
𝑓 = 24 𝑐𝑚 = 0.24 𝑚
The power of the convex lens is
1 1
𝑃= = = 4.17 𝑚−1 = 4.17 𝐷
𝑓 0.24

Example 2.5
A convex lens having a focal length of 36 cm, forms a real image. How far from the lens would
the object have to be placed for the image to be the same size as the object?
Solution:
By sign convention,
m = -1 and f = 36 cm
𝑣
𝑚 = = −1
𝑢
𝑣 = −𝑢
From the lens formula,
1 1 1
− =
𝑣 𝑢 𝑓
1 1 1
− =
−𝑢 𝑢 𝑓
−2 1
=
𝑢 𝑓
𝑢 = −2 × 𝑓 = −2 × 36 = −72 𝑐𝑚

39
Example 2.6
A concave lens of focal length 15 cm is placed at a distance of 25 cm from an object. Find the
position of the image and its magnification.
Solution:
By sign convention,
f = -15 cm and u = -25 cm
From lens formula,
1 1 1
− =
𝑣 𝑢 𝑓
1 1 1
= +
𝑣 𝑓 𝑢
𝑓×𝑢 (−15) × (−25)
𝑣 = = = −9.37 𝑐𝑚
𝑓+𝑢 −15 − 25
𝑣 −9.37
𝑚= = = 0.3748
𝑢 −25

A virtual image is formed at a distance of 9.37 cm on the same side of the lens.

Example 2.7
A convex lens of focal length 20 cm is placed in contact with a concave lens of focal length 15
cm. Find out the effective focal length and power of the combination?
Solution:
By sign convention,
𝑓1 = 20 𝑐𝑚 (𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑥 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑠)
𝑓2 = −15 𝑐𝑚 (𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑠)
The equivalent focal length is given by
1 1 1
= +
𝑓 𝑓1 𝑓2
𝑓1 × 𝑓2 20 × (−15)
𝑓= = = −60 𝑐𝑚
𝑓1 + 𝑓2 20 − 15
𝑓 = −60 𝑐𝑚 = −0.6 𝑚

The power of the combination is

40
 1 1
𝑃= = = −1.67 𝑚−1 = −1.67 𝐷
𝑓 −0.6

Example 2.8
Find the power of the combination of a convex lens of focal length 10 cm and a concave lens of
focal length 20 cm.
Solution:
By sign convention,
𝑓1 = 10 𝑐𝑚 (𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑥 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑠)
𝑓2 = −20 𝑐𝑚 (𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑠)
The equivalent focal length is given by
1 1 1
= +
𝑓 𝑓1 𝑓2
𝑓1 × 𝑓2 10 × (−20)
𝑓= = = 20 𝑐𝑚
𝑓1 + 𝑓2 10 − 20
𝑓 = 20 𝑐𝑚 = 0.2 𝑚
The power of the combination is
1 1
𝑃= = = 5 𝑚−1 = 5 𝐷
𝑓 0.2

Example 2.9
Two lenses of power -1.5 D and 2.5 D are placed in contact. Find the focal length and power of
the combination.
Solution:
𝑃1 = −1.5 𝐷 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃2 = 2.5 𝐷
Power of combination is given by
𝑃 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2 = −1.5 + 2.5 = 1 𝐷
The effective focal length of the combination is
1 1
𝑓= = = 1 𝑚 = 100 𝑐𝑚
𝑃 1

41
2.3.10 Lens defects
Spherical aberrations and chromatic aberrations are the two most common defects of the lens.
a) Spherical aberration: When a parallel beam of monochromatic light, parallel to the
principal axis, is incident on a convex lens, the marginal rays will converge at one point
and the paraxial rays converge at another point on the principal axis. So, the focus will not
be sharp. This defect is known as spherical aberration. Due to spherical aberration, the
image of an object formed by a lens will be blurred and distorted. Spherical aberration can
be minimized by using stops, crossed lenses, and plano-convex lenses.

b) Chromatic aberration: When a parallel beam of white light, parallel to the principal axis,
is incident on a convex lens, dispersion takes place and it is split up into its constituent
colours. The violet rays are deviated most and are focused very close to the lens at V. The
red rays are deviated least and are focused away from the lens at R as shown in fig. 2.15.
The other colours will focus between V and R. The inability of a lens to focus all the colours
to a single point is called chromatic aberration. Chromatic aberration can be eliminated by
combining a convex lens and concave lens of suitable focal length and material. Such a
combination is called an achromatic doublet or achromat.

Fig. 2.15 Chromatic aberration of (a) Convex lens (b) Concave lens
.

42
 Conceptual Learning 2.5
Try to learn
1. ‘Converging’ and ‘diverging’ lens.
2. Stars do not twinkle if they are viewed from a spacecraft above the atmosphere.
3. A man under the water looking obliquely at another man standing on the bank of a
lake. Does he look taller or shorter?

2.4 Optical Instruments

Optical instruments are mainly classified into two categories:
a) Visual optical instruments
b) Spectral optical instruments
Microscopes and telescopes are examples of visual optical instruments. Prisms and gratings are
examples of spectral optical instruments.

2.4.1 Simple microscope

A simple microscope or magnifier is an optical instrument to see the magnified image of an
object. A simple microscope consists of a convex lens of a short focal length. The principle behind
the simple microscope is that when a tiny object is placed between the principal focus and optic
center of a convex lens, a virtual, erect, and magnified image of the object is formed on the same
side of the lens as shown in fig. 2.16. The lens is held near the object and the eye is positioned
close to the lens on the other side. The idea is to get a virtual, erect, and magnified image of the
object at a distance so that it can be viewed comfortably. The least distance of distinct vision (D)
is the minimum distance of the object from the eye, which can be seen distinctly without strain.
For a normal human eye, this distance is 25 cm.
The linear magnification m, for the image formed at the least distance of distinct vision D, for
a simple microscope is given by
𝐷
𝑚=1+
𝑓
where 𝑓 is the focal length of the convex lens. The higher the magnifying power of the microscope,
the shorter the focal length of the lens.

43
 Fig. 2.16 Principle behind the working of a simple microscope

2.4.2 Astronomical Telescope

An astronomical telescope is an optical instrument used to see a magnified image of distant
objects like planets, satellites, stars, galaxies, etc. The telescope provides angular magnification of
distant objects. It consists of two lenes - objective and eyepiece. The objective has a large focal
length and a much larger aperture to collect maximum amount of light coming from the far away
objects. Light from a distant object enters the objective and a real, inverted and diminished image
𝐴′ 𝐵 ′ is formed at the focal point of the objective lens. The eye piece is adjusted in such a way that
the image 𝐴′ 𝐵 ′ is just at the focal point of the eyepiece. Thus, a final magnified and inverted image
of the object is formed at infinity.

Magnification of the telescope m is given by,

𝑓𝑜 𝑓𝑒
𝑚= (1 + )
𝑓𝑒 𝐷
where 𝛽 is the angle subtended at the eye by the image, 𝛼 is the angle subtended at the eye by the
object, 𝑓𝑜 and 𝑓𝑒 are the focal length of the objective and eyepiece and D is the image distance.

44
 Fig. 2.17 Principle behind the working of an astronomical telescope
microscope

2.5 Total internal reflection

When light travels from a denser medium to a rarer medium, the refracted ray deviates away
from the normal as shown in fig. 2.18 (a). For a particular angle of incidence, the refracted ray
travels parallel to the surface of separation between the two media as shown in fig. 2.18 (b). The
angle of incidence in the denser medium for which the angle of refraction is 90o in the air is known
as the critical angle of the denser medium. It is represented by ‘C’. If the angle of incidence is
greater than the critical angle the ray returns to the denser medium shown in fig. 2.18 (c). This is
known as total internal reflection.
Total internal reflection is defined as the complete reflection of light back into a medium when
light travels from a denser medium to a rarer medium and the angle of incidence in the denser
medium is greater than the critical angle.
Total internal reflection obeys the laws of reflection. The angle of incidence is equal to the
angle of reflection. The two conditions for total internal reflection are:
a) The light should travel from a denser medium to a rarer medium.
b) The angle of incidence in the denser medium should be greater than the critical angle.

45
 Fig. 2.18 Total internal reflection and critical angle

If ‘n’ is the refractive index of the denser medium with respect to the rarer medium and
the angle of incidence in the rarer medium is the critical angle ‘C’, then the angle of refraction in
the rarer medium is 90o. Using Snell’s law,
sin 90
𝑛=
sin 𝐶
1
𝑛=
sin 𝐶
2.5.1 Applications of total internal reflection

a) Brilliance of diamond: Refractive index of diamond is high (n = 2.42) and the critical
angle is small (C = 24.41o). The light entering into the face undergoes total internal
reflection many times inside the crystal and comes out through one or two faces. So, these
faces appear glittering. This is the reason why diamonds and certain precious stones exhibit
brilliance.
b) Mirage: It is an optical illusion seen in deserts on hot days. Inverted images of distant
objects like trees or the sky are obtained in hot sand or road. The same phenomenon is
observed on a straight tarred road on a hot summer noon. The surface of the road appears
wet as if it had rained. Mirage is due to total internal reflection. The layers of air in contact
with desert or hot roads are less dense than the air above it. The rays of light from distant

46
 objects bend more and more when they pass through these layers and when the angle of
incidence is greater than the critical angle it gets totally reflected back. When these rays
enter into the observer’s eye, he can see the inverted image as though reflected from a pond
as shown in fig. 2.19.

Fig. 2.19 Mirage of a tree in a desert

c) Total reflection prisms: Total reflection prisms are right-angled isosceles prisms made of
crown glass of refractive index 1.5. They are based on the principles of total internal
reflection. A prism having an angle of 90o between its two refracting surfaces and the other
two angles each equal to 45o, is called a total reflecting prism. The critical angle of the
crown is the glass is 41.8o. Therefore, when the ray is incident at an angle greater than 41.8o
within the glass, the ray undergoes total internal reflection. Total reflection prism can be
used to produce the following actions:
i) To turn a ray of light through 90o as shown in fig. 2.20 (a)
ii) To turn a ray of light through 180o as shown in fig. 2.20 (b)
iii) To erect an inverted image without producing deviation in its path as shown in
fig. 2.20 (c)
The principles of deviation of a light ray through 180o are used in the construction
of binoculars and bicycle reflectors.

47
 Fig. 2.20 Deviations of rays of light passing through a total reflection prism

2.5.2 Optical fiber

Optical fiber is a device which works on the principle of total internal reflection and transmits
light signals from one place to another without much loss of energy. Optical fiber is very a thin
fiber made of glass, quartz, or plastic of very high refractive index. The diameter of a fiber is nearly
one micrometer (10-6 m). An optical fiber consists of basically three parts – core, cladding, and
coating or buffer. Core is the innermost part of the optical fiber and it provides a pathway for light
signals to travel. Cladding is the layer just outside the core and it keeps the light signals inside the
core. Both core and cladding are made of high purity optical media like glass or plastic. The core
has a high refractive index and density compared to that of the cladding. The outer layer of the
optical fiber is called coating or buffer which protects the fiber from external stresses.

Fig. 2.21 Transmission of light through an optical fiber

48
 Total internal reflection is the operating principle of optical fibers. Light is allowed to incident
on at the core-cladding interface of the fiber at an angle greater than the critical angle, the light is
totally reflected back into the core. Light travels along the core of the fiber undergo repeated total
internal reflection and finally emerges out as shown in fig. 2.21.

There are two types of optical fibers namely step-index fiber and graded-index fiber. In a step-
index fiber, the refractive index of the core is uniform throughout and undergoes a sharp decrease
at the core-cladding interface. In a step-index fiber, the refractive index of the core varies gradually
from the core-cladding interface such that it is maximum at the center of the core. The path of the
light signal in a step-index fiber is zig -zag and that in a graded-index fiber is helical. A bundle of
optical fibers is called a light pipe. The applications of optical fibers are:
a) Optical fibers are used to transmit light from one place to another
b) Optical fiber cables are used to transmit communication signals (telephone signals,
internet data).
c) Optical fibers are used for decoration purposes (decoration lamps made of plastic
fibers)
d) Optical fibers are used in the medical field to examine the interior parts of the human
body like the stomach, intestine, etc. (Endoscopy)
e) Optical fibers can be used in toxic and hazardous environments instead of electrical
cables
2.5.3 Use of optical fibers in the medical field
Optical fiber medical instruments may contain bundles of optical fibers. An optical fiber
instrument used to see the internal parts of the human body is called an endoscope. The endoscopes
contain two fiber optic sections inside a long tube; one of the sections provides the focusing light
and the other transmits light to the doctor providing him a detailed image of the area under view.
Endoscopes are used to examine hearts, the colon, lungs, shoulders, and knees. The endoscope
facilitates physicians to see the internal parts of the body without performing surgery. Based on
application, the endoscopes are classified into gastroscope, bronchoscope, orthoscope, etc.

2.5.4 Use of optical fibers in telecommunication

Fiber-optic communication has revolutionized the telecommunications industry. Optical
fiber is used by telecommunications companies to transmit telephone signals, internet data, and
cable television signals. Due to lower attenuation and interference, optical fiber has advantages

49
over the copper wire in long-distance, high-bandwidth applications. There are several compelling
reasons that lead to the widespread adoption of fiber optic cabling for telecommunication
applications:
i) Much lower levels of signal attenuation
ii) Fiber optic cabling provides a much higher bandwidth allowing more data to be
delivered

iii) Fiber optic cables are much lighter than the coaxial cables that might otherwise be
used.
iv) Fiber optics do not suffer from stray interference pickup that occurs with coaxial
cabling

PRACTICE PROBLEMS

1. At what distance from a convex lens of focal length 15 cm an object be placed so that the
image is one-third size of the object. (Ans: 60 cm)
2. When a lens of focal length of projects on a screen, the image of an object is magnified m
times. Show that the screen is at a distance of f(m+1) from the lens.
3. A lens of 12 cm focal length produced a virtual image whose size is one third of that of the
object. What kind of lens is it? Determine the position of the object. (Ans: concave, 24 cm)
4. A convex lens of focal length 10 cm is combined with a concave lens of focal length 15 cm.
Find the focal length of the combination. (Ans: 30 cm)
5. A concave lens of focal length 20 cm is placed at a distance of 35 cm from an object. Find
the position of the image and its magnification. (Ans: v = -12.73 cm, m = 0.364)
6. The focal length of eye lens of a myopic person is 80 cm. What is the power of the lens
required to enable him to see a very distant object clearly? (Ans: -1.25 D)
7. A convex lens of power 4 D produces a real image which is double the size of the object
placed in front of it. Find the position of the object. (Ans: Object is placed 37.5 cm in front of
the lens)

50
 QUESTIONS

1. A convex lens is used to form an image on a screen. When the upper half of the lens is covered
by an opaque screen, what happens to the image?
2. Explain Laws of reflection.
3. Explain Laws of refraction
4. Define Snell’s law.
5. What are the defects of a lens? How can we rectify it?
6. Sketch the image formation of a convex lens when objects are placed at different distances
from the lens.
7. What is magnification
8. Define total internal reflection. What are the conditions of total internal reflection?
9. Write the uses of optical fibers.
10. With the help of a diagram explain the working of
a) Simple microscope
b) Astronomical telescope
11. Explain the working of optical fibers.
12. Can we obtain a virtual image of a screen?
13. Can we see or photograph a virtual image?
14. What is the principle behind the glittering of diamonds
15. Explain why an air bubble in a jar of water shines brightly
16. Two lenses of focal length f1 and f2 are combined. What is the condition to be neither diverging
nor converging?
17. A convex lens and concave lens of the same focal length are combined;
i) What is the effective focal length?
ii) What is effective power?
18. Can we have the negative and positive powers for a lens?
19. An air bubble inside the glass slab appears to be brighter than glass. Why?

51
20. Match the following

Column A Column B
Endoscopy Refraction
Mirage High refractive index
Twinkling of stars Total internal reflection
Diamond Optic fiber communication

21. “A glass rod dipped in a colourless liquid seems to disappear”. Which of the following
reason is appropriate for the given statement?

a) Glass and liquid have the same density

b) Glass and liquid have the same colour
c) The glass reflects the light transmitted by the liquid
d) Glass and liquid have the same refractive index

52
 CHAPTER 3
ELECTROMAGNETISM

Electromagnetism involves the study of electric and magnetic effects. Both the electric and
magnetic effect has its origin in electric charge. An electric charge at rest produces electric effect,
where as an electric charge in motion produces magnetic effect in addition to electric effect.

3. 1 Electric charge
Electric charge is the property of certain elementary particles due to which it experiences a
force when placed near another charge. There are two types of charges found in nature - positive
charge and negative charge. The force between a positive charge and a negative charge is attractive
and the force between two positive charges or between two negative charges is repulsive. The SI
unit of charge is Coulomb (C).

Fig. 3.1 Force of attraction and repulsion between electric charges

The smallest charge is the charge of an electron or a proton. The charge of an electron is
negative and the charge on a proton is positive. Its value is 6 × 10−19 C. This charge is also called
the elementary charge. All other charges are integral multiples of this elementary charge.

53
 Conceptual Learning 3.1
Electrons and protons are the elementary charge carriers. An uncharged body has equal
number of electrons and protons. A negatively charged body has excess number of electrons
and positively charged body has excess number of protons. A charged body has -1 C charge
on it. Find out how many excess electrons are in it.

3.1.1 Coulomb’s Law

Coulomb’s law states that the force of interaction between two electric charges is directly
proportional to the product of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between the two charges. Let 𝑞1 and 𝑞2 be two charges placed at a distance 𝑟 between them.
According to Coulomb’s law, the electrostatic force between the charges 𝑞1 and 𝑞2 is given by
𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹 ∝
𝑟2
𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹=𝑘
𝑟2
where k is the proportionality constant. If SI unit system is used, the value of k is given by
1
k=
4π𝜀0
where 𝜀0 is called the permittivity of the free space. Therefore,
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹=
4π𝜀0 𝑟 2
The value of 𝜀0 is 8.85 × 10−12 𝐶 2 𝑁 −1 𝑚−2.

3.2 Electric field

An electric charge placed at a point exerts a force on another charge even if there is no contact
between them. This interaction at a distance can be seen as a two-step process. The charge produces
some kind of field around it and this field exerts a force on any other charge placed in it. The region
around a charged particle within which another charge experiences an electric force is called
electric field.
If a charge q experiences a force F when placed at a point in an electric field, then the electric
field intensity or the electric field (E) at that point is defined as

54
 F
E =
q
The SI unit of electric field is N/C.

3.3 Electric Potential

Consider an electric field produced by a positive charge. Another positive charge placed in this
electric field experiences a repulsive force. To move the second charge against this repulsive force,
work has to be done on it. This amount of work is stored as potential energy of the charge.
The electric potential at a point in an electric field is defined as the work done in moving a unit
positive charge from infinity to that point. The unit of electric potential is volt (V). If we consider
two points, then the difference in electric potential is called the potential difference or voltage
between the two points. Electric charges always flow from higher potential to lower potential.

3.4 Capacitor
Capacitor is a system of two conductors
placed close to each other with an insulating
medium in between them. One of the conductors
is given a positive charge (+Q) and the other
conductor is given an equal negative charge (-Q).
The charge on the positively charged conductor is
called the charge of the capacitor.
The potential difference between positively
charged conductor and the negatively charged
conductor is called potential of the capacitor (V).
Fig. 3.2 Parallel Plate Capacitor
For a given capacitor, the charge Q on the
capacitor is proportional to the potential difference V between the two conductors.
QαV
Q = CV
The proportionality constant C is called the capacitance of the capacitor. The capacitance C
of a capacitor depends on the shape, size, separation between the conductors and the nature of the

55
insulating medium between the conductors. The capacitance of a capacitor is the measure of how
much charge a capacitor can store.
The SI unit of capacitance is farad. Farad is a very large unit, so submultiples of Farad
namely microfarad(µF) or picofarad (pF) are generally used for practical purposes.
1 𝑓𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 1 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏⁄𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡
1 𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑓𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 10−6 𝑓𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑑
1 𝑝𝑖𝑐𝑜𝑓𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 10−12 𝑓𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑑

Conceptual Learning 3.2

The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is 20µF and the charge of the capacitor is
5µC.Then
i) The charge on the positive plate is ………………….
ii) The charge on the negative plate is ………………….
iii) Total charge on the capacitor is ……………………
iv) Potential difference across the capacitor is …………….

3.5 Electric current

The rate of flow of charges is called
electric current. If q quantity of charge
flows across an area in t seconds, then
electric current is given by

q Fig. 3.3 Flow of electric charges

I=
t

The SI unit of electric current is Ampere (A).

3.5.1 Direct current (DC) and alternating current (AC)

A cell or a battery connected to a conducting wire produces a current in the wire. The current
goes from the positive terminal to the negative terminal of the cell through the wire. The direction
and magnitude of the current remains constant. The current whose direction and magnitude
remains constant is called direct current or DC.

56
 If the current in a circuit changes its direction alternately, the current is called alternating
current or AC. The most common alternating current in use is the sinusoidally varying current
which is the electricity powering our homes and industries.

Fig. 3.4 (a) DC current and (b) AC current

In a sinusoidally varying AC, the direction and magnitude of the current repeats after a
particular time interval called the time period. The reciprocal of time period is called the frequency.
The frequency of AC supply in India is 50 Hz.

Conceptual Learning 3.3

Many homes now a days use a backup power system when there is no electricity supply. The
power backup system consists of an inverter and a battery. The battery stores the electrical
energy which can be used when needed. What is the function of the inverter in the power
backup system?

57
3.6 Ohm’s Law
Ohm’s law states that the current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the
potential difference across its ends, provided the temperature is constant.
IαV

𝑉
𝑂𝑟 = R, a constant
𝐼
The constant R is called the resistance of the conductor. Its unit is ohm denoted by the symbol Ω.
The resistance represents the opposition offered by the conductor to the flow of current through it.

𝑉
𝑅=
𝐼
For a good conductor, the value of resistance is low. The reciprocal of resistance is called
conductance (S). The SI unit of conductance is ohm-1 (mho).

1 𝐼
𝑆= =
𝑅 𝑉

Conceptual Learning 3.4

Find out the following
i) The voltage of our household electricity supply …………….
ii) The voltage required for a TV remote ………………….
iii) The output voltage of a mobile phone charger…………….
iv) The voltage required for an ordinary battery powered wall clock………
v) The output voltage of a car battery……………….

3.6.1 Verification of Ohm’s law

Ohm’s law can be verified using the circuit shown below. A conducting wire of resistance R
is connected to a cell of emf E through a key K and rheostat Rh. The ammeter A measures the
current through the circuit and the voltmeter V measures the potential difference across the
resistance R.

58
 When the key K is closed,
current flows through the circuit.
The rheostat is adjusted to get a
particular value of potential
difference across the resistance. The
corresponding ammeter reading is
also noted. The rheostat is adjusted
for different value of potential
differences and the corresponding
value of current through the
resistance is obtained from the Fig. 3.5 Circuit diagram to verify Ohm’s law

ammeter. In each case the ratio of V/I is calculated and found to be constant. This constant value
gives the resistance R of the conductor.

3.6.2 Specific resistance

The resistance of a conductor depends on the dimensions and its material. It is found that the
resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to the length of the conductor and inversely
proportional to the area of cross section of the conductor. If L is the length and A is the area of
cross section of a conductor, then its resistance

𝐿
𝑅 ∝
𝐴
𝜌𝐿
𝑅=
𝐴
The proportionality constant 𝜌 is called the specific resistance or resistivity of the material of
the conductor. It the measure of the opposition to the flow of current through a material.

RA
ρ=
L
The unit of resistivity is ohm m (Ωm).
3.6.3 Specific conductance
The reciprocal of specific resistance is called the specific conductance ( 𝜎 ) or conductivity
of a material.
1 L
σ= =
𝜌 RA

59
 The unit of specific conductance is ohm-1m-1 (Ω-1m-1).

3.6.4 Factors affecting the resistance of a conducting wire

From the above discussion, it is clear that the resistance of a wire depends on the material of
the wire, the length of the wire and the thickness of the wire. In addition to these factors, the
resistance of a conducting wire depends on the temperature. The resistance of conducting wires
increases with increase in temperature. The factors affecting the resistance of a wire can be
summarized as below.

Materials like silver, copper, aluminium has low resistance

1 Material of the wire
compared to other materials.
2 Length of the wire Resistance increases with increase in length
Resistance decreases with increase in thickness/cross
3 Thickness of the wire
sectional area
4 Temperature Resistance increases with increase in temperature

Conceptual Learning 3.5

Differentiate between Resistance and Resistivity. Find out the following
Resistance Resistivity
1) Copper wire of length 2 m and area 3 x 10 m-4 2
…………… …………….
2) Copper wire of length 4 m and area 3 x 10-4 m2 ……………. …………….
3) Copper wire of length 2 m and area 6 x 10-4 m2 ……………. ……………..
4) Silver wire of length 2 m and area 6 x 10-4 m2 ……………. ……………..
5) Silver wire of length 2 m and area 3 x 10-4 m2 ……………. …………….

What is your inference from the above answers?

3.6.5 Carbon resistors

Resistors have extensive use in electrical and electronic circuits as voltage dividers, voltage
droppers and to limit the passage of current through various parts of the circuits. The most

60
commonly used type of resistors are carbon resistors. They are made from a mixture of fine carbon
fragments and a non-conducting ceramic powder to bind it all together. Carbon resistors are small
in size and are inexpensive.

Carbon resistors are cylindrical in shape with their resistance values are given using colour
codes. It has a set of co-axial coloured rings, with each colour assigned a particular value. The first
two rings give the first two significant figures of the resistance value in ohms and the colour of the
third ring indicates the decimal multiplier. The last ring represents the variation of the resistor
value in percentage.

Table 3.1 Colour codes of resistors

Colour Number Multiplier Tolerance (%)

Black 0 1
Brown 1 101
Red 2 102
Orange 3 103
Yellow 4 104
Green 5 105
Blue 6 106
Violet 7 107
Gray 8 108
White 9 109
Gold 10-1 5
Silver 10-2 10
No colour
20
(4th ring absent)

61
 Fig. 3.6 Coloured rings of carbon resistors

Table 3.2
3.1 Resistivity of a few materials

Material Resistivity (Ω m)

Aluminium 2.65 x 10 -8

Silver 1.6 x 10 -8

Copper 1.7 x 10 -8

Nichrome 100 x 10 -8

Constantan 49 x 10 -8

Rubber 10 13 - 10 16

Germanium 0.6

Conceptual Learning 3.6

Answer the following questions based on the data given in table
1. Rank the materials according to their conductivity
2. Can you categorise the materials as conductors, insulators and semiconductors?
3. Which materials do you prefer to make electric cables? Why?
4. The Power lines are made of Aluminium instead of Copper and Silver. Why?

62
3.7 Kirchhoff’s laws
Electrical circuits generally contain a number of resistors and cells. The potential difference
and the current in different parts of the circuit varies. Kirchhoff’s laws are very useful in analyzing
these complex circuits. It consists of two laws.

3.7.1 Kirchhoff's first law (Junction rule)

Kirchhoff’s first law
states that the algebraic sum
of the currents meeting at a
junction is zero. In other
words, the sum of all currents
directed towards a junction is
equal to the sum of all the
currents directed away from
the junction. The first law
follows from the fact that Fig. 3.7 Circuit diagram to illustrate junction rule
there is no accumulation of
charges at any point in a circuit - the total charges flowing in unit time towards a point should be
equal to the total charges flowing out in unit time.

The current flowing towards the junction is taken as positive and current flowing away from
the junction is taken as negative, then
𝑖1 − 𝑖2 + 𝑖3 − 𝑖4 = 0
𝑖1 + 𝑖3 = 𝑖2 + 𝑖4

Total current coming to the junction = Total current going out of the junction

3.7.2 Kirchhoff’s second law (loop rule)

Kirchhoff’s second law states that the algebraic sum of the potential differences around any
closed loop in a circuit is zero. In applying the rule, one starts from a point on the loop and goes
along the loop, either clockwise or anti-clockwise to reach the same point again. The potential
difference across a resistance is taken positive when traversed in the direction of the current and

63
potential difference across
a cell is taken positive
when traversed from the
positive terminal to
negative terminal inside
the cell.
Consider the circuit
shown in fig 3.8.
Applying Kirchhoff’s
law,
For the loop
Fig. 3.8 Circuit diagram to illustrate junction rule
PQRSTUP, start from the
point P and going in the clockwise direction gives
𝐼1 𝑅1 + 𝐼3 𝑅3 + 𝐼4 𝑅4 − 𝐸 = 0
For the loop PQTUP
𝐼1 𝑅1 + 𝐼2 𝑅2 + 𝐼4 𝑅4 − 𝐸 = 0
For the loop QRSTQ
𝐼3 𝑅3 − 𝐼2 𝑅2 = 0

3.7.3 Wheatstone’s Bridge

Wheatstone’s bridge is a network of four resistances which can be used for the measurement
of resistance. To measure a resistance, it is connected as one of the four resistances in the bridge.
The resistances are connected as shown in fig 3.9. P, R and S are the known resistances whose
value can be varied and X is the unknown resistance. A cell is connected between the opposite
points A and C. To detect the flow of current along the path BD a galvanometer of resistance G is
connected as shown. The current through various branches is shown in the figure.

Applying junction rule at the junctions, B and D gives

At junction B: 𝑖1 = 𝑖2 + 𝑖𝑔 ------------ (1)
At junction D: 𝑖3 + 𝑖𝑔 = 𝑖4 ------------- (2)

64
 Applying Kirchhoff’s second law (loop
rule) in the closed loop ABDA
𝑖1 𝑃 + 𝑖𝑔 𝐺 − 𝑖3 𝑅 = 0 ------------ (3)

Similarly in the closed loop BCDB

𝑖2 𝑋 − 𝑖4 𝑆 − 𝑖𝑔 𝐺 = 0 ………… (4)
By varying the values of the resistances of
the bridge, the current through the
galvanometer can be made zero, ig =0. This
condition is called the balanced condition of the
bridge.
Using this condition ig = 0 in equation (1)
and (2)
𝑖1 = 𝑖2 ------------ (5)
Fig. 3.9 Wheatstone’s Bridge
𝑖3 = 𝑖4 ------------ (6)
Similarly putting ig = 0 in in equation (1) and (2)
𝑖1 𝑃 = 𝑖3 𝑅 ---------- (7)
𝑖2 𝑋 = 𝑖4 𝑆 ----------- (8)

Dividing equation (7) by (8) gives,

i1 P i3 R
=
i2 X i4 S
Using equations (5) and (6) gives,
P R
=
X S
This is the balancing condition of Wheatstone’s bridge. Using the balancing condition, we can
calculate the value of the unknown resistance ‘X’.

3.7.4 Meter Bridge

Meter bridge is a practical arrangement of Wheatstone’s bridge used to measure unknown

resistance. It consists of a wire AB of length 1m connected between two L-shaped copper strips.

65
The unknown resistance X and the resistance box R are connected between the L-shaped strips
and a straight copper strip as shown in fig. 3.10.
A galvanometer is connected between the point C and jockey J. The jockey J can be moved
along the wire AB. The whole arrangement is fixed on a wooden base. A cell of emf E is also
connected as shown. Current flows through the circuit and the galvanometer shows deflection. The
jockey J is moved along the wire and its position is adjusted such that galvanometer shows zero
deflection. Now the bridge is balanced. Let l be the balancing length in centimeter as measured
from the point A.

Fig. 3.10 Meter Bridge

The four resistances of the bridge are – (1) resistance X, (2) resistance box R, (3) resistance of
length AD of the wire, and (4) resistance of wire DB of the wire.

66
 Using the balancing condition of Wheatstone’ s bridge
𝑋 Resistance of length AD (𝑙 cm)
=
𝑅 Resistance of lenth DB (100 − 𝑙cm)
Let r be the resistance per unit length of the wire AB then
X 𝑙r
=
R (100 − 𝑙)r
The unknown resistance is then
𝑙
𝑋= 𝑅
(100 − 𝑙)
3.8 Series and Parallel combination of resistors
Electrical circuits usually contain network of resistances. This combination of resistances can
be replaced by a single effective resistance. The effective resistance or equivalent of a combination
of resistors is that singe resistance which produces the same effect of the combination of the
resistances. The effective resistance draws the same current as drawn by the resistor combination
from the power source. The combination of resistors can be classified into two types as (a) Series
combination and (b) Parallel combination.

3.8.1 Series combination

A combination of resistors is
said to be series combination if
same current (I) flows through all
the resistors. The effective
resistance (Rs) of a series
combination is that single
resistance which draws the same
current (I) from the source of Fig. 3.11 Two resistors connected in series
potential difference V.
V
Rs = − − − − − −(1)
I
In the above circuit, the resistances R1 and R2 are connected in series. The current through the
resistors is I.
Applying Kirchhoff’s second law (loop rule) in the closed circuit ABCDA

67
 𝐼𝑅1 + 𝐼𝑅2 = 𝑉
𝑉 = 𝐼(𝑅1 + 𝑅2 )
𝑉
= (𝑅1 + 𝑅2 ) --------- (2)
𝐼

From equation (1) and (2) 𝑅𝑠 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2

If there are ‘n’ number of resistors connected in series, then the effective resistance is
𝑅𝑠 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 + − − − − +𝑅𝑛

3.8.2 Parallel Combination

The combination of resistors is said to
be a parallel combination if same potential
difference exists across all the resistors.
The equivalent resistance (Rp) of a parallel
combination is that single resistance which
draws the same current (I) from the source
of emf V.
V
Rp = − − − −(1)
I

Fig. 3.12 Two resistors connected in parallel

The resistors R1 and R2 are connected in parallel. The combination is connected to a power
supply of potential difference V.
Applying Kirchhoff’s first law (junction rule) at junction A, we get
I = I1 + I2
Voltage across each resistance is V, therefore using Ohm’s law
V V
I= +
R1 R 2
1 1
I = V( + )
R1 R 2
I 1 1
= + − − − − − (2)
V R1 R 2
From equation (1)

68
 I 1
=
V Rp
Then equation (2) becomes
1 1 1
= +
RP R1 R 2
If there are ‘n’ number of resistors in parallel, the effective resistance is given by
1 1 1 1 1
= + + + ⋯.+
RP R1 R 2 R 3 Rn

Conceptual Learning 3.7

Find the value of the resistance X such that there is no current flow through the 10 Ω resistor.
Hence find the effective resistance of the network between the points A and B.

Example 3.1
A wire of length 2 m and radius 0.1 mm has a resistance of 200 Ω. Find the specific resistance of
the material.
Solution:
Given, L = 2m
R = 200 Ω
r = 0.1 mm = 0.1×10-3 m

69
 𝑅𝐴 𝑅 × 𝜋𝑟 2
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝜌 = =
𝐿 𝐿

200 × 3.14 × (0.1 × 10−3 )2

𝜌= = 3.14 × 10−6 Ω𝑚
𝐿2

Example 3.2
Calculate the length of copper wire of cross-sectional area 0.01 mm2 required to make a resistance
of 3 Ω. Resistivity of copper = 1.7×10-8 Ωm.

Solution:
Given ρ = 1.7 × 10-8 Ωm
A = 0.01 mm2 = 0.01×10-6 m2
R=3Ω
𝑅𝐴
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝜌 =
𝐿
𝑅𝐴 3 × 0.01 × 10−6
∴ 𝐿= = = 1.76 m
𝜌 1.7 × 10−8
Example 3.3
A wire of resistance 50 Ω is recast into a wire of length double that of the original. What is the
new resistance of the wire?
Solution:
𝑅𝐴
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝜌 =
𝐿
𝜌𝐿
∴ 𝑅=
𝐿𝐴
For the original wire,
𝜌𝐿
𝑅= = 50 Ω
𝐿𝐴
New length L' = 2L
Since the volume (Area of cross section × Length) remains constant,
A'L' = AL
𝐴𝐿 𝐴𝐿
∴ New area, A′ = ′
=
𝐿 2𝐿
𝐴
∴ A′ =
2
70
 𝜌𝐿′ 𝜌 × 2𝐿
∴ New resistance, R′ = =
𝐴′ 𝐴
2
𝜌𝐿
R′ = 4 × = 4 × 50 = 200 Ω
𝐴′
Example 3.4
Two resistances 12 Ω and 6 Ω are connected in parallel and the combination is connected in series
with an 8 Ω resistance. Find the effective resistance.

Solution:
The effective resistance of 12 Ω and 6 Ω in parallel is:
𝑅1 𝑅2 12 × 6
𝑅𝑝 = = =4Ω
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 12 + 6

This 4 Ω is in series with the 8 Ω resistance. Therefore, the effective resistance of the total
combination,
𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 4 Ω + 8 Ω = 12 Ω

Example 3.5
Find the effective resistance of the combination as measured across the terminals AB.

Solution:
The 6Ω and 2Ω are in series. The effective resistance of this combination is:
Rs = 6 Ω + 2 Ω = 8 Ω
This 8 Ω resistance is parallel to 8Ω resistance. Therefore, The effective resistance
across the terminals AB:
8×8
𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑓 = = 4Ω
8+8
Example 3.6
Find the current I and the voltage across each resistance.

71
 Solution:
The effective resistance of the combination is Reff = 6 Ω +4 Ω = 10 Ω
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑂ℎ𝑚′ 𝑠 𝑙𝑎𝑤, 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
𝑉 20
∴ 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝐼 = = = 2𝐴
𝑅 10
The value of current through each resistance is 2A. Using Ohm’s law,
Voltage drop across 6Ω, V1 = 2 × 6 = 12 V
Voltage drop across 4Ω, V2 = 2 × 4 = 8V

Example 3.7
Find the currents I, I1 and I2 through the resistances.

Solution:
The effective resistance of the parallel combination of 10Ω and 15Ω is:
10 × 15
𝑅𝑝 = =6Ω
10 + 15

72
 This 6Ω resistance is in series with the 4Ω resistance. Therefore, the effective resistance of
the given circuit is:
Reff = 4Ω + 6Ω = 10Ω
𝑉 20
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝐼 = = = 2𝐴
𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑓 10
The voltage across the parallel resistances 15 Ω and 10 Ω is same as the voltage
across the effective resistance 6 Ω
Voltage across the 6 Ω resistance = 2 × 6 = 12 V
Current through 10 Ω resistance,
12
𝐼1 = = 1.2 𝐴
10

Current through 15 Ω resistance,

12
𝐼2 = = 0.8 𝐴
15

3.9 Magnetic field

We all are familiar with
magnets. Magnets have a wide
range of applications from use
in loud speakers, electric fans,
refrigerator doors to high end
devices like MRI machines. In
the previous section we
studied the electric field
produced by charges.
Similarly, magnets produce
magnetic fields around it, the
magnetic field by a magnet has
its origin in the intrinsic Fig. 3.13 Magnetic field of a bar magnet

magnetic property of its electrons. In addition to magnets, moving charges or currents also produce
magnetic field around it’.

73
 The region around a magnet or a moving charge within which another magnetic material or a
moving charge experiences a magnetic force is called a magnetic field. Magnetic fields are
represented using field lines. The number of field lines through a particular area represents the
magnitude of the magnetic field. The SI unit of magnetic field is N/A m. It is usually written as
Tesla and abbreviated as T.

3.10 Magnetic Flux

It is the measure of total magnetic field
passing through a given area. The
magnetic flux through an area A in a
magnetic field is given by the expression
Φ = BAcosθ
where θ is the angle between the direction
of magnetic field and the perpendicular
drawn to the area A. The SI unit of
magnetic flux is weber (Wb). Fig. 3.14 Magnetic flux through an area

Conceptual Learning 3.8

Two types of magnets are used in various devices – permanent magnet and electromagnets (in
electromagnets, magnetic field is produced by passing current through a wire coil wound around
an iron core). List some applications for each type of magnets.

3.11 Electromagnetic Induction

We know that moving charges or currents produces magnetic field around it. The reverse of
this process is also possible. A varying magnetic field can induce electric current in a circuit.
The phenomenon in which electric current is generated in a circuit by varying magnetic fields
is called electromagnetic induction.
Fig. 3.15 shows a closed circuit with a galvanometer. When the magnet is moved towards or
away from the circuit an emf is induced in the circuit. Due to this emf, an induced current flows
through the circuit and the galvanometer deflects.

74
 Fig. 3.15 Circuit to illustrate electromagnetic induction

Michael Faraday studied electromagnetic induction in detail by preforming a number of

experiments and formulated the following laws.
1. Faraday’s first law of electromagnetic induction: Faraday’s first law states that
whenever the magnetic flux associated with a circuit changes, an emf is induced in
the circuit.
2. Faraday’s second law of electromagnetic induction: Faraday’s second law states that
the induced emf produced in the circuit is equal to the rate of change of magnetic flux
through it. Induced emf is given by
𝑑𝜙
𝐸=
𝑑𝑡
where ϕ is the magnetic flux through the circuit.

Conceptual Learning 3.9

Induction cooker used in kitchen is a device which works on the principle of electromagnetic
induction. Explain its working.

3.12 Lorentz Force

An electric charge placed in an electric field experiences a force of magnitude qE in the
direction of the field. In a magnetic field a charge experiences a force only when it is moving. The

75
magnitude of this magnetic force is qvBsinθ, where v is the velocity of the charge, B is the
magnetic field and θ is the angle between the direction of magnetic field and direction of velocity.
In the presence of both electric and magnetic fields, a moving charge experience both electric
and magnetic force. The total force on the charge is the sum of these two forces.
𝐹 = 𝐹𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 + 𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐
𝐹 = 𝑞𝐸 + 𝑞𝑣𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
This force is called Lorentz force.

3.13 Force on a current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field

Motion of charges constitutes electric current. A charge moving in a magnetic field
experiences a force. Thus, a current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field experiences a
force.
The magnitude of the force acting on a current carrying conductor placed in an external
magnetic field is given by the expression
𝐹 = 𝐵𝑖𝐿𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
where B is the magnetic field, i is the current through the magnetic field,
L is the length of the conductor , and θ is the angle between direction of current and direction
of magnetic field. This force is perpendicular to both the direction of current and direction of
magnetic field.

3.13.1 Fleming’s Left hand rule

Fleming’s left-hand rule gives the direction of
the force acting on a current carrying conductor
placed in a magnetic field, when the magnetic field
is perpendicular to the direction of current flow (θ=
900). The magnitude of the force when θ = 900 is
F = BiL.
Fleming’s left hand rule states that if the thumb,
forefinger and middle finger of the left hand are
placed mutually at right angles, with the forefinger
pointing in the direction of magnetic field and Fig. 3.16 Fleming’s left hand rule

76
middle finger pointing in the direction of electric current, then the thumb gives the direction of the
fore acting on the conductor,

3.14 Moving Coil Galvanometer

A moving coil galvanometer is an instrument used to detect electric current in a circuit. The
moving coil galvanometer works on the principle that a current carrying conductor placed in a
magnetic field experiences a force. The magnitude of this force acting on a conductor of length L,
carrying a current i placed in a magnetic field B is given by the expression F = BiLsinθ, where θ
is the angle between the direction of current and the direction of magnetic field.

Fig. 3.17 Schematic diagram of a moving coil galvanometer

The galvanometer consists of a rectangular coil with many turns, suspended between the pole
pieces of a magnet using a phosphor bronze wire. The pole pieces create a uniform radial magnetic
field which is always parallel to the plane of the coil. A small mirror is attached to the suspension

77
wire to measure the deflection of the coil. The current enters the coil through the suspension wire
and leaves through the spring strip.
Let l be the length and b the breadth of the coil. When current flow through the coil forces acts
on all the four sides of the coil. The net force and net moment due to the forces acting on the
horizontal sides of the coil is zero. The force on each vertical side of the coil, 𝐹 = 𝐵𝑖𝑙 since the
field is perpendicular to current.
The Fleming’s left hand rule gives the direction of the forces. The forces acting on the two
vertical sides are equal in magnitude, opposite in direction and is separated by a distance b. The
two forces constitute a couple. The moment of the couple (C) is given by
𝐶 = 𝐵𝑖𝑙 × 𝑏 = 𝐵𝑖𝐴
where 𝐴 = 𝑙 × 𝑏 is the area of the coil. If there are ‘n ‘turns in the coil, then
𝐶 = 𝑛𝐵𝑖𝐴
Due to this moment of the couple, the coil rotates. As the coil rotates, the suspension wire gets
twisted and an opposing couple develops inside the wire. When the moments of the two couples
balance each other, the rotation stops.
Let ‘θ ‘be the angle of through which the coil is rotated, the opposing moment is ‘αθ ‘, where
α is the opposing moment developed inside the wire when it is rotated through unit angle.
When the two moments balance, we can write
𝛼𝜃 = 𝑛𝐵𝑖𝐴
𝑛𝐵𝐴
𝜃= ( )𝑖
𝛼
The quantity given in the bracket is constant for a given galvanometer. Thus, angle of
deflection θ is proportional to current i. The angle of deflection is measured using a lamp and scale
arrangement.

3.15 Conversion of galvanometer into ammeter and voltmeter

A galvanometer is basically used to detect electric current in a circuit. To measure values
of current or voltage in a circuit, the galvanometer can be used with some modifications. The
galvanometer is modified such a way that when it is connected the values of current and voltage
in the circuit are not varied much due to its presence.

78
3.15.1 Conversion of galvanometer to ammeter

An ammeter is used to measure

the value of current in a circuit. It is
always connected in series in a circuit.
Directly connecting a galvanometer in
series in a circuit will change the value
of current in the circuit and also might
damage the galvanometer due to large
current. To use a galvanometer as an
ammeter a small resistance called shunt
resistance is connected in parallel with
the galvanometer. Majority of current Fig. 3.18 Galvanometer converted to an ammeter
flows through the shunt resistance.
Here 𝑖 the current to be measured. A part 𝑖𝑔 of the current flows through the galvanometer and
the remaining current (𝑖 − 𝑖𝑔 ) flows through the shunt.

Since, voltage across the shunt = voltage across the galvanometer

(𝑖 − 𝑖𝑔 ) 𝑆 = 𝑖𝑔 𝐺

The value of shunt resistance is given by

ig G
S=
(i − ig )

3.15.2 Conversion of galvanometer to voltmeter

Voltmeter measures voltage across a given section of a circuit. For this, it is connected in
parallel with the section of the circuit. A galvanometer is converted into a voltmeter by a
connecting a suitable high resistance in series with the galvanometer. The current flowing through
the galvanometer is reduced due to the large resistance connected to it.

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 A galvanometer of resistance G
connected with a large resistance R is
shown in fig.3.18. The voltage to be
measured is E. Here the current through
the galvanometer is 𝑖𝑔 . Applying
Kirchoff’s second law in the circuit,
𝑖𝑔 𝐺 + 𝑖𝑔 𝐺 = 𝐸
𝑖𝑔 (𝐺 + 𝑅) = 𝐸
Fig. 3.19 Galvanometer converted to a voltmeter
Thus, the value of high resistance to
be connected is
E
R= −G
ig

Example 3.8
A galvanometer has a 100 Ω and shows full scale deflection for 10 mA. How can it be connected
to an ammeter of range 0 to 5 A?
Solution:
Given, G = 100 Ω
ig =10 mA = 10 × 10-3 A
i=5A
𝑖𝑔 𝐺 10 × 10−3 × 100
𝑆= = = 0.2 Ω
𝑖 − 𝑖𝑔 5 − 10 × 10−3

The given galvanometer can be converted into ammeter of range 0 to 5 A by connecting a

resistance of 0.2 Ω in parallel with the galvanometer.

Example 3.9

A galvanometer of resistance 30 Ω shows full scale deflection for a current of 10 mA. How will
you connect it into a voltmeter of range 0 to 12 V?
Solution:
Given, G = 30 Ω
E = 12 V

80
 ig = 10 mA = 10 × 10-3 A
𝐸 12
𝑅= – G= – 30 = 1170 Ω
𝑖𝑔 10 × 10−3
The galvanometer is converted into voltmeter by connecting a resistance 1170 Ω in series with
it.

Example 3.10

Design a voltmeter of range 0 to 10 V. Given a galvanometer of resistance 50 Ω which shows full

scale deflection for 10 mA.
Solution:
Given, G = 50 Ω
E = 10 V
ig = 10 mA = 10 × 10-3 A
𝐸 10
𝑅= – G= – 50 = 950 Ω
𝑖𝑔 10 × 10−3
The voltmeter is made by connecting a resistance 950Ω in series with the given
galvanometer.

PRACTICE PROBLEMS

1. A wire of length 2.5 m and diameter 1 mm has a resistance of 2 Ω. Calculate the specific
resistance (resistivity) of the material of the wire. [ Ans: 6.28 x 10-7 Ωm]
2. Calculate the length of copper wire or radius 0.2mm needed to make a resistance of 10 Ω.
Specific resistance of nichrome = 13x 10-7 Ωm. [Ans: 0.31 m]
3. The resistance of a wire is 100 Ω. It is melted and recast into a wire of 3 times the original
length. Find its new resistance. [Ans: 900 Ω]
4. Two resistors 24 Ω and 12 Ω are connected in parallel and the combination is then connected
in series with 8Ω. Find the effective resistance. [Ans: 16 Ω]
5. Given three resistors 12 Ω, 6 Ω and 4 Ω. Find the effective resistance when (a) they are
connected in series and (b) they are connected in parallel. [Ans: 22 Ω, 2 Ω]
6. Given three 18 Ω resistances. Draw the diagrams to explain how these resistances can be
combined to give 6 Ω, 27 Ω and 12 Ω.

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7. Three resistors 4 Ω, 5 Ω and 6 Ω are connected in series. The combination is then connected
to a battery of emf 30 V. Find
(a) the effective resistance of the combination
(b) the current through the resistors
(c) the voltage drops across each resistor
[Ans: 15 Ω, 2 A ,8 V, 10 V, 12 V]
8. A galvanometer of resistance 50 Ω gives full scale deflection for 5 mA. How it can be
converted into an ammeter of range 0 to 5 A? [Ans: 50 mΩ in parallel]
9. A galvanometer having a resistance of 75 Ω shows full scale deflection for 10 mA. How can
it be converted into a voltmeter of range 0 to 10 V? [ Ans: 925 Ω in series]
10. Find the currents I, I1 and I2 through the resistors.

[ Ans: 5 A, 2.5 A, 2.5 A]

QUESTIONS
1. State Coulomb’s law
2. What is a capacitor?
3. State Ohm’s law. Explain an experimental method to verify Ohm’s law.
4. Describe the terms specific resistance and specific conductance.
5. Briefly describe the factors affecting the resistance of a conducting wire
6. Differentiate between direct current and alternating current.
7. State and explain Kirchhoff’s laws.
8. Applying Kirchhoff’s laws, derive the balancing condition of Wheatstone’s bridge.
9. Explain the principle and working of a Meter bridge.

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10. What is meant by the effective resistance of a combination of resistances.
11. Obtain expression for the effective resistance of a series combination and parallel
combination of resistors.
12. What is meant by electromagnetic induction?
13. State Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction.
14. Explain Lorentz force.
15. State Fleming’s left-hand rule.
16. Explain the construction and working of a moving coil galvanometer.
17. Explain how a galvanometer can be converted into a voltmeter.
18. Using a circuit diagram, explain how a galvanometer can be converted into an ammeter.

19. Replace the statements, if it is wrong.

a) Resistivity of metal is usually greater than that of semiconductor

b) There is high energy gap between conduction band and valence band for insulators

c) Alloys usually have resistance more than that of metal

20. Match the following

Column A Column B
a) Lorentz Force a) Relation of emf with magnetic flux
b) Faradays law b) Algebraic sum of current in a junction zero
c) Coulombs Law c) Force on a moving charge
d) Ohm’s Law d) Force between charge
e) Kirchhoff’s Law e) I and V are proportional

83
 CHAPTER 4
MODERN PHYSICS

Conceptual Learning 4.1

1. List out the devices you know which are using semiconductors?
2. Can you distinguish the terms Electronics and Electrical Engineering?
3. Can you imagine how small is the electronic charge?
4. And how controlling of this electronic charge is possible

4.1 Semiconductors
Semiconductors are materials with electrical conductivity (or resistivity) in between good
insulators and good conductors. The electrical as well as optical properties of these materials are
important and interesting such that the present-day world is deeply indebted to them. Our day-to-
day life with electronic equipment such as mobile phones, computers etc., are developed and
miniaturization of those devices are achieved because of the knowledge about semiconductors.
Here we are going to make some fundamental understanding about the semiconductors.

Solids can be broadly classified into conductors and insulators. Conductors are solids with
conductivity in between 102 to 108 Ω-1m-1 (or resistivity in between 10-2 to 10-8 Ωm). They are
good conductors of electricity and offers very small resistance against the flow of electric current.
Examples are gold, silver, copper aluminum etc. Insulators are solids with conductivity in between
10-11 to 10-19 Ω-1m- (or resistivity in between 1011 to 1019 Ωm). They are bad conductors of
electricity and offers very high resistance against the flow electrical current. Examples are wood,
paper, rubber, mica etc. There is a class of materials which has conductivity (or resistivity) in
between conductor or metals and insulators. They are called as semiconductors.

4.1.1 Energy Bandgap in Solids

The explanation modern theories (band theory of solids) developed from quantum theory
about the properties of solids reveals that why there are solids with high conductivity (conductors
or metals) and with less conductivity (insulators) and some solids with conductivity in between
(semiconductors).

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 We studied in the last semester that the SI unit of energy is joule (J). Here, we are dealing
with energies associated with atoms and molecules. For convenience we are going to introduce a
unit for energy ‘electron volt (eV). Electron volt (eV) is a unit of energy used in solid state, atomic,
nuclear and particle physics. It is the energy gained by an electron when accelerated through a
potential difference of 1 volt.

1 eV = 1.6 x 10-19 J

Consider a crystal containing N atoms. We know from the theory of atomic structure that
electrons in a single atom will have a large number of discrete energy levels. if all atoms are
isolated and separated from each other by a large distance, each energy level of electrons would
be same as that of individual isolated atoms. In a crystal, the atoms are close to each other and
therefore the electrons interact with each other. When the atoms start interacting with each other,
each energy level of electrons gets spilt into closely packed energy levels leading to the formation
of energy bands. The energy bands in a crystal are separated by an energy gap called forbidden
energy gap. These energy bands may be fully or partially filled with electrons or even empty. The
highest energy band occupied by valance electrons (electrons in the outer most orbit of isolated
atoms) is called as valance band. The next higher energy band is called conduction band. The
valance electrons excited to conduction band takes part in electronic conduction.

Fig. 4.1 Band structure of a semiconductor

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 Based on energy bands, solids can be classified into conductors (metals), insulators and
semiconductors.
a) Conductors: In a conductor, the valence band and conduction band overlaps.
Therefore, the valance band electrons are easily excited to conduction band and thus
become free electrons. These free electrons can easily acquire energy from an electric
field to participate in electrical conduction.
b) Insulators: In an insulating material, the valance band is filled and conduction band is
empty. There is a large forbidden energy gap (~ 5 eV) between valance band and
conduction band. So, it is very difficult for electrons in the valence band to get excited
to conduction band by absorbing sufficient energy. Therefore, the insulator has poor
conductivity.
c) Semiconductors: In a semiconductor, the valance band is filled and conduction band
is empty just like an insulator at a low temperature. But semiconductor has a fairly
small energy band gap (~ 1 eV) between valance band and conduction band. But at
room temperature, some of the valence electrons get excited to conduction band and
contribute to electrical conduction. Therefore, semiconductors have electrical
conductivity in between that of conductors and insulators.

Conceptual Learning 4.2

With the energy band gap concept, the metals should be opaque or colour less. But they are
not. Explain why the metals are showing a lustrous appearance?

.
4.1.2 Intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors
Semiconductors can be generally classified as intrinsic semiconductors and extrinsic
semiconductors.

(1) Intrinsic Semiconductors

Extremely pure semiconductors without any impurities are known as intrinsic

semiconductors. Germanium (Ge) and Silicon (Si) are examples of intrinsic semiconductors.
Atoms of Silicon and germanium have four valence electrons (tetravalent). In a Si or Ge lattice,

86
the tetra valent atoms form co-valent bond by sharing one each with neighbouring atoms as shown
in fig. 4.2. In some condition the electrons break co-valent bond and free to move through the
crystal and can conduct electric charge. While an atom leaves the atom it creates a vacancy or
deficiency. Thus, a hole is created. The hole is equivalent to a positive charge. In this way an
electron and hole move through the semiconductor. Thus, in semiconductor both electrons and
holes are charge carriers. Conduction takes place due to the drift of conduction electrons as well
as of holes. Such pure semiconductors are also called intrinsic semiconductors. Both the electrons
and the holes take part in the intrinsic conduction. Hence, they are called intrinsic carriers.

Fig. 4.2 Intrinsic semiconductor (Si) at (a) low temperature and

(b) electron – hole pair creation as the temperature increases

(2) Extrinsic Semiconductors

In an intrinsic semiconductor, like pure silicon, only a small fraction of the valence electrons
is able to reach the conduction band. The number of charge carriers in a pure semiconductor can

87
be increased by adding impurity atoms to the crystal. The addition of impurity atoms to a
semiconductor is called doping. A doped semiconductor is called extrinsic semiconductor.
Extrinsic semiconductors are classified into n-type semiconductors and p-type semiconductors.

(a) n-type semiconductors

If a pentavalent atom like antimony, arsenic etc. added to the crystal of silicon, it
becomes an n-type semiconductor. The arsenic atom shares its electrons with neighbouring
silicon atoms; but the fifth valence electron of arsenic atom remains in the crystal as an excess
electron. The impurity atom which contributes an excess electron to the semiconductor
material is called a donor atom. In an n-type semiconductor the majority charge carriers are
electrons and the minority charge carriers are holes.

Fig. 4.3 n-type semiconductor produced by

doping pentavalent impurity (Sb) in silicon
matrix

Here, antimony (Sb) atom is the dopant added to a silicon matrix. Since the antimony is
a pentavalent material, four of the five electrons may share or form covalent bond among
neighbouring silicon atoms and the fifth electron is free for conduction.

88
 Instead of replacing an atom of the host crystal, the impurity may lodge itself in an
interstitial position, then its outer shell electrons available for conduction and the interstitial
impurity is called a donor.

(b) p-type semiconductors

If a trivalent atom like aluminium, boron, indium etc. added to the crystal of silicon, it
becomes an p-type semiconductor. The doped impurity atoms share its electrons with neighbouring
silicon atoms. But the impurity atom has only three electrons to share. A missing atom results in a
vacancy and thus a hole is created. The impurity atom which accepts electron is called an acceptor
atom. A hole means deficiency of electron. The acceptor atom contributes holes to the
semiconductor. The electrical conduction in p-type semiconductor is dominated by the positively
charged holes. In a p-type semiconductor the majority charge carriers are holes and the minority
charge carriers are electrons.

Fig. 4.4 p-type semiconductor produced by doping trivalent

impurity (B) in silicon matrix

Here, boron (B) is a trivalent atom which is added as an impurity to an intrinsic Silicon
semiconductor. All the valance electrons form covalent bond with three neighbouring silicon

89
atoms and one is left behind. Since four electrons are required to complete the covalent bond, a
hole results when each trivalent atom is added.

4.1.3 p-n junction

Fig. 4.5 Formation of a pn junction

When a p-type material and an n-type material are brought together a boundary junction is
formed between them. This is called a p-n junction. The electrons migrating to the p-type region
will recombine with the holes there and holes migrating towards the n-type region recombine with
electrons. This small region, which has been depleted of charge is called depletion region. The
depletion region contains only immobile charges. This will produce an excess negative charge in
the p-type and excess positive charge in the n-type in the junction. The excess positive charge near
the n-type side and excess negative charges near the p-type of the junction will set up a potential
difference across the junction. This potential difference produced due to the diffusion of the charge
carriers across the p-n junction is called potential barrier.

4.1.4 p-n junction diode

The electron from the n-type side and the holes from the p-type side are unable to overcome
the potential barrier. But when a battery of emf greater than the potential barrier is connected with
its positive to the p-type side and negative to the n-type side, the majority carriers from both sides
get sufficient energy to overcome the potential barrier. The junction now said to be forward -
biased. Now the p-n junction is said to be conducting.

90
 When the battery is connected with its negative terminal to p-type side and positive terminal
to the n-type side of the p-n junction it is said to be reverse-biased. The majority carriers from both
sides are unable to overcome the barrier. But a feeble current due to minority carriers. So, when p-
n junction is reverse-biased the electrical conduction is very poor.
The p-n junction conducts only during the forward biased condition, so it is called diode.
This unidirectional conduction property is made use of in converting alternating current into
direct current. The process by which alternating current (AC) is converted into direct current
(DC) is called rectification.

4.1.5 Forward bias

If the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the p-side and the negative terminal
to the n-side, we say that the junction is forward-biased. The potential of the n-side is higher
than that of the p-side when no battery is connected to the junction. Due to the forward-bias
connection, the potential of the p-side is raised and hence the height of the potential barrier
decreases. The width of the depletion region is also reduced in forward bias as shown in fig. 4.6.

Fig. 4.6 Forward biased p-n junction

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 Under the action of forward potential difference, the junction offers a very low resistance
called forward resistance. The current increases slowly till the forward bias voltage reaches 0.3
V for Ge and 0.7 V for Si p-n junction. These voltages are called knee voltages (Vk). After knee
voltage, there is an exponential rise in the forward current.

Fig. 4.7 V-I characteristics of a

forward biased p-n junction
.

4.1.6 Reverse bias

If the p-side of the junction is connected to the negative terminal and the n-side to the positive
terminal of a battery, the junction is said to be reverse-biased. In this case, the potential barrier
or depletion region get widened. Under the action of reverse potential difference, the junction
offers a very high resistance called reverse resistance. If the reverse-bias voltage across a p-n
junction diode is increased, at a particular voltage the reverse current suddenly increases to a
large value. This phenomenon is called breakdown of the diode and the voltage at which it occurs
is called the breakdown voltage (Vbr).

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 Fig. 4.8 Reverse biased p-n junction

Fig. 4.9 V-I characteristics of a

reverse biased p-n junction

Conceptual learning 4.3

a) Have you heard about Light emitting diode, photo diode, Zener diode etc.?
b) Do you think these diodes are different from ordinary Si diode?
c) Find out the materials used in these diodes and function of each diode?

93
4.1.7 I-V Characteristics of p-n junction

Fig. 4.10 Circuit diagram to study (a) forward characteristics

and (b) reverse characteristics of a diode

Fig. 4.10 shows the circuit diagram to study the characteristics of a diode. The rheostat is
adjusted to vary the voltage applied across the diode. The current will be of the order of
milliamperes in the forward biased condition and of the order of micro amperes in the reverse
biased condition. As the forward voltage is increased, the current also increases. The voltage
beyond which the current begins to rise sharply in forward bias is called the knee voltage (Vk).
The knee voltage is 0.3 V for Ge and 0.7 V for Si p-n junction. The forward characteristics of a
diode is not a straight line. Hence the ratio V/I is not a constant and the diode does not obey Ohm's
law.

The reverse voltage prevents the flow of majority carriers and only a feeble current
obtained in reverse biased condition due to the flow of minority carriers. When the reverse
voltage attains a certain value, the reverse current increases very rapidly. This voltage is called
breakdown voltage (Vbr).

94
 Fig. 4.11 V-I characteristics of a p-n junction diode

4.1.8 Applications of diodes

a) Diode as rectifier: From the V-I characteristic of a junction diode we see that it allows current
to pass only when it is forward biased. This property is used to rectify alternating voltages and
the circuit used for this purpose is called a rectifier.
b) Diode as a voltage regulator (Zener diode): A diode meant to operate in the breakdown
region is called an avalanche diode or a Zener diode depending on the mechanism of
breakdown. Such diodes are used to obtain constant voltage output.
c) Photodiodes (photodetectors): A Photodiode is again a special purpose p-n junction diode
fabricated to allow light to fall on the diode. Under illumination electron-hole pairs are
generated due to the absorption of photons and current flows. The magnitude of the
photocurrent depends on the intensity of incident light (photocurrent is proportional to incident
light intensity).
d) Light emitting diodes (LED): A light emitting diode converts electrical energy into light.
Under forward biasing, electron – hole recombination takes place in the depletion region and
this recombination results in the emission of energy in the form of photons.
e) Solar cell: A solar cell is basically a p-n junction which generates emf when solar radiation
falls on the p-n junction. It works on the principle of photovoltaic effect.

95
4.1.9 Transistors
A transistor is a three-electrode semiconductor device. A transistor is formed by
placing two opposed p-n junctions close to each other. Thus, transistor contains three layers of
semiconducting materials. The two types of transistors namely pnp and npn transistor. The
three regions or layers in a transistor are called emitter, base and collector. In p-n-p transistor,
the n-type material forms base and is sandwiched between two p-type materials. In n-p-n
transistor the base is p-type and is sandwiched between two n-type materials.
a) Emitter: It is one of the outer regions with moderate size and somewhat heavily doped.
It supplies a large number of majority carriers for the current flow through the
transistor. And hence the name emitter.
b) Base: This is the central narrow region. It is very thin and lightly doped.
c) Collector: This is the farther end region of the transistor structure. The collector part
is moderately doped and larger in size as compared to the emitter. This region collects
a major portion of the majority carriers supplied by the emitter, hence the name
collector.

Fig. 4.12 Schematic representations of (a) pnp transistor and (b) npn transistor

96
 Fig. 4.13 Symbols for (a) pnp transistor and (b) npn transistor

Suitable potential differences should be applied across the two junctions to operate the
transistor. This is called biasing the transistor. The biasing of the transistor is done differently for
different uses. The major applications of the transistors are

a) Transistor can be used as a switch

b) Transistor can be used as an amplifier which is used to amplify an input signal to a desired
level
c) Transistor can be as an Oscillator which is used to generate electric signal of any desired
frequency.

Conceptual learning 4.4

1. Can we consider a diode as a VALVE?
2. The area of emitter, base and collector of a transistor are different. Do you agree with
it? If yes, why does it engineer as that?

4.2 Photoelectric Effect

When light of sufficient wavelength is incident on some metal surface, electrons are ejected
from the metal. This phenomenon is called the photoelectric effect. The electrons ejected from the
metal are called photoelectrons. Photoelectric effect can be regarded as the mechanical removal
electrons from the surface of metals by incident light. So much of energy is needed in breaking an

97
atom or removing an electron from atom. But here, electrons are ejected by simple incidence of
light.
4.2.1 Laws of photoelectric effect
Experimental observation of this phenomena can be obtained when light of sufficient
frequency shines on a metal surface kept in an evacuated glass tube. The glass tube is evacuated
so that the photoelectrons can easily travel to the nearby electrode without collision with air
particles. The evacuated tube is fitted with two electrodes. One is connected to the positive
potential of the battery through a galvanometer or ammeter and the cathode is taken as the metal
which is going emit photoelectrons. The experimental observations can be summarized into three
laws called laws of photoelectric effect.

1) The photoelectric effect is frequency dependent: It is experimentally observed that

photoelectric effect is not observed for radiation of all frequencies. There is a particular
frequency above which the photoemission of electrons happens. This frequency is called
as threshold frequency.
2) The photoelectric current is intensity dependent: The number of photoelectrons
generated determines the photocurrent. There is no emission of photoelectrons or
photocurrent even if the intensity is increased for a wave which has a frequency less than
the threshold frequency. If the incident wave frequency is higher than or equal to the
threshold frequency the photocurrent generated is proportional to the intensity of radiation.
3) Photoelectric effect is an instantaneous process: There is no time lag between the
incidence of radiation and emission of photoelectrons for the incident wave with sufficient
frequency.

4.2.2 Einstein’s explanation of photoelectric effect

Einstein explained these experimental facts about photoelectric effect with the help of
Quantum theory of light. The quantum of light energy is called as photon. The energy of a photon
depends on the frequency of the light.
ℎ𝑐
𝐸 = ℎ𝜐 =
𝜆
where, h is the Plank’s constant, ν is the frequency of light and λ is the wavelength of light.
Einstein proposed a theory that the incident energy of light is used for removal of electrons
from the atom in the surface and ejection electrons from the metal surface. Or absorption of energy

98
from the incident wave by the electron in an atom and get liberated from the atom and then gets
the extra energy from the wave as kinetic energy and get ejected from the metal surface. This can
be summarized by an expression called Einstein’s Photoelectric Effect equation and is given by

𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑦 𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 +
𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑎𝑐𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛
1
ℎ𝜐 = ℎ𝜐0 + 𝑚𝑣 2
2

4.2.3 Photocells
A photocell is a common nomenclature used for light sensitive semiconductor electronic
devices such as cadmium sulfide cells, LDR (Light Dependent Resistors), photoresistors etc., They
are sensors used to detect the light or intensity of light. The working principle of Photocells
depends on the phenomenon of electrical resistance and the photoelectric effect.

Fig. 4.14 Schematic diagram of a photocell

The main parts of the photocell are an evacuated glass tube, which contains two electrodes
namely Collector or Anode and Emitter or Cathode. The metal electrodes are kept at a potential
difference by an external battery or source through a rheostat and a commutator. In series to them
an ammeter or a galvanometer is connected.

99
 The emitter electrode or cathode C is plated with materials which shows photoelectric
effect. When light of suitable frequency is incident on the emitter electrode through the transparent
evacuated glass tube, photoelectric effect happens, and photoelectrons are emitted from the emitter
electrode or cathode. Since the anode or collector electrode is kept at a positive potential, the
emitted photogenerated electrons with sufficient kinetic energy get attracted to the Anod and
overcome the retarding potential. These photoelectrons pass through the anode terminal and to the
positive of the battery through the ammeter and produces a current. This current is termed as
photocurrent. The presence of photocurrent and measurement of it can be done by the help of
ammeter or galvanometer.

4.2.4 Applications of Photoelectric Effect

a) Photoelectric cell is used as an illumination meter to measure the illuminating power of
light sources.
b) A burglar alarm can be constructed with a photoelectric cell.
c) Photoelectric cell is used in relay circuits.
d) A photo conductive cell is used for detecting infra-red light.
e) Photoelectric cell is used to reproduce sound recorded in a talkie film.
f) An array of photoelectric cell is used in television cameras for the conversion of light into
electric signals.
g) Photoelectric cells are used in automatic cameras to detect the ambient light and adjust
the lenses to get clear photographs.

4.2.5 Solar cells

Solar cells are devices that use the photovoltaic effect to convert the energy of light directly
into electricity, producing electrical charges that can move freely in semiconductors. Solar cells
are semi-conductor devices which use sunlight to produce electricity. The energy conversion
consists of absorption of light (photon) energy, producing electron–hole pairs in a semiconductor
and charge carrier separation and a photovoltage is developed. If the ends are connected to a load,
these charge carriers flow through the conducting wire to the load and create a current. The
common semiconductor photovoltaic materials used in solar cells are silicon (Si), cadmium
telluride (CdTe) and gallium arsenide (GaAs).

100
 Fig. 4.15 Schematic representation working of a solar cell

4.2.6 Applications of Solar Cells

a) Solar cells along with storage batteries are used in many electrical appliances
b) Solar cells are used as energy source in satellites and space stations
c) Solar cells are used in calculators
d) Solar cells are used to power the electric vehicles

4.3 LASER

Conceptual Learning 4.3

1. Why does the light from sun, bulb etc., differs from LASER
2. List the colour of LASER radiation you encountered with
3. Did you encounter a LASER with white light

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 The word LASER is acronym for light amplification by stimulated emission of radiations.
A laser is a device that emits light through a process of optical amplification based on the
stimulated emission of electromagnetic radiation. The laser is a light source that produces a beam
of light of highly coherent and very nearly monochromatic intense light.

4.3.1 Principles of laser action

The lowest energy level for an individual atom occurs when its electrons all in the ground state.
When one or more atom’s electrons have absorbed energy, they excited to higher orbits. The
excited states are not stable; as electrons drop from higher energy to lower energy level, the emit
radiations. There are two ways in which an atom de-excited to ground level, by emitting radiations;
spontaneous emission and stimulated emission.

a) Spontaneous Emission: If light of frequency ‘f ‘is incident on an atomic system, it may

absorb the energy of light provided its energy is greater than or equals to the energy band gap.
That is the atoms in the ground state may absorb energy and get excited. Since the atoms prefer
to stay in the ground state, the excited atoms return to the ground state by emitting a photon of
same frequency as that of the originally absorbed photon. This process is called spontaneous
emission. Here only two energy levels included, namely ground state level and excited state
levels of energy. The direction and phase of the spontaneously emitted photons are random.
So, it cannot produce lasing action.
b) Stimulated Emission: In stimulated emission it is a process involving more than two energy
levels. There is a metastable level where which the excited electron gets some rest for a
moment and then coherently deexcite to ground state by producing radiation. In this process
each incident photon encounters a previously excited atom. A kind of resonance effect induces
each atom to emit a second photon with the same frequency, direction, phase, and polarization
as the incident photon, which is not changed by the process. For each atom there is one photon
before a stimulated emission and two photons after—thus the name light amplification.
Because the two photons have the same phase, they emerge together as coherent radiation. The
laser makes use of stimulated emission to produce a beam consisting of a large number of such
coherent photons.

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4.3.2 The basic operation of a laser device
A laser consists of an active medium placed inside a suitable optical cavity to amplify the
light. Generally, the laser action involves the following processes:
1) Pumping: The process of excitation of ground state atoms to excited state by using
energy from an external source is called pumping. There are different pumping methods
employed in various lasers.
2) Population inversion: Under normal conditions, the number of atoms in the exited
state is very much less than that in the ground state. The number of excited state atoms
can be increased by pumping with intense energy sources. The state of the active
medium in which number of atoms in the exited state is greater than that in the ground
state is called population inversion. Population inversion is an essential condition for
laser action.
3) Amplification: The optical cavity of laser usually consists of two mirrors, between
which the active medium is placed. If a sufficient population inversion exists in the
medium, then photons are produced in the cavity by stimulated emission. Photons
undergo multiple reflections in the cavity and get amplified.
4) Coherent emission: The amplified light waves in the cavity are in same phase so that
the output laser light is coherent. Hence, the laser light will have high directionality
and high intensity. The coherent laser light comes out through one of the mirrors which
is partially silvered.

4.3.3 Methods for producing population inversion

There are several methods for producing the population inversions necessary for optical
amplification to take place. Some of the most commonly used are:
1) Optical pumping or photon excitation: In case of optical pumping, an external light
source is employed to produce a high population of some particular energy level in the
laser medium by selective optical absorption. This method is used in solid state laser like
ruby laser.
2) Electrical pumping: Direct electron excitation by gaseous discharge may be used to
produce the population inversion. This method is used in some of the gaseous ion lasers
such as argon laser. In some gas lasers like He-Ne laser, electrical pumping followed by
inelastic atom – atom collision is used for producing population inversion.

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 3) Chemical pumping: Lasers using chemical reaction to produce population inversion are
known as chemical lasers. Example is hydrogen fluoride chemical laser.

4.3.4 Characteristics of laser

a) Laser light is monochromatic: The laser radiation is having a single colour, or the
radiation is having only one wavelength. Since the emitted wave will have the
comparable wavelength as that of the energy bandgap.
b) Laser light is highly coherent: The individual waves in the laser radiation are in
same phase. (same phase and frequency).
c) Laser light is highly intense: Since the number of waves per unit area is large and
are in same phase, the laser light is highly intense.
d) Laser light is highly directional and has low divergence: This is because of the fact
that the laser light is highly coherent or the waves are in same phase.

4.3.5 He-Ne laser

He-Ne lasers is a gas laser system which uses the inelastic collisions of individual atoms
excited by electrical pumping. A cylindrical glass tube contains a mixture of helium (about 90%)
and neon (about 10%) at low pressures is the optical medium to have lasing action. Two electrodes
are fitted with this glass tube to give required electrical potential to give excitation energy. The
optical cavity is provided with external mirrors to have necessary population inversion through
amplification.
Under the applied electrical potential, some of the atoms get ionized and these stray electrons
get accelerated by the applied electric field and get collide with helium atoms. The helium atoms
get excited to a higher energy state by electron collision. Excited helium atoms collide with neon
atoms and transfer energy to the neon atoms. As a result, the helium atoms come back to the ground
state and the neon atoms get excited to a metastable energy state. This process takes place
continuously so that the neon atoms are continuously pumped to the metastable state, and the
population of neon atoms in the excited state increases. Thus, population inversion is achieved
which is the necessary condition for lase action. The laser radiation will come out through the
mirrors which are partially silvered. The He-Ne laser emits laser light at a wavelength of 632.8
nm.

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 Fig. 4.16 Schematic diagram of a He-Ne laser

4.3.6 Semiconductor laser

The most compact laser is the semiconductor diode laser, also called as the injection laser.
In its simplest form the diode laser consists of a p-n junction in a doped single crystal of a suitable
semiconductor, such as gallium arsenide (GaAs). The junction layer is very thin of the order of
micrometers in length. And the end faces of the crystal are made partially reflective by polishing
to form an optical resonator.
When a forward bias is applied to the diode, electrons are injected into the p side of the junction
and holes are injected into the n side. The recombination of holes and electrons within the junction
region result in recombination radiation. This is the principle for the operation of light emitting
diode (LED) device. Here the spontaneous recombination of carriers produces the radiation. If the
junction current density is large enough, a population inversion can be obtained between the
electron levels and hole levels. Stimulated emission can then occur and thereby producing laser
light. GaAs laser emits infrared radiation in the range 830 to 860 nm.

4.3.7 Applications of lasers

a) Laser can be used as tool for surgery (Ophthalmic surgery).
b) Laser is used for precision cutting, drilling, and welding.
c) Laser beam can be used as a carrier of information (telephone signal through optical fiber
cables).
d) Laser based methods are used to guide missiles and pilot-less fighter planes.
e) Laser is used for range finding (measurement of distance of faraway objects).

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 f) Laser is used in Holography or 3D imaging.
g) Laser is used to initiate fusion reaction.
h) Laser is used to read and write data in CD/DVD systems.
i) Laser is used in printing technology (Laser printer).
j) Laser is used in textile industry to perfectly cut many layers of cloths together

Conceptual Learning 4.6

Have you heard about MASER? Prepare a report on the development of MASER?

4.4 Introduction to Nanotechnology

Conceptual Learning 4.7

We often see that lizards are moving on our roof upside down even if its foot contact area to the
roof is a little, it is not falling. Is there any glue or something in their feet? Or is it something
related to nanoscience?

The study of objects and phenomena at a very small scale (1-100 nanometers) is called
Nanoscale or Nanoscience. In Nanometer scale the material properties are size and shape
dependent. The increased surface area of nano materials differs significantly from other materials.
Due to the large surface area of Nanomaterials enhance the properties such as reactivity, strength
and electrical characteristics. Nanotechnology is the design, characterization, production and
application of structures, devices and systems by controlling shape and size at Nano meter scale.
In Nano science building blocks may consist of few hundred atoms to millions of atoms.
Materials reduced to the nanoscale can suddenly show very different properties compared
to what they show on a macroscale. For instance, opaque substances become transparent (copper);
inert materials become catalysts (platinum); stable materials turn combustible (aluminum); solids
turn into liquids at room temperature (gold); insulators become conductors (silicon).
A second important aspect of the nanoscale is that the smaller a nanoparticle gets, the larger
its relative surface area becomes. Its electronic structure changes dramatically. Both effects lead
to greatly improved catalytic activity but can also lead to aggressive chemical reactivity.

106
 Conceptual Learning 4.8
Arrange the following quantities with increasing order
1. Thickness of a razor blade
2. Diameter of human hair
3. Size of a blood cell
4. Size of virus
5. Gold atom
6. Wavelength of x rays
7. Wavelength of gamma rays
8. Diameter of Carbon nano tube
9. Size of DNA
10. Size of bacteria

4.4.1 Distinguishing properties of nanomaterials

a) A bulk material should have constant physical properties, but at the nano-scale size-
dependent properties are observed.
b) Percentage of atoms at the surface of a material is increased
c) Increased surface area
d) Aspect ratio or surface to volume ratio will increase considerably

4.4.2 Characteristics of nano materials

a) Nano fiber stronger than spider web
b) Nano metal is 100 times stronger than steel
c) Nano catalysts respond more quickly in reaction
d) Nano plastics that conduct electricity.
e) Nano coatings are frictionless
4.4.3 Development of nanoscience into nanotechnology
The fascinating prospects that nanotechnology offers engineers and researchers stems from
these unique quantum and surface phenomena that matter exhibits at the nanoscale, making
possible novel materials and revolutionary applications.
a) Nano-engineering is leading to better fuel cells and photovoltaic cells.

107
 b) LED s produced on nanoscale dimensions.
c) Nanotechnology improves medical imaging.
d) Nanomaterials will yield lighter, faster, safer durable, reliable bridges, pipelines etc.
e) Nano coatings used in shipping industry.

Conceptual learning 4.9

Nanotechnology has applications in various fields of biotechnology such as human health, drugs
etc.
1. List more areas in biotechnology where nanotechnology is applied.
2. What is nano-biosensors
3. Prepare a report on the science of traditional water filter and nano filter

4.4.4 Carbon nanotubes (CNTs)

Carbon is tetravalent material so that it can form a sheet like structure. If the sheet of carbon
atom network is folded like tube of nano scale diameter, it is called as carbon nanotube. There are
two types of carbon nanotubes, namely single walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) and Multi-
walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs). Carbon nanotubes can exhibit remarkable electrical
conductivity. They also have exceptional tensile strength and thermal conductivity because of their
nanostructure and strength of the bonds between carbon atoms. The major applications of carbon
nanotubes are:

a) Nanotubes can help with cancer treatment.

b) CNTs are used for drug delivery
c) The nanotubes show promise in treating cardiovascular disease.
d) They could play an important role in blood vessel clean-up.
e) Carbon nanotubes are used in tissue engineering
f) Used to make temperature resistant adhesive tape
g) CNTs can be applied to camera and telescope systems to decrease the amount of
light and thereby allow for more detailed images to be captured.

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 QUESTIONS

1. Distinguish between semiconductors and insulators based on their bandgap?

2. Distinguish between semiconductors and conductors based on their bandgap?
3. Distinguish between conductors and insulators based on their bandgap?
4. “At absolute zero the semiconductors may behave as insulators” Is it a true statement?
5. “Semiconductors are insulators with narrow bandgap” Is it a true statement?
6. Why there are no mobile charge carriers at the depletion region of a p-n junction?
7. The conductivity of a semiconductor can be increased by adding some impurities.
a) Name the process of the adding the impurity?
b) What is the name of the semiconductor in its pure form?
c) What is the name of semiconductor after doping?
8. Describe the forward bias connection of a p-n junction?
9. Describe the reverse bias connection of a p-n junction?
10. What is reverse breakdown voltage in a p-n junction?
11. List the applications of p-n junction diodes?
12. Differentiate the emitter, base and collector based on their size and doping?
13. Describe the applications of transistors?
14. Describe the photoelectric effect in metals?
15. Give Einstein’s explanation to photoelectric effect?
16. Describe the different laws of Photoelectric effect?
17. What is a solar cell? Explain the working of a solar cell?
18. What is threshold frequency of a metal?
19. Distinguish between spontaneous and stimulated emission?
20. Describe the term population inversion?
21. Describe the different methods to produce population inversion?
22. What are the characteristics of LASER?
23. List the applications of LASER?
24. Describe the working of He-Ne gas LASER?

109
25. Match the following

Column A Column B
CNT Stimulated emission
LASER Rectification
P-N junction Nanotechnology
Forward bias LASER
Pumping Low resistance

26. What is nanoscience?

27. What are the factors responsible for change of properties of nanoscale material from that
of the bulk material?
28. Write few characteristics of Nanoscale materials.
29. Describe some of the applications of carbon nanotubes?

110
 Bibliography

1. Text Book of Physics for Class XI& XII (Part-I, Part-II); N.C.E.R.T., Delhi
2. Applied Physics, Vol. I and Vol. II, TTTI Publications, Tata McGraw Hill, Delhi
3. Concepts of Physics by HC Verma, Vol. I & II, Bharti Bhawan Ltd. New Delhi
4. Fundamentals of Physics, Halliday/Resnick/Walker, Wiley India Pvt. Ltd
5. Modern approach to Applied Physics-I and II, AS Vasudeva, Modern Publishers.

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 Revised Syllabus (Revision 2021)

Program: Diploma in Engineering

Course Code: Course Title: Applied Physics-II
Semester: 2 Credits: 3
Course Category: Basic Science
Periods/Week: 3 (L:2 T:1 P:0) Periods/Semester: 45

Course Objectives:

 To provide students with a broad understanding of physical principles of the universe to

help them develop critical thinking and quantitative reasoning skills

 To help the diploma engineers in applying the basic concepts of physics to solve broad-
based engineering problems

Course Pre-requisites:

Topic Coursecode Course name Semester

Basic knowledge in Physics Secondary Level Physics

112
Course Outcomes
On completion of the course student will be able to:

Duration Cognitive
CO No. Description
(Hours) Level

CO 1 Calculate the characteristics of waves. 10 Applying

CO 2 Compute the power of lens 12 Applying

CO 3 Convert galvanometer into ammeter and voltmeter 11 Applying

Explain the basic principles of semiconductor

CO 4 physics, photoelectric effect, LASER action and 12 Understanding
nanoscience

CO-PO MAPPING WITH VALUES

Course
PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7
Outcomes

CO1 3

CO2 3

CO3 3

CO4 2

113
Course Outline

Duration Cognitive
Description
(Hours) Level
CO 1: Calculate the characteristics of waves.

Discuss simple harmonic motion and its

M1.01 3 Understanding
properties.

Apply the basic knowledge of wave motion

M1.02 3 Applying
to calculate the characteristics of waves

Define ultrasonic waves and list its Understanding

M1.03 2
applications.

Familiarize with the parameters of acoustics Understanding

M1.04 2
of buildings.

Module 1: Wave motion and its applications

Periodic motion, Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM): Definition and examples,

Projection of a uniform circular motion along a diameter, Expressions for displacement,
velocity, acceleration, time period and frequency

Waves: Transverse and longitudinal waves with examples, Sound and light waves,
Characteristics of a wave- velocity, frequency, wavelength, amplitude and phase,
Relation between frequency, wave velocity and wavelength, principle of superposition of
waves and beat formation, ultrasonic waves: properties and its applications, (numerical
problems)

Acoustics of buildings: reverberation, reverberation time, echo, noise, methods to

control reverberation time.

114
CO 2: Compute the power of lens

Explain basic laws of optics and establish the

M2.01 3 Understanding
image formation in case of convex lens.

Apply distance relation to find the power of

M2.02 3 Applying
lens and discuss various lens defects.

M2.03 Explain the working of optical instruments. 2 Understanding

Describe total internal reflection and

M2.04 3 Understanding
propagation of light through optical fiber.

Series Test – I (Module 1 &2) 1

Module2: Optics

Laws of reflection and refraction, refractive index, concave and convex lens, image
formation by convex lens, distance formula connecting u, v and f for lenses, power of
lens(problems based on distance formula and power of lens), magnification, lens defects
(Chromatic aberration and Spherical aberration). Optical instruments: working and uses
of simple microscope and astronomical telescope

Total internal reflection, critical angle and conditions for total internal reflection, light
propagation in optical fiber, fiber types, applications of optical fiber in
telecommunication and medical field.

CO 3: Convert galvanometer into ammeter and voltmeter

Explain Coulomb’s law, electric field,

M3.01 2 Understanding
electric potential etc.

Discuss Ohm’s law and apply it to calculate

3 Applying
M3.02 the effective resistance in electrical circuits

115
 Apply Kirchhoff’s laws to explain the
2 Applying
M3.03 working of a meter bridge

Discuss magnetic effect of electric

current and apply it to explain the working
4 Applying
M3.04 of moving coil galvanometer, ammeter
and voltmeter

Module 3:Electromagnetism

Coulomb’s law, unit of charge, Electric field, Electric potential, Capacitor, Capacitance
and its units, Electric Current and its units, Direct and alternating current, Ohm’s law and
its verification, Resistance and its units, Specific resistance, Conductance, Specific
conductance, Series and parallel combination of resistances. Factors affecting resistance
of a wire, carbon resistances and colour coding (numerical problems related to Ohm’s law
and law of resistance), Kirchhoff’s laws, Wheatstone bridge and its applications (meter
bridge)

Magnetic field and its unit, concept of electromagnetic induction, Faraday’s laws, Lorentz
force, Force on a current carrying conductor, construction and working of moving coil
galvanometer, conversion of a galvanometer to voltmeter and ammeter, (numerical
problems related to ammeter and voltmeter)

Explain the basic principles of semiconductor physics, photoelectric effect,

CO 4:
LASER action and nanoscience

Discuss the basic principles of

M4.01 semiconductor devices such as diodes and 4 Understanding
transistors.

Explain photoelectric effect and its

M4.02 2 Understanding
applications.

Discuss the principles of LASER action and

M4.03 explain the working of semiconductor laser 3 Understanding
and He – Ne laser.

116
 Summarize the basic concepts of
M4.04 2 Understanding
nanoscience and its importance

Series Test – II (Module 3 &4) 1

Module 4: Modern Physics

Semiconductor Physics: Energy bands in solids, Types of materials (insulator, semi-

conductor, conductor), intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors, p-n junction, junction
diode and V-I characteristics, Transistor, Types (pnp and npn), mention applicationsof
transistors anddiodes.

Photoelectric effect (elementary ideas only), Photocells, Solar cells; working principle
and engineering applications.

Lasers: Principle of laser - Energy levels,stimulated absorption, spontaneous and

stimulated emission, population inversion, pumping methods, characteristics of laser.
Types of lasers; He-Ne and semiconductor lasers, engineering and medical applications
of lasers.

Nanoscience and Nanotechnology - Introduction,nanoparticles and nanomaterials,

applications

117
 MODEL QUESTION PAPER

APPLIED PHYSICS -II

Time: 3 Hour Max. Marks: 75

PART A

I. Answer all questions in one word or one sentence. Each question carries one mark.

(9 x 1 = 9 Marks)
ModuleOutcomeCognitivelevel
1 Write the differential equation of SHM M1.01 R

2 Sound waves having a frequency above 20 kHz are called ------- M1.03 R

3 Apparent shift in the position of the sunrise or sunset is due to ----- M2.01 U
4 SI unit of power of a lens is…….. M2.02 R

5 ----------- of a capacitor is the measure of how much charge a M3.01 R

capacitor can store.

6 Resistance of a metal wire --------- (increases/decreases) with M3.02 U

increase in length of the wire.

7 A smallresistance connected-------------- (series/ parallel) to a M3.04 U

galvanometer to protect it from heavy currents.

8 Write an example for a donor atom used for doping in M4.01 R

semiconductors.
9 The essential condition for laser action is ------------- M4.03 R

PART B

II. Answer any eight questions from the following. Each question carries 3 marks

(8 x 3 = 24 Marks)
ModuleOutcomeCognitivelevel

1 Explain the phenomenon of beats. M1.02 U

2 Write three applications of ultrasonic waves. M1.03 R
3 Explain refraction of light. M2.01 U

118
 4 Describe the conditions for total internal reflection? M2.04 U
5 Sketch the schematic diagram of an astronomical telescope. M2.03 U
In a carbon resistor, the following three colour rings are observed –
6 M3.02 A
Red, Black, Red. Find the value of the resistor?
7 Explain Loop rule. M3.03 U
8 How will you convert a galvanomter into a voltmeter M3.04 U
9 Give any three applications of photoelectric cells. M4.02 R
10 List the important characteristics of laser. M4.03 R

PART C

III Answer all questions. Each question carries seven marks

(6 x 7 = 42 Marks)
ModuleOutcomeCognitivelevel

1 Explain acoustics of buildings. M1.04 U

OR
2 Ultrasonic waves of frequency 4 x 104 Hz are propagated through M1.02 A
water with a velocity 1400 m/s. Calculate the wavelength of these
waves in water.
3 a) What are ultrasonic waves? M1.03 R
b) List some applications of ultrasonic waves.
OR
4 Sketch the image formation by a convexwhen M2.01 U
(a) the object is between F and 2F
(b) the object is between focus and optic centre

119
5 Find the power of the combination of a convex lens of focal length M2.02 A
20 cm and a concave lens of focal length 30 cm.
OR
6 Two lenses of power -2.5 D and 0.5 D are placed in contact. Find the M2.02 A
focal length and power of the combination.
7 Derive the balancing condition for a Wheatstone’s bridge. M3.03 U
OR
8 State Ohm’s law and write an experiment to verify ohm’s law M3.04 R
9 Explain the working of a moving coil galvanometer M3.04 U
OR
10 (a) Explain laws of photo electric effect. M4.02 U
(b) Discuss Einstein’s photoelectric equation.
11 Explain the working of a He- Ne laser with a neatdiagram. M4.03 U
OR
12 Write a note on nanoscience and nanotechnology. M4.04 R

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