Physics and Physical Measurement IB 12

Every measured value has uncertainty.

A child swings back and forth on a swing 10 times in 36.27s ± 0.01 s. How long did one swing take?
(36.27 ± 0.01) / 10 = 3.627 s ± 0.001 s notice that multiple trials reduces uncertainty
for a single repetition

Measurements of time are taken as: 14.23 s, 13.91 s, 14.76 s, 15.31 s. 13.84 s, 14.18 s. What value should be reported?

Mean: 14.37 s Greatest Residual: 0.94

Residuals: 14.37 – 13.84 = 0.53 Reported Value: 14.37 s ± 0.94 s

15.31 – 14.37 = 0.94 = mean ± greatest residual

1. Measurement: Record as many significant figures as the calibration of the Voltage ± uncertainty
measuring instrument allows plus one estimated digit.

2. Uncertainty: Record a reasonable uncertainty estimate that V ± ΔV

a) has one significant digit, and 11.6 V ± 0.2 V

b) matches the measurement in place value (decimal place).

Absolute Uncertainty Fractional Uncertainty Percentage Uncertainty

ΔV ΔV/V ΔV/V · 100%

0.2 V 0.2 V / 11.6 V 0.2 V / 11.6 V · 100% = 1.7 %

Calculations with Uncertainties

1. Addition/Subtraction Rule:

When two or more quantities are added or subtracted, the overall uncertainty is equal to the
sum of the absolute uncertainties.

Ex. 1: The sides of a rectangle are measured to be (4.4 ± 0.2) cm and (8.5 ± 0.3) cm. Find the perimeter of the rectangle.

4.4 + 8.5 + 4.4 + 8.5= 25.8 cm

0.2 + 0.3 + 0.2 + 0.3 = 1.0 cm

25.8 cm ± 1.0 cm

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 IB 12
2. Multiplication/Division Rule:

When two or more quantities are multiplied or divided, the overall uncertainty is equal to the
sum of the percentage uncertainties.

Ex. 2: The sides of a rectangle are measured to be (4.4 ± 0.2) cm and (8.5 ± 0.3) cm. Find the area of the rectangle.

4.4 x 8.5 0.2/4.4 = 4.55% 37.4 cm2 ± 8.08%

= 37.4 cm2
0.3/8.5 = 3.53% 37.4 cm2 ± 3.02192 cm2

Total = 8.08% 37 cm2 ± 3 cm2

3. Power Rule:

When the calculation involves raising to a power, multiply the percentage uncertainty by the power.
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(Don’t forget that x = x 2 )

Ex. 3: The radius of a circle is measured to be 3.5 cm ± 0.2 cm. What is the area of the circle with its uncertainty?

area =  r 2  0.2  area  38.48cm 2  11.4%

2 100%   2  5.71%   11.4%
area   (3.5)2  38.48cm 2  3.5  area  38.48cm 2  4.39cm 2
area  38cm 2  4cm 2

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 Exercises IB 12
1. Five people measure the mass of an object. The results are 0.56 g, 0.58 g, 0.58 g, 0.55 g, 0.59 g. How
would you report the measured value for the object’s mass?

0.57 g ± 0.02 g (mean ± greatest residual)

2. Juan Deroff measured 8 floor tiles to be 2.67 m ±0.03 m long. What is the length of one floor tile?

0.334 m ± 0.004 m (0.33375 m ± 0.00375 m)

3. The first part of a trip took 25 ± 3 s, and the second part of the trip took 17 ± 2s.

a. How long did the whole trip take?

42 s ± 5 s

b. How much longer was the first part of the trip than the second part?

8s±5s

4. A car traveled 600. m ± 12 m in 32 ± 3 s. What was the speed of the car?

18.75 m/s 12/600 = 2.000% and 3/32 = 9.375 % so total = 11.38%

18.75 m/s ± 11.38%

18.75 m/s ± 2.13375 m/s

Speed = 19 m/s ± 2 m/s

5. The time t it takes an object to fall freely from rest a distance d is given by the formula:
where g is the acceleration due to gravity. A ball fell 12.5 m ± 0.3 m. How long 2d
t
did this take? g

t  1.60 s  1.2%
2  12.5 1  0.3  1
t = 1.60 s  100%    2.4%   1.2% t  1.60 s  0.0192 s
9.81 2  12.5  2
t  1.60 s  0.02s

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 Analyzing Data Graphically IB 12

The masses of different volumes of alcohol were measured and then plotted (using Graphical Analysis). Note there are three lines
drawn on the graph – the best-fit line, the line of maximum slope, and the line of minimum slope. The slope and y-intercept of the
best-fit line can be used to write the specific equation and the slopes and y-intercepts of the max/min lines can be used to find the
uncertainties in the specific equation. The specific equation is then compared to a mathematical model in order to make conclusions.

General Equation: y= mx + b

Specific Equation: M = (0.66 g/cm3)V + 0.65 g

Uncertainties: slope: 0.66 g/cm3 ± 0.11 g/cm3

y-intercept: 0.65 g ± 3.05 g

Mathematical Model: D = M/V so M = DV

Conclusion Paragraph:

1. The purpose of the investigation was to determine the relationship between volume and mass for a sample of alcohol.

2. Our hypothesis was that the relationship is linear. The graph of our data supports our hypothesis since a best-fit line falls within the
error bars of each data point.

3. The specific equation of the relationship is M = (0.66 g/cm3)V + 0.65 g.

4. We believe that enough data points were taken over a wide enough range of values to establish this relationship. This relationship
should hold true for very small volumes, although if it becomes too small for us to measure with our present equipment we won’t
be able to tell, and for very large volumes, unless the mass becomes so large that the liquid will be compressed and change the
density.

5. Zero falls within uncertainty range for y-intercept (0.65 g ± 3.05 g) so our results agree with math model and no systematic error is
apparent

6. By comparison to the mathematical model we conclude that the slope of the graph represents the density. Therefore the density of
the sample is 0.66 g/cm3 ± 0.11 g/cm3.

7. The literature value for the density of this type of alcohol is 0.72 g/cm3. Our results agree with the literature value since the
literature value falls within the experimental uncertainty range of 0.66 g/cm3 ± 0.11 g/cm3 .
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 Linearizing Graphs Using Logarithms IB 12

This is a special linearizing (straightening) technique that works with general equations that are power functions.

Power Function: y = c·xn

Method of straightening: graph log y vs. log x “log-log plot”

Derivation:
y = cxn Compare to y = mx + b

Take log of both sides slope = n

y-intercept = log c or c = 10b
n
Log y = log (cx )
Log y = log c + log xn
Log y = log c + n log x

Examples

1.
m=2
y = cx2

2. y = cx-1 m = -1 or -2

y = kx-2

m = 0.5
3. 0.5
y = kx

m=1
4. 1
y = kx

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 Logarithmic Straightening IB 12
Why use logarithms? use when you’re not sure what the type of relationship is –
use to check the exponent

Research Question: Finding Error Bars for the Straightened Graph:

What is the relationship between kinetic energy and
speed for a uniformly accelerating object?
1. Error bars needed on only one axis – choose whichever
axis has the most significant uncertainties.

2. Use the greatest residual for the data point with the highest
percent uncertainty as the error bars on all data points.

KE:
log (5-2) = log 3 = .477 residuals:
log 5 = .699 .699 - .477 = .222
log (5+2) = log 7 = .845 .845 - .699 = .146

greatest residual = .222 = .22

use for error bars on log KE axis

Analysis

general equation: y = cxn

slope = 1.980 = n

y-intercept= 0.7007 = log c

log KE vs. log speed so c = 100.7007 = 5.0

specific equation: KE = 5.0 v1.98

slope residuals: slope:

1.98 – 1.40 = 0.58
2.60 – 1.98 = 0.62 1.98 ± 0.62

greatest residual: 0.62

Partial Conclusion:
The purpose of the investigation was to determine the relationship between the kinetic energy and the speed of a uniformly
accelerating object. Our hypothesis was that the relationship is quadratic and the graph of our original data supports our
hypothesis since a best-fit parabola can be drawn within the error bars of all data points. The data was then linearized using
logarithms. Using this graph, the specific equation for the relationship was found to be KE = 5.0 v1.98 . Since a value of 2 falls
within the uncertainty range for the exponent of 1.98 ± 0.62, the data is consistent with a quadratic relationship between speed and
kinetic energy. However, since the uncertainty range for the exponent is so large (30.%), the relationship might not be quadratic
but some other power function.
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 IB 12
Exercises – Linearizing Data with Logarithms
In each example below, straighten each graph by logarithms. Then, write the specific equation for each relationship.
What is the most probable type of relationship in each case?

1. Time (s) Displacement (m) General Equation: Specific equation:

± 0.2 s ±2m y = c xn d = (3.2)t1.9
0 0
1.0 3 Slope:
2.0 13 1.94

3.0 30 Type of relationship:

Y-intercept: quadratic
4.0 41 0.50 = log c
c = 3.2
5.0 72

2. Acceleration General Equation: Specific equation:

Mass (kg)
(m/s2) y = c xn a = (12)m-.99
± 0.1 kg
±0.1 m/s2
1.1 12.0
Slope:
2.1 5.9 -0.99
3.0 4.1
3.8 3.0 Y-intercept: Type of relationship:
1.083 = log c inverse
5.0 2.5 c = 12.1
6.2 2.0

3. Distance (m) Force (N) General Equation: Specific equation:

± 0.1 m ± 0.2 N y = c xn F = (15)d-1.9
1.5 6.7
2.0 3.8
2.4 2.4 Slope:
-1.9
3.1 1.7
3.6 1.2 Type of relationship:
inverse quadratic
3.9 0.9 Y-intercept:
4.6 0.7 1.166 = log c
c = 14.7
5.2 0.6

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 Scalars and Vectors IB 12
Scalars: quantities that have magnitude only e.g. - Mass, time, volume, energy, distance, speed

e.g. - Velocity, displacement, acceleration, force,

Vectors: quantities that have magnitude and direction
Notation: Bold italic F or arrow hat
 momentum, impulse, magnetic field strength, gravitational
field strength, electric field strength
F

Adding Vectors
Find the sum A + B

Subtracting Vectors
Find the difference A - B

Resolving a Vector Sin θ = y/r Cos θ = x/r

into its Components
y = r sin θ x = r cos θ

Practice naming components

A sin θ A sin 20
3.

B cos 35
4.
A cos θ A cos 20

2.
B sin 35
62 sin 35 = 36 m

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62 cos 35 = 51 m
IB 12