Of 4

anghe c espciNe
Changeforma
CHAPTER

Heredity and Evolution

velops inty
re plant,
e of uti
Introduction School Level
vle beco has been observed that secds of Litchi fruits
geproductive processes, grow into Litchi
includes asexual and sexual
Sym eia
lar body.
nd mein
lar
to W.
terent.
t deals
that

Variations
Inheritance
with
is the
the study of process by which
herdity and variation reproduct
characters are
is known as
io
plants, cats give birth to kittens and not any other animal.
n,
passed
give rise to new iindividuals that are
similar, but subtly
on from parents to progeny. The branch of
genetics.
biology

eans tha Variation refers to the

difference between the individuals of
eegriiatyn,
parents. A stretch of
DNA will carry information or same species and also between the offspring of the same
features present in an organism. Such a stretch is called a gene.
Accumulation of Variations
hoNuogitks lariation is the degree by which
progeny differs from their parents. Variations are
ctors or the error-prone process of
DNA duplication, Ultraviolet ravs of the created due to changes in environmental
an alter the DNA. Microbes sun., several chemicals found in
with rapid division capabilities can pollutants
nant aithin hours. In a bacterial colony (designated as A) on a given quickly multiply, generating millions of individuals
medium, inberent
a particular feed component.
Altering the medium composition selectively favors avariation exists in the ability to utilize
as B) capable of surviving
under the new conditions. Over time, this subset of the population (designated
new species within days. In contrast, a similar variant population surpasses others,
evolutionary emerging as a
process in fish or fowl would extend over millions of
due to their longer lifespans. This years
emphasizes the concept that nature favors the fitness of B over A under
conditions, illustrating the principle of natural selection. Thus we see the altered
variations change the property of a population of
organisms. This change is the basis of evolution.
One or a few variations may not produce an entirely
different organism. But, over thousands or lakhs of years, if a lot of
changes accumulate, the organism may start to function very different from the first
ancestor.

Knowledge Hub
Itisbelieved that allorganisms can be traced to be descendants of a single organism LUCA- Last
Universal Common
Ancestor.
 (8)

Ftg I: Aculture plate Flg. 2: Changing the medium resulted in

showing
Aacterial colony Afeeding on a Accumulation of variations and bringing out a new
articular component. population of bacteria dellgnated as B.
Significance of variations
Varni
are
ations, or genetic diversity, play a crucial role in the
biological and evolutionary processes of
some significances of variations across diferent contexts: living organisms. Here
Adaptation to Changing
O
Variations provide the Environments:
raw material for natural selection.
Organisms with advantageous variations
Survive and reproduce, leading to the adaptation of
populations to changing environmental conditions.are more likely to
Evolutionary
O
Processes:
Variations are the driving force behind evolution. Over time, accumulated variations
new species and the
diversification of life forms on Earth. contribute to the development of
Species Survival:
O Genetic
and
diversity within: apopulation increases its chances of survival in the face of
other threats. Adiverse
equippedenvi
toronment al
withstand challenges,
gene pool ensures that someindividualss are
Disease Resistance: better diseases,
O
changing conditions.
Variations in genes c£n confer resistance to diseases. In
populations with genetic
inherited variations that make them less susceptible to certain pathogens. diversity, some individuals may have
Enhanced Reproductive Success:
Genetic variation contributes to the overall
can lead to decreased fertility and health and vigor of populations.
reproductive success. Inbreeding, which reduces genetic diversity.
populations. Maintaining genetic diversity is crucial for healthy and viable

Heredity
Heredity is defined as the transmission of genetic
characters from parents to offspring or from one
Characters such as height, facial features, body colour, etc., generation to the next.
that are seen in an individual are called
categorized into 2 types: traits..Traits are
Characters such as height, facial features, body colour, etc., that are
seen in an individual are called raits.
Traits are categorized into 2 types:
1.Inherited Traits: Traits which are controlled by the genetic
from one generation to another are called inherited traits.
material (DNA) of the individuals and are transferred
E.g.., free and attached earlobes, eye colour etc.
2. Acquired Traits: Traits which are acquired during the
lifetime of an individual and are not transferred to future
generations are called acquired traits. E.g., loss of an organ in an accident.
170
Class-X BIOLOGY S
 Knowledge Hub
Study of 105
Genetics: heredity and variation is called as genctics, Ihe Was given by Whatesnin
Oneof the
discoverers of Mendel's term genetic
He
was work.

Mendel'sExperiments and Laws of Inheritance

Mendel'sBiography
Johann
Grgor
Mendel, born on July 22, 1822, in Heinzendorf, Austria, and passingaway on January
1884,in
Brinn
Austria-Hungary, was a pioneering Austrian botanist and plant experimenter. Initially
1854,
Augustinian monk since 1843, Mendel later pursued studies at the University of Vienna. In
workingin his monastery's garden, he groundwork for the
a
while
conceived experiments that laidthe Gregor Johann
mathematicalprinciples of genetics. (1822-1884)
experiments on Mendel
also called as Father of genetics. Gregor Mendel, conducted hybridisation
is inheritance in living
He sattvum(garden pea) for seven years (1856-1863) and proposed the laws of Mendel's laws
Pisum only in 1900, when
orgaaisms. Although Mendel described his results in 1866. his work was recognized (a German
(a Dutch biologist), Carl Correns
rediscoveredsimultaneously by 3scientists namely Hugo de Vries
gere von Tschermak (an Austrian botanist).
þotanist)and Erich mathematical
time that statistical analysis and
Mendel's investigations into inheritance patterns it was for the first credibility to
During sampling size, which gave greater of his
were applied to problems in biology. His experiments had a large on successive generations
logic experiments
that he collected. Also, the confimation of
his inferences from
being unsubstantiated ideas. Mendel
data ratther than plants,
provedthat his results pointed to general rules of inheritance
the
plants, opposing traits, e.g., tall or dwarf
test manifested as two
investigated characters in the garden pea plant that were governing inheritance, which was expanded
This allowed him to set up a basic framework of rules complexity inherent in them.
ellow or green seeds. diverse natural observations and
the
to account for all the
an bylater scientists
Mendel's Experiment experiments,since it has following
advantages:
pea) for his
contrasting characters of Pisumsativum (garden
Mendel chose obtain pure-lines.
self-fertilizing which helped to one generation to
another.
OThe pea plant was took only one growing season to pass from
easy to cultivate and characters.
0The pea plant was and sharply defined inherited
desirable features
0Peas posSsess many be achieved easily.
also
cross-pollinationand fertilization can
0 The Mendel, they are
bisexual and hermaphrodite. were choosen by
0The flowers are are seven visible traits which
by Mendel for his experiment: There height, seed shape and seed
color.
Traits choosen pod color, stem
follows:flower color, flower position,pod shape, plant
2s
traits studied by Mendel in pea
Contrasting Recessive trait
Dominant trait
Character

Flower color White

Purple
Heredity and Evolution 171
 Sevd color and teed Green Vellaw
shape

Round Wrinkled

Pod c o l o r u L S Green Yellow

and
pod shape

Inflated Constricted

Axial Terminal

Flower position and

stem length

Dwarf
Tall

Monohybrid Cross of Mendel

Since garden pea is self- fertilizing, the anthers should be removed before Emasculation
maturity. This process is called as emasculation. Bagging is used to protect
stigma from any foreign pollen. At the dehiscence stage, the desired pollens Bagging (for protection)
(male parent) are dusted on the feathery stigma of the emasculated flower.
Atthe time of pollination, the pollens should be mature and the stigma should Dehiscence (by dusting pollens)
be receptive.
Mendel first performed a monohybrid cross. He picked varieties that differed in Pollination
one (mono) trait and crossed thèm.
Mendel's Experiments
(a) In his fist monohybrid cross, Mendel crossed a purebred tall plant (TT) with a purebred dwarf plant (tt). He foundor
that the F, generation consisted only of the tall plant and hence he termed the tall as the dominant trait and dwats
the recessive trait.

172 Class-X BIOLOGY

 Ib) ln the F, generalion, oblaincd by selfng I, gencration, the 'arents
dominant and the recessive traits obtained were in the ratio (warf plant)
(allplant)
of3: 1, i.e., 75% of the oflspringN had dominant trait (tall),. I,gencralion It (All all plants)
while 25°% had recessive trit (dwar), This 3: ltatio is Selfing
known as Mendelian Phenotyple monohybrld ratlo.
e) TheGenotypic ratio obtained was I(TT): 2(Ty): l() and is
called as Mendelian genotypic monohybrid ratio.
F, generation (Tall) (Tall)
tt
Mendel's Laws of Inheritance (Tall) (Dwarf)

O the basis of the monohybrid crosses he formulated 2 laws of 3

Phenotypic ratio
inheritance. They are: (Tall) (Dwarf)
2 1
Genotypic ratio
1.Principle of Dominance: TT Tt tt

(25%) (50%) (25%)

() Traits are regulated by distinct units known as factors.
understand a typical
Fig. 3: APunnett square used to
(ii) Factors exist in pairs. monohybrid cross conducted by Mendel between true
Gi) Ina dissimilar pair of factors one member of the pair breeding tall plants and true-breeding dwarf plants
dominates (dominant) the other (recessive).
not exhibit blending, and both characteristics
2. Principle of Segregation: This law is based on the fact that alleles do
While parents carry two alleles
reappear as such in the F, generation, even if one may not be visible in theF, stage.
only one of the two factors. In the
during gamete formation, the alleles of a pair segregate so that a gamete receives
heterozygous parent generates two types ot
case of a homozygous parent, allgametes produced are identical, whereas a
gametes, each containing one allele in equal proportions.

Knowledge Hub
the F, and F, plants can be understood from
The production of gametes by the parents, the formation of the zygotes,
Figure 3. It was developed by a British geneticist, Reginald C. Punnet.
a diagram called Punnett Square as shown in
of offspring in a genetic cross.
It is a graphical representation to calculate the probability of all possible genotypes
and left columns. All possible combinations are
The possible gametes are written on two sides, usually the top row
represented in boxes in. the squares, which generates a square output form.
DO.

Terminologies used in Genetics

artificially.
OCrossing: Areproduction event (mating) that is controlled
O Pgeneration: First parents in a crossing.
involving P generation.
O F,Generation (First Filial): First batch of offsprings (progeny) produced by a cross
after mating Fl individuals.
O E, Generation (Second Filia): Batch of offsprings produced
OSelfing: Allowing self pollination.
expresses itself in the phenotype
O Dominant trait and Recessive trait: When dissimilar alleles combine, the allele which
is known as dominant while the allele which is not able to express itself is known as recessive.
Heredity and Evolution 173)
 OR

Adominant trait is one which could cxpress itself even in

expressed only in homozygous condition.
heterozygous condition whereas a recessive
rit w
O Monohybrid cross: It involves the study of
and dwarf characters. inheritance of one pair of contrasting characters, e.g,inheritance
n Dihybrid Cross: It is the inheritance of two pairs of
contrasting characters, i.c. cross betwecn parents
characters simultaneously. if ering n
O Genotype: It is the genetic representation of a trait. e.0.. TT or
Tt for at l p
O Phenotype: the physical expression of atrait, e.g., tall plant. It can be noted by direc/indirect
It is
Colour of flower can be observed pea
whereas type of blood group can be recognised using a
blood Ityping test. observat
Allele: Alleles are a pair of genes chromosome and control
that occupy a specificlocation on a particular the same t
Different alleles produce different traits of a character.
O Homologous chromosomes: A pair of chromosome one received from male and fermale parent respectively.

the same set of

,controlli
characters.
produce only oneh.
onozygous Individuals: Thev have same alleles on the homologous chromosomes. They
gametes.
o
chromosomes. They produce two tyne.
U Heterozygous traits: Thev bave dissimilar alleles on homologous
gametes.

Dihybrid Cross
simultaneously. His quest was to find ita
OIn dihybrid cross, Mendel was observing the inheritance of two characters
inheritance of one character dependend on other. To exemplify if apea plant with round and yellow seeds pass the alA
sidiou
for them together or they are free to be passed independent of each other
OMendel performed.a dibybrid cross between around yellow seeded pea plant (YYRR) and a wrinkled green sak
pea plant (yyrr). aigoloni
OAll the plants in F, generation were round and yellow (YyRr).
ONow, Mendel self-hybridized the plants produced in F, generation (YyRr xYyRr) and collected the data.
OWhen Mendel self hybridisedthe F, plants he found that 3/4th of E, plants had yellow seeds and 1/4th had gren
yellow and green colour segregated in a3:1 ratio. Round and wrinkled seed shape is also segregated in a3:1 ratic Mende
likein a monohybrid cross. On the
OThe cross is shown in apunnett square below.
than o
of the
174) Class-X BIOLOGY
 P generation yellow, round rren, wrinkled
X
X
YYRR yyrr
F, generation yellow, round

F, generation YyRr

gametes YR Yr yR

gametes yellow, round ycllow, round ycllow, round yellow, round

YR

YYRR YYRr YyRr

YyRR
yellow, round yellow, wrinked yellow, round yellow, wrinked

Yr

YYRr YYrr YyRr Yyrr

yellow, round yellow, round green, round green, round

yR

YyRR YyRr yyRR yyRr

yellow, round green, round green, wrinkled
yellow, wrinked

yr

YyRr yyRr yyrr

Yyrr

Phenotypic ratio
9 round, yellow :3 round, green :
3 wrinkled, yellow:1 wrinkled, green I
Genotypic ratio
1(YYRR) :2(YYR) :1(YyRR) : 2(Yyr):
4(YyRr) : 2(yyRr): 1(yyRR) : 2(YYn) :1(yyr)
Conclusion: The allele encoding color separated
independently of the allele encoding seed shape,
producing a 9:3:3:1 ratio in the F, progeny

Fig. 4: Dihybrid cross

Mendel's law of independent assortment

hthe basis of dihybrid cross Mendel formulated law of independent assortment. It states that if the inheritance of more
ban one pair of traits is studied simultaneously, the factors or genes for one pair of characters assort out independently
lhe other pair of characters. ie., segregation of one pair of traits is independent of the other pair of traits

Heredity and Evolution 175,

 Knowledge Hub
lhe number of genes and chromosomes vvaries from species to species. Myrmecha pilosula, an ant hasn1 tei
chrormosome numbers. The
smallcst

Ophioglossum reticulatum,
a 630, where nslands
for haploid
genes is S25, found in a fem Mycoplasma genitalium. The highest
as n number is foundin Duphnia
plex, a

bacteria

Fig.6: Daphnla
Fig. 5: Myrmecla

Reasons for the success of Mendel's experiments experiment. collected.

(a) He selected true breeding lines of)f pea plant for his credibility to the data that he
which gave great
(b) His experiments had allarge samplingsize
(d) He was lucky enoughto selectthe visible traits, aslogic.
mathematical the gene for these traits arelocated on four different chromosome
(c) He applied statistical analysis and

H Try itYourself white flowers. The

flowers is crossed with a pea plant variety with plants
1. Apea plant variety with
purple monohybrid cross and write the
obtained in the F, generation were 50% purple and 50% white perform possible
genotype ofthe parents.

Dominant phenotype, Recessive phenotype,

unknown genotype: PP or Pp known genotype: pp

Predictions
If purple-flowered or If purple-flowered
parent is PP: parent is Pp:

Sperm Sperm
p p

P P

Pp Pp Pp Pp
Eggs Eggs
P

Pp Pp PP PP

So, from the above cross it is clear that the parental plant is Pp. The type of cross done to deternine the genoy:
of the unknown parent is known as Test cross.

176 Class-X BIOLOGY

 ofthe
2. Which
(a) Genotypes
following could exempliy
"allele"?
(c) Genesfor wrinkled and round sceds (h) henotypes
(d) Mutatons
Dillerent alleles are NOT
J.
(a) Determinants of
characters (b) Stretches of DNA
i Exact copies of cach other
() Made up of deoxy-ribonucleotides generationhe
Mendellcrossedtall plant with dwarf plant in his famous experiment on Pisum sativum Inthe first
4.
only talllplants. Becausc:
i The parental plants were heterogeneous to their
characters.
(b) The soil was fertile.
i The parental plants were pure to their character.
(a) The tallness character was arecessive character.

Howdo Traits get expressed

Cellular DNA 0s the information source for making proteins in the cell.
D proteins synthesized
of
Asection DNA that provides information for
D according
one protein is called the egene for that protein. The
tothis information may be enzymes or hormones that catalyse biochemical reactions.
enzyme controls each biochemical reacton.
Fach trait is the outcome of several such biochemical reactions Snecific
parents contribute equally to the DNA of the progeny during sexual reproduction. Each
parent contributes one
Both
D genes for every character. Because of meiosis (reducuon
copy of the gene ror a particular character. Thus there are two
division), in a gamete only one copy is present, either maternal or paternal origin.
number of gene copies in the progeny ensuring the stability
n When two germ cells combne they will restore the normal results of the Mendel's experiments, and 1s
of the DNA of the species. Such a mechanism of inheritance explains the
Ised by all sexually reproducing organisms.
exhibited can be
control the characters or traits of an organism. Traits
n Genes are present on the chromosomes which
represented by genotype and phenotype of an individual.
called dominant allele while the other one is called
Each gene has two or more alternating forms of alleles, One allele is
recessive allele.
separate such that each gamete receives only one allele.
D At the time of gamete formation, the two forms of a gene
half in gametes and during fertilization, the fusion of male
O During gamete formation, the chromosome number reduced fusion also creates new combination of genes in
and female gametes restore the normal chromosome number. This
half chromosome set from mother.
Zygote as zygote contains half chromosome set from father and

Male Female
Sex Determination (44 + XY) (44 + XX)
organism is determined.
Sex determination is a process by which the sex of an 22 + X / 22 + Y 22 + X
environmental factors
Sex determination is mainly controlled by the genetic and 22 + X 22 + X
In some animals.
44 + XX 44 + XX
22 + X
Chromosomes are of two types (Female) (Female)
regulate
U Autosomes or Somatic chromosomes: These chromosomes 22 + Y
44 + XY 44 + XY
somatic characters of an individual. (Male) (Male)
Allosomes or Sex chromosomes: X and Yare sex chromosomes in humans. Fig. 7: Determination of Sex by
Xchromosome of human was discovered by Henking. chromosomal differences in Humans

« Heredity and Evolution 177

 Male has one Nand both X
oth are active. Female has
in
which only ne i one Y}c hnmone in which
active ystem sfound nhumans, mammals, insomeinsccts.
The XY sCdeteminatin
All chilren wll nhent an Nchromoome Iromther mother, despite whether they are a boy or girl
children will be determined by the Se of chomosone inherited fromtheir father. Achild who inber
fiom girl. Thus, the sex oe
by thefather will e a huy and
ather and not the who inhents N chromosome fron father will be a
baby is eter
mother.
Evolution
Evolution is key a how they e
idea in various life forms, their traits, and
generations. Biologists use itbiology
People have comne up with
as aSCicntific approach to understandthe genetic diversity within groupg
that explores the

evolution suggeste
change NEr ta
are ideas about how life began on Earth. The theory of
different over time. This concept guides biologists in studying how different that all
relatedconnected
and howandthey'gradually
ve changed
changeand adapted over the course of evolution. thin Rin 1iving
Chemical
This theory is
evolution
also
knownbrought
as that life originated on earth by a of long series
changes. These changes naturalistic
gradual evolution
theory. It ofstates
inorganic and organic compounds (chemical evolution)
to

(i)
the
formation of
Oparin - Haldaneprotoplasm. This includes -
Theory/TTheory of Chemical Evolution:
physiochetisa
They
independently
chemical proposedthe first form of life could have come from pre-existing non-living
evolution. According to this theory, atoms of nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen, argon, carbon, etmocl.e,cules, Lt
the primitive atmosphere was reducing because oxygen was absent and earth is rich in formedin
atmosphere. Thesulfide
carbon monoxide,
The hydrogen
constant supply of energy was
and ammonia.
melhanE,
present in the form of lightning, heat, Electrodes d+
cOSmic rays and this resulted in the Electrical spark
accumulation
that
of inorganic molecules (lightning) To vacuum
later formed organic molecules and pump
H,0 CH,
complexX compounds like amino acids, NH, H,
sugar, glycerol, fatty' acids, nitrogenous Gases
Sarprobempling
organic bases, etc. Cooling (primitive atmosphere)
O These System Conderser
molecules further formed
polypeptides, polysaccharides, Sampling Water
Or macromolecules like probe (ocean)
protein, Cooled water Heat source
carbohydrates, and fats, the oceanic (containing organic ompounds) Trap
water became a rich mixture of organic
compound called Prebiotic soup". Fig. 8: Miller Urey Experiment to test
Oparin-Haldane hypothesis
(ii) Stanley Miller and H.C. Urey Experiment
(Experiment for verification of prebiotic soup) :
O This experiment verified the
Oparin-Haldane theory by creating similar conditions in their laboratory.
O They built an apparatus of glass tubes and flasks and
created reducing
800°C in a closed flask. The energy was supplied by electric sparks. atmosphere containing H,, CH, NH, H
Experiment was run for one week and the resultant mixtures were allowed to condense. He
of amino acids such as glycine, alanine and aspartic acid. Thus observed the forna
biotic synthesis of organic molecules was coniuu
178 Class-X BIOLOGY
Forces of Evolution
ow that we have understood the origin of life, we must diseard the "Fixcd Species" concept This concept believed
iat god made organisns and thoxe organistns which bas capability to adapt best fit in their natural surroundings- abird
wns designcd to (ly, afish to swim, and a deer tograre. However, we know now that life arosechemically, so what
nrocess gave rise to this vast varicty? The answer is evolutlon. It Is defined as the chunge in herituble churucteristics
aspecies over suCcessive generations thus changing the population.
his a process of cumulative change in living populations und in the descendut populationsof orgunisms. ln other words,
is "descent with modifications".
The evolution of a population occurs when variations in a population make individuals better or ill-equipped to the
environment. There is an inbuilt tendency of variation during reproduction, both because of errors in DNA copying
and as a result of sexual reproduction. Let us understand this with the help of an example
develop with
Let us examine a population of beetles, all red. By chance, a variation occurs due to which two beetles
green body. Let us see what can happen to this population of beetles.

Elephant/
foot

II

Red Blue Green

Fig. 9: Three forces of Evolution: Natural Selection (Top row), Genetic Drift (Middle Row), Gene flow (Last row)

Natural Selection
Until the' arrival of green beetles, all red beetles had equal survival capacity. Some would be eaten by crow,
balance has
some reproduce and pass the trait, almost equally. However, now that the two beetles are green, the
changed. Green beetles are easily camouflaged. Crows cannot see them against green bushes. They will have
higher chance of living longer than the red beetles and hence reproduce more. Naturally, the'proportion of green
beetles in the population increase from 2 to let's say six and more eventually crow becomes the natural predator
of
of beetles. The more crows there are, the more red beetles would be eaten and more would be the population
green beetles. Thus, natural selection brings aboutimproved adaptive evolution by favouring the reproduction
and survival of those individuals which are better suited to the given environment. You must however, keep in
mind two very crucial points
D The green beetles did not arise because it was needed. It appeared as a matter of chance. It isn't easy to imagine that
our features are chance events compounded over time, not intelligent design.
Q It was the environment that made the variation advantageous." Had we developed green colour, we would not be at an
advantage since crows do not èat us.

This showcases the first and a strong force of evolution-Natural Selection

Heredity and Evolution 179)

 char, epetimens,
heetl in occurring
without
led natural carthworms colour few the
an that
hayoc again to radiation.
case., beetles
n Afterthat point,chance, colour diversity
majorfrequency due
vrlife able blue this once
year rematk
crpctiments
of
Mendel's this adult increase, adaptiye
of cnvifonmcnts
theoty i.e., By In one such provides bushes
of at
fiveyaricty role population. gene of
But beetles. of caused
variant, weight againwth
he noted his beetles when
lage vartousby the
gave visibility. the drift
enlightencd onceconfused
Heagle also
different
about islands colour the their havein Average
years,
a He of of Genetic
change should
He conducted
oticed survival
equalmost increase not
S selectionstudies CO
L'O'M
BIA Galapagos another few be
Mf island
to wouldrandom
drift. reduce.
been with kills a beetles not
he adapt R ERU After should
shipvoyage, andnaturalconducted erto
Asis accidental
Agrio)
(Lego
O of slowly
Galapagos
have kECUAD famous both
formation
This elephantgenetic
This beetles
of
the theyhome occurring.
weightand
les CQUITO themlive.now
on his hOwat to would
P
als0
Pasto Olbarta
oAmbat
JGusrands YGuayaquil
oMacas
PuyoORiobamba the of large.
called all
the due see will The
matter to evolution
age Durng staycd AZOgues and beetles average
lle He
Lorenuo Ogabahoyo Cuenca the very is Adaptation
of and place (right) Crows beetles population. available
change
voy aml, 'MachalaZamora
in
inches
PACIFIC
CEO
Lojao
work. O
a harmful
species. results red simply been
ados
a coasl organisnms
Domingo
England,
on look Color dSullana Darwin colour. the of
Foodgenetic
Portoviejo Piura the
his
s Tumbeso
blue had force
out Manta scenario- disease,
its among evolution Salinas where
reproduction resultantor
sct of to of and Talarao
10: red Thesewas population
beneficial bushes. a
among no not
Charles
Darwin
(1809.802)islands his
Darwn
beaks
back origin Mendel Fig. over bushes It plant
blue.advantage.
the third is There are
that
returned the
d1tlerencesThe advantageous of Adaptations
the n
Charle* Galapagos
Islands sexual the mostly of beetlebeing a
andnotable
the
diflervNes
pothesisabout characteristics imagine infectfood.eliminationClass-X
BIOLOGY
cnitled on survivalthe its
Darwn
oAmerca
, known Genetic
Drift of stampsare of that of
and hy process if irrespective
survived population to disease food.
his not scarcity
the
age voyage.
sim1larntichook
is and no imperative
South formulatenot to of
the colour gavecommon adaptations.
the the did tertil1ty by have a of due availability
Again, change chance Imagine
because
healthy
A lo in he Blue comesthat
beetle
is
the It 180
 Bothfurther free
A
species.
The they Interbreeding barrier
species, changes
significant. of breeding
different 181)
morphology
has in exposcd 1.c., low etc.,colour time. behaviour
which one other.
meet,
the
genes, example., drift, of reproductively. (intrinsic
drops green Range
Reproductive
Z not course for a The Heredity
and
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be Territory
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hill may genetic Population & each
substrateto are stop.Thethe
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in For Growth due
from different they
a
of beak.and produced
changes isolation in developed
incompatible.
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otherto population, forms if
geographically of reproductive
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even have
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on orange organ1sms
red of small,two fertilization.
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I because
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speciation.the means of generated.
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example. with beenthe
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thc
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emplehey. parentvases) cells.
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Heterotrophs characters
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ihen
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e mwhave brnad basic of
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Claxeicatien
and
Evostion he at of
atd
hvmd can madebaty chart
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evidences function.
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Flowand two but
show
anatomical those
arc levcls in their
strctural of anatomical structure
interpreted
different
in
th phtovnthetx favour evidences plants A.
2.Palaeontological are
Homologous
Organs organsin
ir,hothr
of 3.
Embryological
evidences difference
h lant haaa (hasic Class-X
BIOLOGY
cell(Lacks
nucleus)
Prokaryotic in and and and anatomical
an Cell are be
animals Homologous
the Morphological Morphological
can
aimale which show
on ther
gn similarities
Different (Same may
of follows:
as
ancestor.
Evidences
haas
R N 1. 1. 182)
 are werevestigial
processes 183)
heen haveremarkable
afound
organs
Scientists organs Evolution
and
Heredity
has many natural
nt These
these
scale. are
et organs.
thatThere by
les Dolphin indeed
molecular function.
preserved
mte appears
vestigialfunctionless.
henes have
the We similar Itfunctionally. been
of ancesy
on DNA. scorpion. as have
even but
known became
Bat
atanger and in homology. structuresand
common that
? nucleotides
physiology
are as
wellthey membrane fossils.
life insect.
bee roles man
sumilat establshes different of use ancient
in
Horse molecular Sting functionalreduced
less
or
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structurally ear
Nictitating the ofstudy
d Ccwbita. proteins,
levels-anatomy, External ofanimals
of
oriyin Forelimbs have () partsthe
similar in called which the bodywith
luncions, of in
Cat Homology is
acids of due
totheir (ii) (iv) and deals
tendrils structures ofwhales. all
plantsofimpressions
several field function)
amino or
of
limbs someare man that ?
different and This science
Bougainvillea 12: at of but body
theyancestors of layer
EanVpleesrtebmoratedsiteodfcLegsi)
Tour tinsects.
of Fig.observedevolution.similar
sequences
those birds and
flipper lost in
appendix traces
perform Human human
rudimentary, evidences
Palaeontological by
having different; ogousstructures and
.Metacarpals couldcomparinOrgAnalgansbutstructure
are
Ditterent.
have
cVestigial :indevelinoped teeth
Wisdom
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E.g., of layer
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| of Humerus Carpals Phalanges Homologyprove
he
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o nbat ffishes
pl
gousofes.:
Organs which
organs present
degener a te
Vermiformremains
crust. form
Radius WingsofFins
(i) or Examples: Earth'as
fossils
Ulna startoted Those well organs
the isPalaentology
are the
a (iü) Fosilswithin do
B.
How
 Let us start 100 million years ago. Somc ivetebrates on the sea bed dic, and are burred in the sand. M
accumulates, and sandstone foms under pressure. More sand
Millions of years later, dnosaus living in the arca die, and their bodics, too. are
buriecd in mud. This mud is
compressed intoch, aboe the nvk containing the carlier invertcbrate fossils.

Againmillions of years later, the bodies of

rocks.
horse-like creatures dying in the area are fossilized in rock above these
earlier

Much later, by erosion or water flow wears

we will find older and older away some of the rock andexposes the
fossils. horse-like fossils. As we dig deeper,

We can find the time

organisms lived by
reveals forms which used to live on earth dating the fossils using carbon dating.
and how life has changed over time. Fossils offer insight into the history. It
The study of fossils of some of the
shows characteristics of both reptilesorganisms show similarity between the two
and birds. These groups, e.g. Fossils of Archaeopteryx
evolution. intermediate stages increase our confidence in the theory of

Fig. 13: Fossil of Archaeopteryx and its recreation (imaginary)

Class-X BIOLOGY
 Natural selection through a classic case of industrial melanism
pre-industrialisation period: Another interesting observation supporting evolution by natural selcction comes from
England In a collection of moths made in 1850s, i.e., before industrialisation set in, it was obscrved that there were more
phite-winged moths on trees than dark-winged or melaniscd moths.

Post-industrialisation period
owever, in the collection carried out from the same arca, but afler industrialisation, i.c., in 1920s, therc werc more dark
winged moths in the same area, i.e. The proportion was reversed.
Explanation - The explanation put forth for this observation was that 'predators will spot a moth against a contrasting
and soo.
hackground'. During the post-industrialisation period, the tree trunks became dark due to industrial smoke moths survived.
Under this condition the white-winged moth did not survive due to predators, dark-winged or melanised
background the
Before industrialisation set in, thick growth of almost white-coloured lichen covyered the trees - in that
in areas
white winged moth survived but the dark-coloured moth was picked out by predators. They will not grow
themselves, i.e.. hide in the background, survived. This
that are poliuied. ience, moths that were able to camouflage coun
understanding is supported by the fact that in areas where industrjalisation did not occur e.g., in rural areas, tne
better-adapt, survive and increase in
of melanic moths was low. This showed that in a mixed population. those that can
population size. Remember that no variant is completely wiped out.
Dark colored
Light colored
tree trunk tree trunk

Fig. 14 (i): Moths light and dark Fig. 14 (ii): Light moths were better camouflaged in less polluted
coloureds times when tree bark was covered with lichens. Dark moths were better
camouflaged when the lichen ied due to pollution

evolution by Stages,
he evolution in an organism or its organs from simple to complex.forms has taken place
stages. Such complex organs will be created bit-by-bit over generation. Even intermediate
ages can be useful. The evolution cannot takes place by a single DNA change. Let us take
wexamples.
() In the carly stages of Earth's existence, primitive organisms were characterized by slow
movement and smaller sizes, rendering specialized visual organs unnecessary for object
observation. Fig. 15: Planaria has very
Consider Planaria as an example. These invertebrates possessed simple eyes in the form of simple eyes
eyespots -ight-sensitive cells capable of detecting light. As evolution unfolded, larger and
more mobile organisms emerged, many of which were predators relying on enhanced vision for effective predation.
The evolutionary journey led to the development of diverse eye structures in different species. Insects, octopuses,
and various invertebrates all possess eyes, yet the variations in their eye structures suggest separate evolutionary
origins. This reflects the dynamic nature of theevolutionary processes that have shaped the diverse visual adaptations
observed across species.
Heredity and Evolution 185
 (ii) Some Dinosaurs had teathers but they could not tly
Probably, they were developed to provide inulation
incold weather. Later on teathers developed n birds,
where they were adapted tor thight. This indicates that
birds are closely related to rept1les since dnosaurs werc
reptiles. This also indicates that the haracter which
developed for onc lunction is later on Ised for dillerent laryer
lesves

function. los
Selection

(iii) By artificial sclection process, very dissimilar looking Selection for arested flower
developme

structuresmay evolve fronm a common ancestral design.

One of the classical example is wild cabbage plant. Common ancestor Selection for sterile flowers
Humans have, over more than two thousand ycars ago Selec
cultivated wild cabbage as a food plant, and generated
(Wild cabbage)
el ction for short
different vegetables from it by selection. The various
crop plants developed from wild cabbage plants are:
distances betwecn
Cabbage: It is selected for its terminal buds, where
lcaves
there is a very short distances between leaves.
Kohlrabi: It is selected for its swollen parts.
wild cabbage
Broccoli: It is selected for its arrested flower Fig. 16: Evolution of
development
Cauliflower: It is selected for its sterile flowers.
Kale: It is selected for slightly larger leaves.

Evolution Should Not be Equated with Progress

Chanos :
Evolution is the progressive alteration in inherited traits over a large span of time, usually over generations.
DNA (mutations or variations) and environmental factors like temperature, climate, availability of resources, et. bg
a great role in evolution. When an organism is required to utilize a niche, and they were not able to do so with th
existing body design or structural components, evolution was initiated. Thus, we can say that evolution occurred bera
the environment required modification in order to ensure the survival and sustainability of the species, and not becag
the older version was defective. We can't call this progress.
Progress is about the upgrading of levels, i.e., the next level is better than the previous ones. Evolution is simply t
genration of diverstiy and shaping of the diversity by environmental selection. Adaptation to one habitat may not be the
same as the adaptation to other habitats. Thus, evolution is relative to environmental conditions, not progress.
Evolution should not be equated with progress because of the followingreasons:
1. In evolution, during formation of new species older species are not eliminated and many of older and simpler specis
still survive.
2. Earliest organisms like bacteria are found even in many unfavourable habitats like hot springs,
deep-sea thermal vent,
Antarctic ice, etc.
3. The evolved species are not always better than the parental species.
Evolution
genetic drift which is result in population which is reproductively isolated from thedepends upon natural selection amd
parental species.
Human Evolution
Human evolution has been studied with the help of
by determining DNA sequences. It is various tools such as excavation, carbon dating, fossil
true that humans and stuoy @
descended from chimpanzee. Around 7million years ago chimpanzees share a common ancestry but wrong thatw
into modern day chimpanzees and humans. two lineage of an individual gave
rise to species whicn e
186 Class-X BIOLOGY
 aestudy reveals that there is a great diversity of human forms and features across the planet. For a long time, people
dto talk about human races'. The human races were commonly identified on the basis of skin colour. Some were
lled yellow, some black, white or brown. In fact, there is no biological basis to the notion of human races.
Allhuman beings are asingle species, i.c., Homo sapiens. Human species have come from Africa.
Acouple of hundredthousand years ago, someof our ancestors left Africa while others stayed on. These migrants slowly
Spread across the planet, i.e., West Asia, Central Asia, Eurasia, South Asia and East Asia.
They traveled to islands of Indonesia, the Philippines, Australia and America. They went forwards and backwards sometimes
accident of evolution.
separating and sometimes coming back to mix with cach other. They had come intobeing as an

Knowledge Hub
the brain to body size ratio that increased.
With human evolution brain size increased. But more importantly it was
also credited with human improvement. As
Some hold this as a link with increased intelligence. Discovery of fire is and at the
energy to be spent on digestion
fire could help cook food, its breakdown before consumption allowed less development.
was available to
same time obtaining more energy from food. This surplus energy

HS Try it Yourself
artificial selection is
1. The key difference between natural and
(a) Artificial selection uses chemicals (b) Artificial selectíon is relatively slower
by man
species (d) Artificial selection pressures are created
(c) Artificial selection cannot create new
genes and some plants genes because
2. There will be similarity between some of your
(a) Plants have infected humans
(b) Humans consume plants
infected humans as well
(c) Viruses infecting plants have
ancestor sometime in the past
(d) We have or had common
. Natural selection can bring changes in
(a) Alleles (b) Phenotypes
(d) All of the above
(c) Individuals
occur?
4. Which of the following is not a requirement for natural selection to
(a) Variation between individuals
(b) Heritability of the trait being selected
(c) Sexual reproduction
success among individuals
(d) Differences in reproductive
evidence for evolution except
5. Allof the following provide (b) Darwin's finches.
(a) Vestigial characters.
() Mutations
(c) Embryology dwarf (t). If a plant
is dominant over yellow fruit () and tallnesss (T) is dominant over
6. In a plant, red fruit (R) then
with RrTt is crossed with a plant with rrtt, (b) 100% will be tall with red
fruit
(a) 75% will be tall with red fruit fruit
tall with red fruit (d) 50% will be tallwith red
(c) 25% will be getting a brow
mated with one with brown colour coat (bb). The chances of
(Bb) is
7. A mice with black colour dominant)
colour is. (Assume black is (d) 100%
(c) 75%
(a) 25% (b) 50%
Heredity and Evolution
 Summary
Gregor Mendel began his experiments to trace the transmission of heritable characters from parents to
The characteristics we are considering are called characters and the various forms of these
Traits. characters ofaresprincalea
g
Mendel crossed two pea plants which differed in observed the result such
calledMonohybrid Cross.
onc characteristic and crOsSes
We
Adominant trait is one which could whereas a recessivee
express itself even in heterozygous condition trait wil te
expressed only in homozygous condition.
Principle of Dominance: For a character, there could be 2 traits, one of which could be dominant and ohe

recessive.
segregated in different
GO Segregation: During gamete formation. 2 alleles for a character get gamete,
Adihybrid cross describes a mating experiment betweentwo organisms that are identically hybrid for two traits

* The sex-determining chromosomes are called as sex chromosomesor chemical

or allosomes.
evolution in 1953 and were indeed
* Stanley Miller and Urey tested the hypothesis of abiogenesis
trait that gives the advantage tosurvi.
Successtul in obtaining some aminoacids and other organic compounds.A
population. This trait is hence said to be naturally sele toa
1onger and reproduce more will be perpetrated in the
and the event is natural selection.
artificial experiments that humans have been carrying p
$ Darwin outlined the principle of natural selection in
since ages.
Key features of Darwin's theory of natural selection
(a). Apopulation has a variety of traits
advantage, individuals with those trait
(b) Ifin the given or coming environment a trait provides a sårvival
(and hence the alleles) will leave behind larger number of progenies.
characteristics of individna
(c) The population will have evolved, and changed with respect to distribution of
of generations to come.
Fossil records, homologous organs and analogous organs are used as the evidences of evolution.
* Homology, stands for similarity that can be attributed to common ancestry even though the functions can
different.
* Analogous characters involve the features with different ancestry but same function.
* Natural selection give rise to trait that bears an advantage might increase the chance of that allele to be spread.
$ Genetic drift are sudden events that change the allelic distribution in a population.
New speciesevolve when one species splits into two due to geographic isolation.
* Homo sapiens ancestor originated in Africa and oldest fossil record places at us 195000years old.
 NCERT Corner
1. If a trait Aexists in 10% of a populationof an that the wrinkled green secds and the round yellow
asexually reproducing species and a trait Bexists sccds are parental combinations while the round
in 60% of the same population, which trait is green sccds and wrinkled yellow are recombinants,
likely to have arisen earlicr? ic.,new hybrid. Since this dihybrid crossproduce
Ans. Trait B ismore likely to arise carly as this trait has 4 types of gametes (RY, Ry. rY and ry). this mcans
already been existing and replicating in a larger cach of the gametes segregate independently of the
percentage of the population as comparcd to trait A other.
5. How is the sex of the child determined in human
2. How does the ereation of variations in a species
promote survival? beings?
Ans. Genetic variations enablethe species to better adant Ans. Sex of child in humans is determined by the
to changes in their environment. As it allows the chromosome received from males. Males have XY
chromosomes while females have XX chromosomes.
frequency of alleles to increase or decrease through
natural selection forms the basis of evolution. Hence, if X chromosomes of male combines with
These variations will determine the extinction or the X chromosome of female, the mother gives
continuation of the species. birth to a girl (XX) and if Y chromosome of male
combines with the female's X chromosome of
3. How do Mendel's experiments show that traits female, the mother gives birth to a boy (XY).
may be dominant or recessive?
X X
Ans. Mendel through his experiments that focused on
monohybrid cross showed that the traits can either X |XX XX
be dominant or recessive. He crossed tall (TT) pea
plants with dwarf (t) pea plants. All the plants XY XY
which formed after fertilization, i.e., in the F, (or
filial) generation, were tall. Mendel then proceeded 6. What are the different ways in which individuals
to self-pollinate the F, generation plants and the with a particular trait may increase in a
result was that 1/4th of the plants obtained in the Population?
F, generation were dwarfs. From this experiment.
Mendel concluded that the F, tall plants were not Ans. A particular trait may increase in a population by
true-breeding, instead they carried the traits for both the following 2 ways:
(i) Natural selection: If a trait is useful to a
tall and dwarf heights. Aportion of the plants were
tall due to the fact that the traits for tallness were population, it will increase naturally. For
dominant over the traits for dwarfness. This cements example, mosquitoes which are resistant
the concept that traits can either be dominant or against a partiçular pesticide will pass on
s recessive. its genes, so that future generations become
resistant as well. The mosquitoes which are
4. How do Mendel's experiments show that traits affected by the pesticide die out.
are inherited independently? (i) Genetic drift: Ifa species faces a catastrophic
Ans. The dihybrid cross experiment of Mendel showed event where most of the population is wiped
that traits are inherited independently. The out, the surviving population can pass on their
experiment involved pea plant that differed in two traits to the next generations. This may lead to
characters namely, seed shape and seed colour. The a rise of the attribute within the population.
yellow colour (YY) is dominant over green (yy),
while the round shape (RR) is dominant over the 7. Why are traits acquired during the life-time of
an individual not inherited?
wrinkled shape (r). The phenotypic ratio of F,
progeny of the dihybridcross is 9:3:3:1; therefore, Ans. Traits acquired during alife-time cannot be inherited
9 plants have round yellow (RRYY) seeds, 3 for successive generations as the changes occur in
plants have round green (RRyy) seeds and 3 plants non-reproductive tissues thus do not reflect in the
have wrinkled yellow (rrYY) seeds and one have DNA of the germ cells. For instance, a football
wrinkled green seeds (rryy). He further noticed player cannot pass on his skills to his offspring as

Heredity and Evolution 189)

 harnan, Iixd
and bird are inilar in
fnetinn This
different
Wk a
they perfemrelationships
evolutonary
ihe thgerv a
nemher of rvtnggenetk?
woryumnall wing ofabutterfly and the
a
Ana A the from the pent of ew ofreases, the I. Can the homologous organs?
grnt of the tigr Nyulatn devre
of the ynr al vreascs Ihis be considered
not?
wby r
reauta in almitaln the aratns which
will
wing of a
butterfly and the
wing of
intdachis lakwithin makeup of the Ans. The
cannot be considered homologous oryany
ligen the genetic
of \anation wll esult nseious common ancestor. .Eventhougth
do not share a
impl1catonx
within the tigerFor opulaton,
example, it any discase spreads
if can potcntially wipe structures are used in flight, they
have evove
out the whole opulation, hich can possibly cause scparately. The wings of a butterfly are
9.
their etinction
What factors could lead to the rise of a new
species?
of (wo chitinous
a bat are made up
membranes,
of bony
vessels. Hence, these are not
C
whercaso mprA,
skeleton, andwIng
homologous bl,
Ans. Factors that would result in anew species are as but rather analogous organs.
follows:
(a) Natural selection.
14. What are
fossils? What do they tell ussabout
process of evolution?
he

(b) Genetic drift. preserved remains

Ans. Fossils are the of
(c) Mutation.
() Geographical isolation.
plants or other organisms that died out
of years ago. These fossils help in
animmialslin
ox
(e) Environmental factors
populations.
the

0. Will geographical isolation be a major factor in

isolated
about extinct animals and how
have occurred. Fossils can be used to
how an organism would have lived and
underusntdaenrdstianngd
evolution might
the speciation of aself-pollinating plant species?
Why or why not?
have looked like. Moreover, we can
fossils as well as extant organisms to
what i
Correlatet
may
with
Ans. Inpollinating plant species,geographical isolation
1S usually not a major factor as no new trait will
their relationships.
15. Why are human beings who look so
understand
become part of the genetic makeup in a self from each other in terms of size, color
said to belong to the same species? and
diielroeoksnt
pollinating plant species. However, there are some
possibilities of some environmental changes which Ans. While human beings do vary in color
and
appearance, their genetic makeup is
identigener
cal al
could result in some variations.
any other human being. One offtthe to
11.Willgeographical isolation be a major factor in forth for our drastic changes 1s due to speculations
put
the speciation of an organism that reproduces evolutionan
asexually? Why or why not? pressure-- where the need to be
easily
recognifaceszed
pushed us towards having widely different
Ans. In the case of asexually reproducing organisms,
geographical isolation can't be considered a major 16. In evolutionary terms, can we say which among
factor. This is due to the fact that meiosis does not bacteria, spiders, fish and chimpanzees have a
occur during asexual modes of reproduction and "better' body design? Why or why not?
thus there will be no variation. Ans. Body designs are evolved according to environmental
12. Give an example of characteristics being used selection, needs and pressure. For instance, fish have
to determine how close two species are in evolved a streamlined design as it is best suited for
evolutionary terms. an aquatic environment. The bacteria can survive in
Ans. The closeness of two species in evolutionary terms extreme conditions where other organisms cannot.
can be determined by homologous characteristics. Hence, we can't conclude that one organism has
These are structurally similar because they have a a better body compared to another and there is no
common ancestor. For example, the limbs of frog, better body design.

(190 Class-X BIOLOGY

 genetle
0. Mon l the cqual
im1la th arf arth'
atieqher
wtaining
female parents ensured ln
the contributlon of
ata hstngenahet
thght t har euetn hutingImir carth Ans. Equal genetic contribution: of male
progeny by the and
progeny? male
hothehti apatn(ecmeaelent, pt
is cnsured in
Ihia n a maintan

lduring
ughtn1ng.
at a temyvature ust Ielow

whh Wa alu thought o common

epenment, he
Dunbers of chronosomes from
are 23 pairs of
called
chronosomes.
autosomes while the
out of Au
remaininywhichpair
of

thatto CTeate
Was able
N amno cnd of
Atheavds the
which s required for
the sex chromosomes (represcntc as X in al
Females have two sets of and
proten molulc fomation
YExplain how seual reproductiongives rise to more X-fertchilriozmatoisoonmes wher
males havc I X-chromosome and 1 Y-
viable variations than asexualreproductio. Mow
does this affect the cvolution of those organisms
that reproduce sexually?
Ans, Sexual I reproduction give ise to variations
because of
During scxual reproduction,
where the male gamcte fuses with
This leads to the formation of a
The male contributes 22
chromosomes. The female
chromo
autosomes garne
Tne
the. fdiemalploLaiekdes
plus
pla
the follow ing reasons: contributes 22 autoSoTme
1 X-chromosome. Thus,
plus the zygote
(a) Eror in DNA copying.
maternal an equal contribution of genetic material
Random segregation of paternal andformation.
(6)
chromosome at the time of germcell
parents.
11. Only variations that confer an
from both
inadvantage
material between
(c) Exchange of genetic individual organism will survive
homologous chromosomes during the gametes apopulation.
Do you agree with this statement?
()
formation.
Accumulation of variations occurred because of
not? Why or why
Ans. Yes, the given statement is true, only
reproduction over generation after generation

organisvmariasiontghat
and choice naturally created wide diversity.
provide an advantage to individual
will survive in a population. For
(e) In case of asexual reproduction, variation is very example,
limited as there is only one parent involved.
Hence, the offspring is genetically similar to the
that provide heat-resistance in bacteria is
for their survival when there is a sudden variaions
very useiu
parent.
ambient temperature.
increasein

Quick Recall

5. An individual with only one type of allele is referred

WFillin the Blanks as

1. is the information source of making 6. Law of talks about interaction of two genes.
proteins in the cell. 7. Law of Independent assortment was derived from
cross.
2. The differences in the characters (or traits) among
8 selection selects traits with advantage.
the individuals ofa species are called
3. The gene decides the appearance of an 9. refers to the process that give birth to new
species
character even in the presence of an alternative gene.
4. In Pea seed color is dominant. 10. Organs with same ancestry but different functions are
called as

192 Class-X BlOLOGY >>)

 True and False Statements (a) P 0 ) R(o

I. Thereisaninbuilt tendency to variation due to eors R)

inDNA copying. (h Piv) 00)
, Somatic variations form the basis of evolution, 3. Match the follow1ng
Column-! Column-11
Sexualreproduction generates More variations.
(0) Gene cornplerment of
Aall pea plantwill always bear the genotype TT. (P) Phenotype an ind1vidual
; Monohybrid Mendelian ratio of phenotype is l:2:1. (O)Genotype (i) Factor which cannot
Cxpress its effect
bA child who inherits a Y chromosome from father
will be a girl. (R) Dominant (ii) Factor which can
Cxpress its effect
1. Change in distribution of genes in a population could factor
be caused by man. (S) Recessive (iv)Observable
characteristics
factor
8. Molecular homology supports Darwinian view of life. (a) P-(i) Q-(i) R-(1) S-(ii)
9. Fossils can be used to date the age during which an (6) P-() Q-(ii) R-(i) S-(iv)
animal lived. R-(iv) S-()
(c) P-(iüi) Q-(ii)
10. Human beings have evolved from chimpanzees. (a) P-(iv) Q-() R-(üi) s-(i)
4. Match the following
I/Match the Following Column-I Column-II
Homologous
1. Match the following P) Change in gene frequency ()
due torandom event organs
Column-I Column-II ()Vestigial
(Q)Organs structurally
(P) Transmission of characters (i) Hereditary similar but functionally organs
from parent to offspring different
Differences among the (i)Genetics (R) | Organs functionally (iii)Analogous
ndividual of same species similar but develop from organs
Branch of science deals (üii)| Variation different ways
with heredity and variation (S) Functionless organs i) Genetic drift
(S) Development of new (iv) Evolution presentin body.
organism by modifications (a) P-{) Q-(ii) R-(ii) S-(iv)
in pre existing ones (b) P-(iv) Q-() R-{üi) s-(i)
(a) P-{(ii) Q(ii) R-(iv) S-() (c) P-(i) Q-i) R-(iv) S-()
(6) P-(iv) Q-) R-(ii) S-(i) (a) P-(i) Q-(iv) R-) S-(ii)
(c) P-() Q-(i) R-(i) S-iv) 5. Match the following
(a) P-(i) Q-(v) R-() S-{in) Column-I Column-II

2. Match the following (P) Edible part in kale Terminal bud

Column-I Column-II (Q)Edible part in kohlrabi (ii) Swollen stem

(P)Genes () Units of inheritance (R) Edible part in Broccoli (ii) Larger leaves
(Q)Factors (ii)|Impressions of past (S) Edible part in cabbage(iv) Immature
organism green flowers
(R) Fossils (ii) |Entities which control (a) P-(ii) Q-(iv) R-() S-(üi)
the expression of traits (b) P-() Q-iüi) R-(i) S-(iv)
(S) Sex (iv) Determine sex of an (c) P-(iv) Q) R-(ii) S-i)
chromosomes individual R-(v) S-{)
(d) P-(ii) Q-(i)
Heredity and Evolution 193.
 Competitive Level

DNA: Blueprint of Life

In 1856, an Austrian monk named Gregor Mendcl pcrformed breeding experiments with pea pla.
specific ratine
specific genctic generation to the next in
the father of characteristics were passed down
MeMenwhadenld'tse1s NeconCotibnWsid
from one
gencties analyze the inheritance of traits systematically.
are even more because he wasthe knowabout DNAand predicted its existence. He calJod
first to
as impressive
DNA "particlcs because he didn't were responsible for
passing traits from
Found in the
Almost
of
inheritance," which he suspected
nucleus of living
a century later, in 1944,cclls,
Scicntists Is the genctic material that
stores andtransfers
DNA identified DNA as the "particles of inheritance," generauOn geKinoewra
information.
The
t9 h

determine its
structure. the research team of James
Watson and Francis Crick
solwe
his
in 1953. Eventually.
are sc\ioecaeddtne gh
Thestructure that Crick and Watson conceived was a double
helix.
A gene is pu
defined as
DNA, it is difficult tothe functional unit of inheritance. Though there is no ambiguity that
the genes
be
also
DNA coding for a protein. This is how a gene express
DNA sequence.
literally define a gene in terms ofitself. However it can
dofned as segmenN a
PMCess is explained throuoh central dogma which is represented bolo
translation
DNA
transcription mRNA protein

Fig. 17: Central dogma

Theories of Evolution
The origin of life is considered a unique event in the history of the universe. The universe is yast. Pa
the earth itself is almost only
a speck. The universe is very old almost 20 billion years old. Huge
comprise the universe. Galaxies contain stars and clouds of gas and dust. Considering the size of the Reclulasttievresly sgalpeaakiisg,
of
indeed a speck. universe, earta is
The Big Bang theory
The Big Bang theory attempts to explain to us the origin of the universe.
Explosive Origin:
U The universe commenced with a singular, immense explosion, defying
comprehension in physical terms.
O The subsequent expansion led to a decrease in
temperature.
Gas Formation and Galaxy Creation:
O Hydrogen and helium formed in the aftermath.
O Gravitational forces condensed these gases, giving rise to the galaxies constituting today's universe.
Earth's Formation (4.5 billion years ago):
O Within the Milky Way galaxy's solar system, Earth took shape approximately 4.5 billion years ago.
Early Earth Conditions:
O Initial Earth lacked an atmosphere.
O The surface wascovered by water vapor, methane, carbon dioxide, and ammoniareleased from a molten mass.
200 Class-X BIOLOGY