Food Technology

FOOD
• Food has been a basic part of our existence. Through
centuries we have acquired a wealth of information about
the use of food as a part of our community, social,
national and religious life.
• It has been used as an expression of love, friendship and
social acceptance.
• It has also been used as a symbol of happiness at certain
events in life, for example, distribution of pedhas to
announce success in examinations or the birth of a baby,
association of laddus with marriages and festivals like
Deepavali and cakes are associated with Christmas.
 Food Science and Technology
• Food science and technology is the
understanding and application of science to
satisfy the needs of society for sustainable
food quality, safety and security.
 Food Science
• It is a distinct field involving the application of basic
sciences such as chemistry and physics, culinary arts,
agronomics and microbiology.
• It is a broad discipline concerned with all the technical
aspects of food, beginning with harvesting or slaughtering
and ending with cooking and consumption.
• Food Scientists have to use the knowledge of biology,
physical sciences and engineering to study the composition
of foods, changes that occur at various stages from harvest
through different processes and storage, causes of their
spoilage and the principles underlying food processing.
• Food scientists deal with physic-chemical aspects of food,
thus helping us to understand the nature and properties of
food.
 Food Processing
• It is the set of methods and techniques used to transform
raw ingredients into finished and semi-finished products.
• Food processing requires good quality raw materials from
either plant and/or animal source to be converted into
attractive, marketable and often long shelf-life food
products.
 Food Technology
• Technology is the science and application of scientific, as
well as socio-economic knowledge and legal rules for
production.
• Food technology uses and exploits knowledge of food
science and food engineering to produce varied foods.
• Study of food technology gives in-depth knowledge of
science and technology, and develops skills for selection,
storage, preservation, processing, packaging, distribution
of safe, nutritious, wholesome, desirable as well as
affordable, convenient foods.
• Another significant aspect of food technology is to save
and utilise all the food produced.
 Food manufacturing
• It is the mass production of food products using principles
of food technology to meet the diverse needs of the
growing population.
• Food manufacturing is one of the largest manufacturing
industries in the present times.
 Major Food Products
The major manufactured food products are listed below:

• Sugars: cane, beet, maple, corn.

• Starches: corn, potato, cassava, arrowroot, sago, wheat.
• Flour, bread, and cereals.
• Sweet baked goods.
• Confectionery products.
• Canned foods.
• Frozen foods.
• Dried (dehydrated) foods.
• Pickled and marinated foods.
• Salted and cured foods.
• Dairy products: market milk (homogenized), cheese, butter
• Meat products: sausages, hams, luncheon meats, meat extract.
• Seafood products: fillets, fish sticks, breaded shrimp.
• Oleomargarine and other food fats and oils: soybean, corn,
sunflower, cotton seed, olive.
• Jams and jellies
• Fermented foods: pickles, sauerkraut, fish sauces.
• Fermented beverages: wine, beer.
• Soft drinks: carbonated and still drinks.
• Soybean products.
• Corn products.
• Yeast: food yeast, bakers’ yeast, brewers’ yeast.
• Fish flour.
World food need and Indian situation
• India has emerged a leading producer of
certain food products such as buffalo meat,
black tea, milk, fruit and vegetables.
• The country is in possession of premium food
products such as Basmati rice, Darjeeling tea
and Alphonso managoes to offer to the world.
 Factors Influencing the Consumers to
seek Processed Foods
Some of the factors which have led to the growth of
processed foods in India are:
a) Emerging urban and rural middle class population with
requisite purchasing power.
b)Socio-cultural changes, strongly influenced by the
communication media.
c) Changing demographic pattern.
d) Increase in working women population.
e)Consumer competitiveness with alternate and
substitute products and entry of modern and
self-service market outlets.
Constraints in Food Processing Sector
• Despite being one of the largest producers of
food items, only 2.0% of the total produce is
processed as against an average of 40.0% in
many developing and 70.0% in most
developed countries.
• Moreover, because of the bottlenecks present
in the supply chain, about 30.0% of the
harvested produce is spoilt during distribution
to the consumers.
 Constraints in Food Processing Sector
The factors that have impeded the growth are summarized below:
a) Non-availability of the right quality of processable raw materials.
b) Seasonal excesses and scarcities of raw material causing wide
fluctuations in the prices.
c) High taxation.
d) Complicated administrative and legislative processes.
e) Streamlining of food laws.
f) Lack of interface between research institutions and the farmers and
also between research institutions and the processors.
g) Indifference about the quality systems in the food processing
sector.
h) Lack of awareness of intellectual property rights, and
Unpreparedness of the industry to meet the challenges posed by
WTO agreement.
 Status of Food Processing Industry in
India
• The food industry has a turnover of Rs. 2,50,000 crores and
accounts for 26.0% of GDP and provides 61% of
employment.
• The processing of fruits and vegetables is as low as 2.0%, ~
35.0% in milk, 21.0% in meat and 6.0% in poultry products.
By international comparison, these levels are very low i.e.
the processing of agriculture produce is ~ 40.0% in China,
30.0% in Thailand, 70.0% in Brazil, 78.0% in Philippines
and 80.0% in Malaysia.
• The value addition to food production is only 20.0% in India
as against 23.0% in China, 40.0% in Phillippines and nearly
200% in UK. The annual wastage is estimated to be valued
at ~ US $ 13 billion.
 Fruit and vegetable processing
• Mango, banana, citrus, guava and apple account
for 75.0-80.0% of fruit production.
• The installed capacity of fruit and vegetable
processing industry is about 2.1 million tonnes.
• The processing of fruit and vegetables is about
2.2% of total production in India.
• Some recent products introduced include
vegetable curries in retortable pouches, canned
mushroom and mushroom products, dried fruit
and vegetables, fruit juice concentrates.
 Plantation
• Tea, coffee, cashew, cocoa, etc. are major
plantation crops in the country.
• India’s principal plantation crops accounted
for about 5.0-6.0% of India’s aggregate export
earnings.
• India is the world’s leading producer and
exporter of cashew kernels and accounts for
~31.0% of the world production of raw
cashew and nearly 48% of the world’s export
of cashew kernels in the year 2007-08.
 Grains
• Grain processing is the biggest component in the
food sector, sharing over 40.0% of the total value.
• There is predominance of primary processing
sector, sharing 96.0% of the total value; with
secondary and tertiary sector contributing about
4.0% of the total value addition.
• Indian Basmati rice commands a premium in the
international market.
• There is some headway in preparing value added
foods viz., breakfast cereals and rice analogue
from broken rice.
 Spices
• India is known as the “Home of Spices”
• India is the largest producer of spices
accounting for 61.0% of the world production
and 39.0% of world export.
• About 63 spices are grown in the country.
Among the various spices cultivated in India,
pepper the “King of spices” earns the major
export share.
 Milk and dairy products
• India has one of the highest livestock population
in the world, accounting for 50.0% of the
buffaloes and 20.0% of the world’s cattle
population.
• The cooperative movement has played a
significant role in improving the milk production
through Technology Mission and Operation Flood
programmes.
• Consumption of liquid milk accounts for ~ 46.0%
of the total milk produced; remaining 54.0% is
utilized for conversion to milk products. Of this,
the share of the organized sector is about 10.0%.
 Meat and poultry
• The processing level of buffalo meat is estimated at about 21.0%.
Only about 1.0% of total meat is converted into value-added
products like sausages, ham, bacon, kababs, meat balls, etc. The
processing of meat is licenced under Meat Food Products Order,
1973.
• The slaughter rate for cattle as a whole is 20.0%, for buffalo it is
41.0%, pigs 99.0%, sheep 30.0% and goats 40.0%. The country has
3600 slaughter houses, 9 modern abattoirs and 171 meta
processing units.
• The growth rate of meat is estimated to be about 10.0%.
• India ranked fifth in world egg production in 2009 and produced
30,000 million every year.
• Egg production has shown an average annual growth rate of
16.0% while that of broilers is at the rate of 27.0% per annum.
• There are eight modern integrated poultry processing plants
functioning in the country. Such egg products plants are producing
whole egg yolk and /or albumen powders.
 Marine products
• Processing of marine products into canned and
frozen forms is carried out for export market.
• There are 372 freezing units and 504 frozen
storage facilities. Besides this, there are 11 surimi
units,473 pre-processing centres and 236 other
storages.
• Export products include conventional block frozen
products, IQF products, minced fish products such
as fish sausage, cakes, cutlets, pastes, surimi,
texturized products, dry fish, etc
 Bakery products
• The two major bakery industries, namely bread
and biscuits account for ~ 82.0% of the total
bakery products.
• There are about 60,000 bakeries. Bread and
biscuit production per annum is about 4.0 million
tonnes.
• Out of total bread production, 40.0% is produced
by organized sector; remaining 60.0% in
unorganized sector.
• For biscuits, the share of unorganized sector is
about 80.0%.
 Mushrooms
• Currently, in India very few companies are
engaged in the processing of mushrooms and that
too are limited to the pickling and canning
processes.
• In recent years, the mushrooms is gaining
popularity and the consumer’s demand for
varieties has led to the processing of mushrooms
to chutneys, pickles, soups, flavour, etc.
• Mushrooms are now available in fresh, frozen,
canned and dried forms. The mushrooms
processed include white button (85.0% of total),
oyster and paddy straw ones.
 Constituents of food
• Food: It is the group of edible substances which
provide energy to the living beings and repair the
old tissues and build the new tissues.
• Nutrition: The process of consuming nutrients
required for the growth and development of our
body and to obtain energy is known as nutrition.
• Our food contains three main substances called
nutrients. These are fats, proteins and
carbohydrates. In addition, our body requires
water, salts (minerals), vitamins and fibres.
• Diet: It is the amount of food eaten by a person at
a time.
 Constituents of food
• Malnutrition: If a person does not get adequate
food, or if his/her diet does not contain all the
nutrients, he or she becomes weak. When the body
does not get adequate nutrition, it is said to be
suffering from Malnutrition.
Various food components are grouped in three classes:
• Energy giving food: Carbohydrates and fats.
• Bodybuilding food: Proteins.
• Protective food: Vitamins and minerals.
 Carbohydrates
• Carbohydrates are compounds which contain
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
• Oxygen and hydrogen are present in
carbohydrates in the same proportion as in water.
• They are the main sources of energy for human
body.
• Carbohydrates are mainly distributed among plant
food; exceptions like glycogen, lactose and ribose
which are present in muscles or in liver, human
milk and animal cells, respectively
 Classification of Carbohydrates:
Carbohydrates are classified as:
a. Monosaccharides — (Single sugar unit)
b. Disaccharides — (Two sugar unit)
c. Polysaccharide—(Many molecules of simple
sugar units).
Carbohydrates:Monosaccharides
• These compounds cannot be hydrolyzed to
simpler compounds.
• Based on the number of carbon atoms present
in them, monosaccharides are grouped into
triose (3-carbon), tetrose (4-carbon), pentose
(5-carbon) and hexoses (6-carbon).
• Biose, triose and tetrose are not nutritionally
significant. Pentose like ribose, xylose and
arabinose are widely distributed in many roots
and vegetables.
Carbohydrates:Monosaccharides
• In human nutrition only hexoses are of
importance.
• Commonly found hexoses are aldose and
ketose (containing aldehydes and ketones
group).
• Glucose, Galactose, Fructose and Mannose
have same formula (CHO).
• But they differ in the arrangement and are
distinctive in their physical properties such as
solubility and sweetness.
 Carbohydrates:Monosaccharides
Froctose
• Fructose is known as fruit sugar or levulose, it
is a keto sugar. It is sweeter than glucose.
• It is also obtained by the hydrolysis of
sucrose.
Galactose
• It is not found free in nature. Its only source
being from hydrolysis of lactose.
• It also occurs in cerebrosides present in brain
and nervous tissue. Hence, it is nutritionally
important.
Carbohydrates:Monosaccharides
Mannose
• This does not occur free in nature.
•Mannose is a constituent of prosthetic
polysaccharides of albumin, globulin and
mucoids.
•Mannose on reduction gives mannitol.
 Carbohydrates:Disaccharides
• The disaccharides are formed by the
condensation of two monosaccharide’s with
the elimination of one molecule of water.
• The disaccharides of nutrition importance
are:
i. Sucrose
ii. Maltose
iii. Lactose
 Carbohydrates:Disaccharides
Sucrose
• Sucrose occurs in sugarcane and beet root. It
is manufactured on a large scale from
sugarcane or beet root.
• Sucrose is formed by the condensation of one
molecule of glucose and one molecule of
fructose.
• Sucrose is easily hydrolyzed to glucose and
fructose either by dilute mineral acids or by
the enzyme sucrase present in intestinal Juice.
 Carbohydrates:Disaccharides
Maltose
• Maltose is present in malt. It is formed in cereal
grains during germination by the hydrolysis of
starch.
• Starch (amylase) Maltose.
• It is formed when starch present in the food is
digested by salivary and pancreatic amylase.
• Maltose is also formed by the condensation of 2
glucose molecules. It is hydrolyzed to glucose by
the enzyme Maltase.
• Maltose (maltase) Glucose + Glucose
 Carbohydrates:Disaccharides
Lactose
• It is the type of sugar present in milk of all
mammals.
• Lactose is formed by condensation of one
molecule of glucose and one molecule of
galactose.
• Lactose is hydrolyzed to glucose and galactose
by the enzyme Lactase present in intestinal
juice.
• Lactose (lactase) Glucose + Galactose
 Carbohydrates: Polysaccharides
Starch
• These are complex compounds with relatively high
molecular weight (C6H10O5)n .H2O
• Starch occurs widely in plant kingdom. Starch occurs in
the form of granules which have characteristic shape
when seen under microscope.
• Starch is a polysaccharide formed in nature by
condensation of a large number of (4000-15,000)
glucose molecules.
• When starch is cooked in moist heat the granules
absorb water and swell and the wells of the cell are
ruptured, thus permitting more ready access to the
digestive enzymes.
 Carbohydrates: Polysaccharides
Dextrins
• These are intermediate products in the hydrolysis
of starch and consist of shorter chain of glucose
units. Some dextrons are produced when flour is
browned or bread is toasted.
Glycogen
• The so called “animal starch” is similar in structure
to the amylopectin of starch but contains many
more branched chains of glucose. It is rapidly
synthesized from glucose in the liver and muscle.
 Proteins
• The word protein is derived from the Greek
word “proteios” which means principal
components of all living cells and are
important in practically all aspects of cell
structure and functions.
• Proteins contain Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen
and Sulphur and some also contain
Phosphorus. Proteins are large molecules
formed from the combination of large number
of simpler substances known as Amino acids.
 Proteins
• There are 2 amino acids widely distributed in
proteins.
• Proteins consist of chains of Amino acids joined to
each other by the peptide linkage of the 21 Amino
acids.
• There are 8 essential and 13 non-essential AA.
Essential AA are those that cannot be synthesized
in the body. Thus they can be attained from food
alone.
• Non-essential AA are those that body can
synthesize from an available source of nitrogen
and carbon skeleton.
 Proteins
• Classification of Proteins:
a. Simple proteins
b. Conjugated proteins
c. Derived proteins
Simple Proteins:
• On hydrolysis by acid, alkali or enzymes yield only amino
acids or their derivatives.
• Examples of this group are albumin and globulins found
within all body cells, blood serum, keratin, collagen in
supportive tissues of body, in hair and nails, globin in
Hemoglobin and myoglobin, Zein of Corns, Gliadin and
Glutenin in wheat, Legumin in peas and Lacto-albumin and
Lacto-globulin in milk.
 Proteins
B. Conjugated Proteins:
• These are composed of simple proteins combined with a
non-proteinaceous substance.
• This group includes lipoproteins, the carrier needed for the transport of
fats in blood; Nucleoprotein, the protein of cell nuclei; Phospho- proteins,
such as casein milk and Ovovitellin in eggs; Metalloproteins such as the
enzymes that contain mineral elements.
• Mucoproteins found in connective tissues.
• Chromo-protein such as Haemoglobin and visual purple and flavoproteins
which are enzymes that contain the vitamin D—Riboflavin.
C. Derived Proteins:
• These are substances resulting from the decomposition of simple and
conjugated proteins.
• These include rearrangement within the molecules without breaking the
peptide bond such as that occurring with coagulation and also substances
formed by hydrolysis of proteins of smaller fraction.
 Proteins
Properties of Protein:
• Amphoteric Nature:
Like Amino acids, proteins are ampholites, i.e. they act as both
acids and bases. For each protein there is pH at which positive and
negative charges will be same and protein will not move in electric
field. This is known as iso-electric point of protein.
• Solubility:
Each protein has a definite and characteristic solubility in a
solution of known salt concentration and pH, e.g. Albumins are
soluble in water. Globulins are soluble in neutral sodium chloride
solution but are almost insoluble in water. Some proteins like
casein are soluble in alkaline pH. The differences in solubility are
useful in the separation of proteins from a mixture.
• Colloidal Nature of Protein Solution:
Proteins have large molecular weights and protein solution. They
do not pass through semipermeable membranes. This property of
proteins is of great physiological importance.
 Functions of Proteins:
(a) Building Block:
• Proteins form the main solid matter of muscles, organs and endocrine glands.
They are major constituents of matrix of bones and teeth, skin, nails and hair
and blood cells and serum. The first need for amino acids is to supply the
materials for the building and continuous replacement of cell proteins
throughout life.
(b) Regulatory Functions:
• The body proteins have highly specialized functions in the regulation of body
processes. For e.g., haemoglobin, which is chief constituent of RBC carries
oxygen to tissues; contractile proteins regulate muscle contraction.
(c) Formation of Enzymes, Hormones and Other Secretions:
• Proteins supply raw materials for the body to synthesize enzymes like trypsin
and pepsins hormones like insulin and thyroxine are protein in nature.
Digestive juices also contain certain amount of protein in them. Antibodies
which give resistance power to the body are in nature. They are known as
Immune proteins (Immunoglobulin’s).
(d) Source of Energy:
• Protein is generally considered as building material of our body. But when diet
contains insufficient amount of carbohydrates and fats, body uses up proteins
for the energy purposes. Each gram of protein yields 4 Kcal of energy.
 Fats
• Fats are the most concentrated source of energy and
supplies 9 Kcals of energy per gram of fat.
• They provide the body’s main reserve of energy and is
essential for various functions. Like carbohydrates, fats are
organic compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen, but they differ from carbohydrates in that they
contain much less oxygen and much greater proportions of
carbon.
• Fat has one molecule of organic ester of glycerol and three
molecules of fatty acids.
• Fats are insoluble in water and soluble in organic solvents
like ether, benzene or chloroform. Their cooking property
depends on the kind of fatty acid present in them.
• Lipids are heterogeneous group of compounds with same
properties. Fat is the common household names given to
lipids.
 Classification of Fats:
Lipids are classified into:
a. Simple lipids,
b. Compound lipids
c. Derived lipids.
(a) Simple Lipids:
These are esters of glycerol and fatty acid, glycerol is a 3
carbon alcohol with three hydroxyl groups each of can
combine with fatty acid.
Fatty acids are broadly divided into two main groups:
1. Saturated acids
2. Unsaturated fatty acids (containing one or two double
bond).
 Fats
Saturated fatty acids:
• The formula for fatty acids is CHO where n is an
even number of carbon atoms varying from 2 to
24.
• The common saturated fatty acids are palmatic.
There is a single bond present in between the two
Carbon atoms.
Unsaturated fatty acids:
An unsaturated fatty acid is one in which a
hydrogen atom is missing from each of the 2
adjoining carbon atoms thus necessitating a
double bond between the 2 carbon atoms.
 Fats
(b) Compound Lipids:
• These are esters of glycerol and fatty acids, with
substitution of other components such as
carbohydrate, phosphate and/ or nitrogen
groupings, phospholipids such as lecithin and
chephalin contain a phosphate and nitrogen,
grouping replacing one of the fatty acids, i.e. the
molecule.
(c) Derived Lipids:
• These include fatty acids, alcohols (glycerol’s and
sterols) carotenoids and the fat soluble vitamins
A, D, E and K.
 Fats
Functions:
• The primary function of fat is to supply energy. 1 gram of
fat provides 9 Kcal of energy which is twice more than that
of carbohydrates and proteins.
• They provide taste to the food.
• The fats reduce gastric motility and remain in the stomach
much longer and the onset of hunger is delayed, thus giving
a good satiety value.
• Fats are the carriers of fat soluble vitamins, i.e. A. D, E and
K. Fats are needed for the absorption of Vitamin A and its
precursor carotene.
• The subcutaneous layer of fat acts as an effective insulator
thus reducing the heat loss from the body in cold weather.
• It provides the diet with essential fatty acids as these
cannot be synthesized in the body.
 Vitamins
• Vitamins are the discovery of the 20th century. Carbohydrates, proteins and
fats were considered as nutrients essential for health.
• Vitamins are defined as organic compounds which are necessary for good
health and vitality.
• Vitamins are required in minute quantities and their deficiency results in
structural and functional disorders of various organs.
Vitamins can be classified as:
A. Fat Soluble Vitamins:
• Fat soluble vitamins are generally associated with fatty foods such as butter,
ghee, cream, oils and fats of meat and fish.
• Fat soluble vitamins are stable to heat and are less likely to be lost during
cooking and processing of foods. They are absorbed from the Intestine along
with fats and lipids.
 Vitamins
Vitamin A:
• Vitamin A is found in the form of Retinol and Carotene. Vitamin A
in Its pure form is a pale yellow substance soluble in fat.
• It is unsaturated alcohol which is stored in the body as esters.
Vitamin A is found in milk, meat, fish, etc. The vitamin is found in
highest quantity in the liver. Plants do not contain vitamin A, but
contain its precursor, the carotenoids which are converted to
vitamin A after absorption by the ingesting animal.
• Carotenoids are orange and yellow pigments of fruits and
vegetables. Vitamin A is expressed in terms of international units
(IU).
• 1 I U = 0.3 μgms of retinol
• 1 I U = 0.6 μgms of carotene
• Rapid destruction of vitamin A occurs with exposure to high
temperatures, in the presence of air.
 Vitamins
Functions of Vitamin A:
• It is essential for the building and growth of all cells, especially skeletal.
Vitamin A is also needed for proper teeth structure.
• It is needed for the synthesis of glycoproteins and maintenance of cellular
membranes.
• It is necessary for normal vision.
• Required for the formation of epithelial tissue.

Sources:
(a) Animal sources:
Important sources are liver, egg yolk, butter, cheese, whole milk and fish.
(b) Plant sources:
• Contain Vitamin A is the form of their precursors which are present in fresh
dark green leafy vegetables such as spinach, amaranth, fenugreek, etc. It is
also present in orange and yellow colored fruits and vegetables such as carrot,
papaya, pumpkin, mango, etc.
(c) Fish liver oil:
• The richest natural source of Vitamin A is fish liver oil. One teaspoon of cod or
shark liver oil supplies about 6000 IU of Vitamin A.
 Vitamins
• Deficiency:
• Vitamin A deficiency is the most prevalent vitamin deficiency in developing
countries, only next to protein calorie malnutrition. Vitamin A deficiency in human
beings may be due to low intake of Vitamin A rich food or due to interference with
absorption or storage of Vitamin A is the body.
Night Blindness:
• Night blindness is one of the earliest signs of Vitamin A deficiency, where in a
person is unable to see in dim light especially when they come into a dark room,
after seeing bright light. As the condition advances it develops into xerophthalmia.
The conjunctiva becomes dry and loses its lustre.
• The transparent appearance of the eye and its elasticity is lost. The eye becomes
grey and opaque. If this condition persists the eye becomes infected and
ulcerated. Advanced neglected xerophthalmia leads to degeneration of cornea
and blindness. This condition is known as Keratomalacia.
• An inadequate supply of vitamin A may lead to definite changes in epithelial
tissues throughout the body. Keratinization or a noticeable shrinking, hardening
and progressive degeneration of the cells occurs which increases susceptibility lo
severe infection.
 Vitamins
Prevention and Treatment:
• The Vitamin A deficiency can be corrected if
sufficient amounts of carotene rich foods are
included in the regular diet. Foods fortified with
vitamin A can be supplemented in the diet to
counteract vitamin A deficiency.
Hypervitaminosis A:
• Excessive intakes of Vitamin A are toxic to both
children and adults. Common symptoms of
toxicity are hyper- irritability, drying,
desquamation of the skin, loss of hair, headaches,
enlargement of liver and spleen.
 Vitamins
• Vitamin D:
• Vitamin D is known as the sunlight vitamin as it is
synthesized with the help of sunlight. It occurs in two major
forms, but from nutritional point of view it occurs in two
major forms.
• Vitamin D2—Ergocalciferol
• Vitamin D3—Cholecalciferol
• Vitamin D is required for the formation of healthy bones
and teeth. It has direct action on the mineralization of the
bones.
• It promotes the intestinal absorption and utilization of
phosphorus and calcium.
• In DNA (Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid) to form active calcium
binding protein.
• It maintains the concentration of calcium and phosphorus
in blood.
 Vitamins
Sources:
• Sunlight — This is an important natural source of Vitamin D.
• 7-dehydro cholesterol which is normally present in the skin is
converted to vitamin D3 by the action of ultraviolet rays of
sunlight.
• Food rich in vitamin D are egg yolk, liver, fish and fish oils. Fish
liver oils are the richest source of vitamin D. Vitamin D is not
found in foods of vegetable origin.
Vitamin D Deficiency:
• The deficiency of leads to inadequate absorption of calcium and
phosphorus from the intestinal tract and faulty mineralization of
bone and tooth structure. It also results in skeletal malformation.
Vitamin D deficiency leads to:
a. Rickets in children
b. Osteomalacia in adults
Rickets is common in children who do not have direct access to
sunlight and who do not consume animal foods like egg, meat, fish
etc., to meet their daily needs.
 Quality
Definition of Quality
• Degree of excellence and include such things as
taste, appearance, and nutritional content.
• The composite of characteristics that have
significance and make for acceptability.
Quality Factors in Foods
• Appearance Factors
• Textural Factors
• Flavor Factors
• Additional Quality Factors
 Appearance Factors
• Size
• Shape
• Wholeness
• Different forms of damage
• Glass
• Transparency
• Color
• Consistency
• Easily measured Important factors in federal and
state grade
 Appearance Factors
Shape
• Have more than visual importance
The grades of certain types of pickles include the degree of curvature
Color and Gloss
• Color is commonly an index of ripeness and spoilage:
• Potatoes darken in color as they are fried
• Blenching of dried tomato powder on storage
• Consistency
• May be considered a textural quality attribute
• Measured by viscosity of food:
• – Higher viscosity – higher consistency
• – Lower viscosity products – lower consistency
 Texture Factors
• Texture Refers to those qualities of food that
we can feel either with the fingers, the
tongue, the palate or the teeth.
• A departure from an expected texture is a
“quality defect”.
Expected texture
• – Chewing gum to be chewy
• – Crackers and potato chips to be crisp
• – Steak to be compressible and shearable
between the teeth
 Flavor factors
• Flavor combination of both taste and smell
• Largely subjective
• Hard to measure because of difference of
opinion:
People differ in
• – Their sensitivity to detect different tastes
and odors
• – Their preference
• – Their cultures
 Nutritional Quality
• Can be assessed by chemical or instrumental analyses
for specific nutrients,
• Animal feeding tests or equivalent biological tests
must be used in many cases
Particularly common in evaluating the quality of
• protein sources
• Interacting variables of protein level
• amino acid composition
• digestibility
• absorption of amino acid
Sanitary Quality usually measured by counts of bacteria,
yeast, mold, and insect, fragments sediment levels
 Principles of Quality Control
Raw Material Control
• The use of good and sound raw material is of primary
importance for the achievement of the required end
product of consistent quality.
Process Control
• Finished Product Inspection
The Importance of Raw Material Selection
A poor raw material cannot be converted into a good finished
product.
In food processing;
• - General rule:- the effective methods must be carefully
applied to conserve the original qualities of the raw
materials
• - cannot improve the raw material
Food Additives
Food Additives
Food Additives
Food Additives
Food Additives - Types
Food Additives - Classification
Food Additives - Classification
Food Additives - Classification
Food Additives - Classification
 Food deterioration
• Foods are subject to physical, chemical and
biological deterioration.
• Food deterioration is associated with spoilage,
development of off-flavors, deterioration of
textures, discoloration and loss of nutritional
value in varying degrees, reducing aesthetic
appeal and rendering it unfit/unsafe for
consumption.
• A number of factors can lead to food
deterioration or spoilage e.g. pests, infestation by
insects, inappropriate temperatures used for
processing and/or storage, excessive exposure to
light and other radiations, oxygen, moisture.
 Food deterioration
• Food is also contaminated by micro organisms
[bacteria, fungus and moulds) or chemicals
such as pesticides.
• Food can also be spoiled due to degradation
by naturally present enzymes (a specific class
of protein molecules that act as biological
catalysts to accelerate chemical reactions). In
addition, physical and chemical changes in
certain constituents of food from plant and
animal sources occur soon after harvesting or
slaughtering, altering the food quality.
 Food deterioration
• Therefore food processing and preservation are
required to preserve food in edible and safe form.
Methods by which food is preserved from spoiling
after harvesting or slaughtering date back to
prehistoric times.
• The oldest methods were sun drying, controlled
fermentation, salting/pickling, candying, roasting,
smoking, baking and using spices as preservatives.
• These tried and tested techniques are still used
although, with the advent of industrial revolution,
new methods have been developed.
 Food deterioration
• Food processing incorporates and unifies the
general characteristics of different classes of
foods and principles of food science,
chemistry, food microbiology, nutrition,
sensory analysis and statistics including good
manufacturing practices as per regulations.
Classes of Food
 Importance of Food Preservation
• It has already been mentioned that food processing is a branch of
manufacturing wherein raw materials are transformed into intermediate
foodstuffs or edible products through the application of scientific
knowledge and technology.
• Various processes are used to convert bulky, perishable and sometimes
inedible food materials into more useful, concentrated, shelf-stable and
palatable foods or potable beverages. Changes in the products often
reduce preparation time for the cook.
• Most of the time, processing of foods adds value to the resultant product
by increasing storability, portability, palatability and convenience.
Professionals in the food processing need to be knowledgeable about
general characteristics of raw food materials, principles of food
preservation, processing factors which influence quality, packaging, water
and waste management, good manufacturing processes and sanitation
procedures.
 Food Processing
• Many food processing operations are designed to extend the
shelf life of the food products. The concepts associated with
food processing are reducing/eliminating microbial activity
and other factors that influence food spoilage.
• The principle micro organisms that cause food spoilage are
bacteria, fungi, yeasts and moulds.
• Factors influencing microbial growth are nutrient availability,
moisture, pH, oxygen levels and the presence or absence of
inhibiting substances e.g. antibiotics.
• The activity of enzymes inherently present in foods also
depends on pH and temperature.
 Food Processing Methods
The basic concepts in food processing methods
to prevent food spoilage are:
Application of heat
Removal of water moisture
Lowering of temperature during storage
Reduction of pH
Controlling the availability of oxygen
 Food Processing Methods
• Processed foods can be classified on the basis
of extent and type of processing as follows:
Minimally processed foods: These are processed
as little as possible in order to retain the
quality of fresh foods.
• Generally the processes used are cleaning,
trimming, shelling, cutting, slicing and storage
at low i.e., refrigeration temperatures.
 Food Processing Methods
Preserved foods: The methods of preservation used
do not change the character of the product
substantially e.g., frozen peas and frozen
vegetables, dehydrated peas, dehydrated
vegetables, canned fruits and vegetables.
Manufactured foods: In such products, the original
characteristics of the raw products are lost and
some basic methods of preservation are used, often
using various ingredients such as salt, sugar, oil or
even chemical preservatives. Examples are pickles,
jams, marmalades, squashes, papads, wadis.
 Food Processing Methods
Formulated foods: These are products prepared by
mixing and processing of individual ingredients to
result in relatively shelf stable food products such
as bread, biscuits, ice cream, cakes, kulfi.
Food derivatives: In industry, components of foods
may be obtained from the raw product through
purification, e.g., sugar from sugarcane or oil from
oil seeds.
In some cases, the derivative or the component
may be processed further, e.g., conversion of oil
to vanaspati (the process is called hydrogenation).
 Food Processing Methods
Functional foods: These are foods that can have
a beneficial effect on human health, e.g.,
probiotics, lycopene.
Medical foods: These are used in dietary
management of diseases, for example, low
sodium salt, lactose–free milk for persons with
lactose intolerance.
 Food Processing Methods
• Professionals who are involved in food
processing and technology need to have a
wide range of knowledge and skills.
• The categorisation of food production in three
stages and lists the knowledge and skills
required for each:
1. Food as a material
2. Food Product development
3. Recipe development
 Food Processing Methods
There are certain criteria that have to be compiled for the appropriate
processing of food, right from the possibility of a pest or bacteria to invade
and multiply on foods to the biological activity of foods. The following
methods are applied for the proper processing of food:
• Peeling off the outer layers of the raw materials.
• Chopping or slicing
• Mincing
• Liquefaction
• Fermentation
• Emulsification
• Cooking
• Mixing
• Gasification such as the addition of a gas soft drinks.
• Proofing
• Spray drying
• Pasteurization
• Packaging
 Food preservation
• Food preservation is a process involved in
food processing employed to prevent the
growth of fungi, bacteria, and many other
microorganisms.
• It involves the process of slowing down the
oxidation of fats that would lead to rancidity.
There are several food preservation methods
that are designed specifically to preserve
food.
 Drying
•It is one of the traditional techniques that are employed to
decompose food products.
•Exposure of food particles to sunlight to dry them is one such
method done naturally. This process would result in the evaporation
of moisture content from food, thus preventing microorganisms from
invading the food.
•Moisture from food could also be removed by using hot air.
Cooling
•It is a technique of preserving food by slowing down the growth of
microorganisms and action of an enzyme that is responsible for the
rotting of food.
•Some of the food products such as meat, dairy products and fish
could be stored in a refrigerator thus increasing the shelf-life of the
products.
 Freezing
•It is one of the regular processes that has been under use
domestically and commercially to preserve a wide range of foods.
Rapid freezing might have an adverse effect on the texture of food.
Heating
•The majority. of microorganisms and spores could be destroyed by
applying sufficient heat to food items One of the known examples
includes boiling of milk.
Pickling
•It is a process of preserving food in an edible and antimicrobial
liquid. Pickling could be categorized into two types, namely
fermentation and chemical pickling.
•In fermentation pickling, bacteria present in a liquid produces
organic agents which would act as preservation agents.
•In chemical pickling, the food is preserved in an edible liquid that
destroys microorganisms and bacteria.
 Benefits of Food processing
The important benefits of food processing
include:
• Food processing reduces the number of
harmful bacteria in food that can cause
diseases. For eg., drying, pickling dehydrates
the food product and alters the pH that
prevents the growth of harmful
microorganisms.
• It also improves the shelf-life of food
products.
• It reduces health inequalities and major health
concerns.
 Drawbacks of Food Processing
The important drawbacks of food processing
include:
• Processed food contains artificial ingredients.
• A large number of resources are spent in
making the food pleasant to the brain that
leads to overconsumption.
• Processed foods are the biggest source of
added sugar that is very unhealthy.