Kwame Nkrumah University of

Science & Technology, Kumasi, Ghana

EE 366
POWER ELECTRONICS
Dr Francis Boafo Effah
Dept. of Electrical/Electronic Engineering
Faculty of Electrical & Computer Eng.
College of Engineering

1
Unit 2
Power Semiconductor
Devices
requirements, characteristics and
application

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Power Semiconductor Devices (1)
v Devices similar to the ones you already have
heard of (MOSFET, BJT, Diodes etc.) are used –
but they are often much bigger – called “Power
Devices.”
v In many electronic circuits (e.g. amplifiers),
devices are biased so that they operate in their
linear region – not good for power electronics –
too much heat is generated in the device.
v In power electronics, devices are either OFF (no
base or gate drive) or ON (sufficient base or
gate drive to “saturate” the device)

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 Power Semiconductor Devices (2)
v There are three basic classes of switching devices:
§ Controlled devices (“transistors” of various kinds) –
ON/OFF can be controlled by a gate or base
terminal
§ Uncontrolled devices (Diodes) – external circuit
conditions determine ON/OFF
§ Latching devices (Thyristors and Triacs) – special
devices with ON control via a gate, but OFF
determined by external circuit conditions

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Requirements

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Power Semiconductor Devices (3)
Power Electronic Conversion

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Power Semiconductor Devices (4)
Ideal switches in Power Electronic Conversion

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Power Semiconductor Devices (5)
Conductive properties of materials

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Application

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Power Semiconductor Devices (6)

This is snapshot for a few years ago – boundaries are continually changing
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 Power Semiconductor Devices (7)
Most relevant ratings
Voltage rating: withstand reverse bias without
failure and with negligible leakage current (è
off-state power losses)
Current rating: handle required current levels
with good performance in terms of efficiency
and switching speed
Temperature rating: ensure desired
performance, prevent catastrophic failure,
lifetime
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 Power Semiconductor Devices (8)
Most relevant characteristics
Controllability: low-power control of transitions
from ON to OFF and vice versa; low-power
control of both ON and OFF states

Switching speed: fast, low-dissipation

achievement of final states (either ON or OFF)

Power dissipation: device/system efficiency,

thermal management (system size, weight, cost),
reliability
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Device types and
characteristics

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Power Semiconductor Devices (9)
Basic components

Power electronic devices are typically vertical, i.e. their

power terminals are located on the top and bottom
surfaces of the Si chip, respectively.
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Power Semiconductor Devices (10)
Current transport mechanisms
Drift: current density proportional to the
gradient of the electric potential
(electric field)

Drift currents:

- associated with power losses and heat generation

(èlimits in ON-state performance)

+ can be initiated/terminated virtually instantaneously

(è fast, relatively low dissipative switching transitions)
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Power Semiconductor Devices (11)
Properties

Diffusion: current density proportional to

the gradient of charge carrier density

Diffusion currents:

+ virtually non-dissipative
(èenhanced ON-state performance)

- Require non-instantaneous charge accumulation/extraction

(è limited switching performances)
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Power Semiconductor Devices (12)
Devices and applications
Both current conduction mechanisms can be combined
and used within a single device

One of the two components can be made dominant to

achieve specific target characteristics

Current conduction mechanism is related to

controllability of device switching: driving
requirements/characteristics are also an important
performance indicator
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Driver function and types

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Power Semiconductor Devices (13)
Closed-loop converter operation

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Power Semiconductor Devices (14)
Driver types
Gate-drivers:
Ø Need to deliver current pulses to charge/discharge
device input capacitance during switching.

Ø Fast and low-dissipative

Base-drivers:
Ø Need to supply current during switching and
conduction.

Ø Relatively slow and dissipative

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Power Semiconductor Devices (15)
Driving mechanisms
Gate-drive: Metal-Oxide-
Semiconductor (MOS) capacitive
control terminal; device is
voltage-driven
Creation of conductive channel

Base-drive: charge-injection
control terminal; device is
current driven

Creation of charge gradient

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 Power Semiconductor Devices (16)

Typical gate-drive circuit for controlling semiconductor switches

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 Diodes (1)
ü Two terminal devices (Anode and Cathode)
ü All voltage ranges (from 1 V to 6.5 kV)
ü Diffusion-current based
ü Unidirectional current flow

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 Diodes (2)
Diode equivalent on-state model

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 Diodes (3)
Diode switching performance

Real diodes
characterised by reverse-
recovery currents and
switching delays due to
charge extraction

Schottky diodes are

used for improved
switching (but poorer
on-state performance)
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Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) (1)
ü Three terminal device (Collector-Base-Emitter)
ü Diffusion-current based
ü Current controlled (base is control terminal)
ü Unidirectional current flow

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Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) (2)
Ratio between 𝐼! and 𝐼" is the current gain. Power BJTs
typically have poor current-gains, i.e. their driving can
be very dissipative and limited in practical frequency.
They also suffer from current tails at turn-off, which limits
their switching speed/frequency. Presently confined to
niche applications. Used frequently in gate-driver
design.

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MOS Field-Effect Transistor (MOSFET) (1)
ü Three terminal device (Drain-Gate-Source)
ü Drift-current based
ü Voltage controlled with minimum threshold
ü Bi-directional current flow between drain and source
ü Contains intrinsic (body) diode between source and drain

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MOS Field-Effect Transistor (MOSFET) (2)
MOSFET equivalent on-state model

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MOS Field-Effect Transistor (MOSFET) (3)
Dominating in the low-power range (<600V). Low-
dissipative drive, but requires fast/high current peaks.
Ideal for parallel operation (on-state performance similar
to a resistor). Limited in voltage scalability due to 𝑅#$,&'
(typically scales with 2.5 power of voltage rating).
Intrinsic body-diode simplifies design of a number of
power converter topologies.

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Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT) (1)
ü Three terminal device (Collector-Gate-Emitter)
ü Uses both drift and diffusion current components (very
high current density and versatile design)
ü Voltage controlled (Gate)
ü Unidirectional current flow

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Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT) (2)
Combines the positive features of BJT (low on-state
voltage) and MOSFET (low-dissipation driving).
One of the most flexible devices from a design point of
view (design can be optimised/tailored for many
different application requirements). Dominates the
voltage range 1 – 6.5 kV.
Limited in switching speed (also affected by the current
tail at turn-off).

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 Other device types and developments
Ø Thyristor/Gate Turn-Off Thyristor (GTO)
Ø IGCT (Integrated Gate Commutated Thyristor)

The replacement of Silicon with so-called wide-

band-gap (WBG) materials, such as Silicon-Carbide
(SiC) and Gallium-Nitride (GaN), is extending the
application range of consolidated device types
opening up new scenarios.

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Typical key parameters range

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Power losses

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Introduction/recap

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Power Semiconductor Devices
Ideal switches in Power Electronics

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 Power Semiconductor Devices
Real switches
Affected by power losses during operation:

Ø ON-state (conduction)

Ø Switching

Ø OFF-state (blocking)

Conjunct device design optimisation for all states is

very challenging!!!

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 Power Semiconductor Devices
Real switches
i

v
t

t ON T tOFF

p = vi

Waveforms of voltage, current, and power loss in a semiconductor power switch

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 Power Semiconductor Devices
Implication of power dissipation - I
Ø waste of energy (environmental impact; reduction of
operational time of battery-powered systems; higher costs)
Example: Solution:
The average power consumption
of a mobile phone is 0.5 W. Efficiency =
𝑃!"# ⁄𝑃$% = 𝑃&'!%( ⁄𝑃)*##(+,
The phone is powered by a
battery with a 6.11 Wh rating via a a) 𝑃)*##(+, =0.5W/0.8= 0.625W;
DC-DC converter. b) 𝑃)*##(+, =0.5W/0.9= 0.55W.

How long can the phone be So, the operation time is:
operated (in between recharges)
if the converter efficiency is: a) 𝑡!& =6.11/0.625=9.8 h;
a) 80 %; b) 90 % b) 𝑡!& =6.11/0.55= 11.1 h.
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 Power Semiconductor Devices
Implication of power dissipation - II
Ø Generation of heat (requires additional thermal
management components; negatively affects device
performance; key factor in component/system
degradation and failure)

Thermal management
issues significantly
affect a typical power
supply’s complexity,
size and cost!

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Calculation of power losses

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 Power Semiconductor Devices
Power loss calculation
General equation:

1⁄𝑇 = 𝑓(
𝑽𝑨𝑩 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 + ,
𝑃 = 𝑉)* $ ∫-
𝐼) 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑉)* $ 𝐼),)/0
,
Special cases:
! " % 𝑑𝑡
𝑃=𝑅$ ∫ 𝐼$ = 𝑅 $ (𝐼$, ()* )%
" #
𝑽𝑨𝑩 = 𝑰𝑨 * 𝑹
! " % 𝑑𝑡
with 𝐼$, ()* = ∫ 𝐼
" # $

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 Power Semiconductor Devices
On-state power losses
Diode:
𝑃23 = 𝑉456 $ 𝐼456,)/0 + 𝑅7 $ (𝐼456,897 ):
with 𝑅# often negligible

MOSFET:

𝑃23 = 𝑅67,23 $ (𝐼6,897 ):

with 𝑅$#,&' typically dependent on temperature and current

BJT/IGBT:

𝑃23 = 𝑉;< $ 𝐼;, )/0

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 Power Semiconductor Devices
Common functions AVG and RMS values
'()
𝐼!, $%& =
b *

a 𝐼!,+,- =
(' !() !('))
0

'()
𝐼1, $%& = +𝐷
*

2
𝐼1,+,- = + (𝑎* + 𝑏 * + 𝑎𝑏)
0

'()
𝐼2, $%& = + (1 − 𝐷)
*

(342)
𝐼2,+,- = + (𝑎* + 𝑏 * + 𝑎𝑏)
0

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 Power Semiconductor Devices
Switching losses
Representative commutation cells:
Forward type Forward type Fly-back type
(step down) (step-up) (step up or down)

The cell includes a transistor and diode;

Switching transition short compared to characteristic period;
𝐼/ assumed constant during the switching transition!
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Power Semiconductor Devices
Switching transitions: turn-on (of Q)

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Power Semiconductor Devices
Switching transitions: turn-on (of Q)

Diode:

𝑃>277 = 0

Transistor:

𝑃4&$$ = 𝑉5 * 𝐼5,678
= 0.5 * 𝑉5 * 𝐼4 * 𝑡9:,&' * 𝑓$
= 𝐸$; * 𝑓$

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Power Semiconductor Devices
Switching transitions: turn-off (of Q)

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Power Semiconductor Devices
Switching transitions: turn-off (of Q)
Diode:

𝑃>277 = 0

Transistor:

𝑃4&$$ = 𝑉5 * 𝐼5,678
= 0.5 * 𝑉5 * 𝐼4 * 𝑡9:,&<< * 𝑓$
= 𝐸$; * 𝑓$

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 Power Semiconductor Devices
Off-state power losses
Diode:
𝑃244 = 𝑉8</ $ 𝐼><)?
MOSFET:
𝑃244 = 𝑉8</ $ 𝐼><)?
IGBT:
𝑃244 = 𝑉*>@ $ 𝐼><)?
Typically, both voltage and current values are assumed constant,
with
𝐼4=6> = 𝑓(𝑉:=7⁄"4>, 𝑇)

For most device types, off-state power losses are negligible

compared to conduction and switching losses in most
applications/operational conditions.
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Basics of thermal modeling

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 Power Semiconductor Devices
Heat transport
Conduction: heat propagates through matter
Convection: heat is transferred by the relative
motion of different parts of the system
Radiation: heat is transferred by
electromagnetic waves
Heat is a form of energy. Propagation always
takes place in the direction of decreasing
temperature.
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 Power Semiconductor Devices
Heat radiation
Electromagnetic radiation is emitted by all substances at
temperatures greater than zero due to molecular/atomic
agitation.
Black body: an ideal entity with a continuous emission
spectrum emitting maximum radiant energy (Planck’s
theory)

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 Power Semiconductor Devices
Heat convection
Cold air or liquid flow on a hot body will give rise to heat
exchange by convection.

Natural Forced convection

convection (passive or active cooling)

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 Power Semiconductor Devices
Heat conduction
A diffusion-based mechanism, driven by temperature
gradient

The main mechanism of heat transport in solids

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Power Semiconductor Devices
Cooling assemblies
Thermal management of power devices
needed to ensure target performance and
reliability

Thermal interface material between the

device and heat sink to maximise
conduction between the two

Finned and fanned heat-sink to maximise

convection (increase heat exchange
surface and turbulence of fluid)

Black paint to maximise radiation

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Heat conduction analysis

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Power Semiconductor Devices
The thermal problem
Heat is generated on the
device’s top surface:
power density = heat
generation rate.

3D problem reduced to
essentially 1-D: heat flows in
the vertical direction with a
ca. 45° spread angle

Thermal properties of all

components are assumed
constant (linear problem)

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Power Semiconductor Devices
Packaged device thermal model
𝜌 à material density

cà specific heat

λ0 à thermal conductivity

Thermal resistance 𝑅@A and

capacitance 𝐶12 can be
associated with each
element in the thermal
path.

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 Power Semiconductor Devices
Equivalent thermal model

Power losses are the input

to the thermal network
Straightforward
implementation into standard
circuit simulation tool

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 Power Semiconductor Devices
Coupled electro-thermal model

Device parameters/equations Temperature is circuit

temperature dependent: variable, depending on
performance and efficiency thermal model and power
temperature dependent losses
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Power Semiconductor Devices
Importance of thermal model
Experimental and simulation
results
Test circuit schematic

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Power Semiconductor Devices
Typical problem
Steady-state analysis: thermal network
contains resistors only

𝑃3$44 * 𝑅12 = ∆𝑇

𝑅12,6' à Junction-to-Case

𝑅12,7' à Case-to-Heatsink

𝑅12,'4 à Heatsink-to-Ambient

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Worked Examples

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 Power Semiconductor Devices
Example 1
A switching transistor energises a series R-L load from a
200 V supply. A freewheeling diode is connected across
the load. The transistor switches at 2 kHz with a duty
cycle of 60 %. The load resistance is 20Ω, and the load
inductance is such that the peak-to-peak ripple in the
load current is 2 A. It may be assumed that the load
current rises and falls linearly.
(a) Draw the circuit
(b) Calculate the mean load current and sketch the
load current waveform.

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 Power Semiconductor Devices
Example 1 cont.
The components are now considered in more detail to calculate the
power losses. The transistor turn-on and turn-off times are 10µs and
5µs, respectively. The voltage across the transistor when conducting
(𝑉7( (sat)) is 2 V and may be assumed independent of the current.
When conducting, the diode may be approximated by a threshold
voltage drop of 0.7 V in series with a resistance of 0.1 Ω.
(c) Draw the transistor current waveform
(d) Determine the conduction loss in the transistor
(e) Draw the transistor current and voltage waveforms at turn-on
and turn-off
(f) Calculate the switching loss in the transistor
(g) Draw the diode current waveform
(h) Calculate the conduction loss in the diode

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 Power Semiconductor Devices
Solution
(a)
(b)
200 V
VLOAD
Q ON D ON ON OFF

0.6T 0.4T
T T

R = 20Ω, f = 2 kHz, d = 0.6, ∆𝐼4 = 2A.

S
∆𝐼4 is linear.
𝑉44&6# = 0.6×200 = 120 V
𝑉44&6# = 𝑉44 + 𝑉4: = 𝑉4: = 𝑅𝑖: , because 𝑉44 = 0.
B!
7 CDE
Therefore, 𝑖: = :
= DE
= 6 A.
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 Power Semiconductor Devices
Solution
(b) 𝑖4 looks like

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 Power Semiconductor Devices
Solution
(c)

(d) Conduction loss, 𝑃&' = 𝑉!=($69) * 𝐼5, 678

GHI
𝑃&' = 2× ×0.6 = 7.2W
D

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 Power Semiconductor Devices
Solution
(e)

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 Power Semiconductor Devices
Solution
(f) Energy loss at turn-on
6 6
𝐸45 = 𝑉8 𝑖9(;<) 𝑇;< = ×200×5×10𝜇𝑠 = 5 mJ
7 7

Energy loss at turn-off

1 1
𝐸4== = 𝑉8 𝑖9(;>>) 𝑇;>> = ×200×7×5𝜇𝑠 = 3.5 mJ
2 2

Power loss = Energy x frequency

= (5 + 3.5) 𝑚𝐽 × 2 𝑘𝐻𝑧 = 17 W
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 Power Semiconductor Devices
Solution
(g)

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 Power Semiconductor Devices
Solution
(h) Conduction loss in the diode

Diode “model”

𝑃;< = 𝑉>?@ < 𝐼>?@,BCD + 𝑅E < (𝐼>?@,FGE )7

HIJ
𝐼>?@,BCD = 7
×0.4 = 2.4 A

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 Power Semiconductor Devices
Solution
(h) Conduction loss in the diode

𝑃;< = 𝑉>?@ < 𝐼>?@,BCD + 𝑅E < (𝐼>?@,FGE )7

HIJ
𝐼>?@,BCD = ×0.4 = 2.4 A
7
77 + 57 + 7×5 218
𝐼>?@,FGE 7 = ×0.4 = = 14.533
3 15
Therefore, Power loss = 0.7x2.4 + 14.533x0.1
= 3.133 W

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 Power Semiconductor Devices
Example 2
The transistor and freewheeling diode in Example 1 are
attached to the same heatsink. The thermal resistances
between the device junctions and cases are 1 °C/W (Transistor)
and 6° C/W (Diode). The thermal resistance between the
device case and the heatsink is 1 °C/W for both devices.
Neglecting switching losses in the diode, determine the:
(a) power losses in the transistor and diode,
(b) device with the hottest junction,
(c) heatsink rating (in °C/W), if the junction temperature of
the hottest device is to be limited to 120 °C and the
ambient air temperature is 40 °C,
(d) case temperatures of both devices and the junction
temperature of the cooler device.

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 Power Semiconductor Devices
Solution
The transistor (Q) and diode (D) in Example 1 have the
parameters:
𝜃J! = 1 °𝐶/𝑊 for Q
𝜃J! = 6 °𝐶/𝑊 for D
𝜃!$ = 1 °𝐶/𝑊 for both Q and D

Find 𝜃$ so that hottest junction = 120oC if TAIR = 40oC

Losses from Example 1
QTOTAL = 17 + 7.2 = 24.2 W
DTOTAL = 3.13 W

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 Power Semiconductor Devices
Solution

⇒ TJQ is the hottest

c) ⇒ Set TJQ = 120oC
TSINK = 120 – 48.4 = 71.6oC
IC.MNOE
𝜃$K'> = DO.DHP.CP = 1.16°C/W
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 Power Semiconductor Devices
Solution

d) From the diagram,

TCQ = 71.6 + 24.2x1 = 95.8oC
TCD = 71.6 + 3.13x1 = 74.73oC
TJD = 71.6 + 3.13 x (1+6) = 93.51oC

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End of Unit 2

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