Catanduanes State University

College of Humanities and Social Sciences

BACHELOR OF ARTS IN POLITICAL SCIENCE
Virac, Catanduanes

PS 1:
FUNDAMENTALS OF POLITICAL SCIENCE

SANTOS G. SORRA JR.

Political Science Faculty

College of Humanities and Social Sciences

Department of Social Sciences

PS 1 – Fundamentals of Political Science, Chapter 1 Module 1

CHAPTER 1
The “political” and “science”
in political science

Learning Outcomes:
After studying the module the students are expected to:
1. Define Political Science;
2. Justify that political science is “science” or “not a science”;
3. Justify that political science is a “science” or “not a science”;
4. Explain the scope of political science;
5. Discuss the objectives of political science;
6. Distinguish the methodologies in political science;
7. Analyze the relationship of political science with other studies; and.
8. Describe the tasks of a political thinker.

Lesson 1. Meaning of Political Science

Lesson 2. Political Science as a “Science”
Lesson 3. Scope of Political Science
Lesson 4. Objectives of Political Science
Lesson 5. Methodologies in Political Science
Lesson 6. Relationship of Political Science with other Studies
Lesson 7. Tasks of Political Thinkers
Lesson 8. Careers in Political Science
Lesson 9. History of Political Science in the Philippines

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Lesson 1 – Meaning of Political Science

Defining Political Science is very important for you to be familiar of what it is all about.
In the book of Ayson, Florentino and Reyes (2000) there are two definitions of Political Science such as:
Political scientists define political science as the study of the state in all its elements, aspects and
relationships.
To modern political scientists it is a systematic study of politics. It is not only about the state, its organs and
institutions but also other institutions or polities as well such as political attitudes of people and their leaders,
controversial issues and other aspects concerning the States’ operation, powers and functions.`
According to Laurente, R. (2006, p2) Political Science is the social science that deals with the ways human
beings organize and govern themselves. As a social science it is also concerned chiefly with the description
and analysis of political and governmental institution and processes.
De Leon, (1999) as cited by Laurente, 2006 defines political science as the systematic study of the state and
government.
Political Science is a branch of social science which deals with the study of state and its elements.
(Valenzuela 2012).
As observed the word state is common to all the definitions cited above. In a very simplest term we can
define Political science as the study of state. In the study of state the focus of study is the elements of state

PS 1 – Fundamentals of Political Science, Chapter 1 Module 2

which are the population, territory, government and sovereignty. These elements will be further discussed
in other chapter of the course.

Lesson 2 - Political Science as a “Science”

There are several authors who said that Political Science is a science while other claim that it is not a science.
Science - systematized body of knowledge based on facts, phenomena, laws and proximate causes gained
and verified by exact observation organized, experiment and correct thinking.
Some considered it not a Science because political phenomena are characterized by uncertainty, variables
and lack of order and continuity.
Some considered it as a Science because it represents a mass of knowledge about the phenomena of the
state acquired by systematic observation, experience and study.
Hotzendorff – German writer claimed that it is a science because with the enormous growth of knowledge it
is impossible to deny that the sum total of all the experiences, phenomena, and knowledge respecting the
state maybe brought together, under the collective title of Political Science.

Lesson 3 - Scope of Political Science

The scope of political science focused about the politics in a state or nation and also its relationship of the
people and the state with other states. How the government works for the people is also one of its concerned.
According to (Valenzuela, 1992, p. 4-6) the following are the scope of Political science as a field of study:
1. Comparative Governments and Politics - It is about the comparative analysis of governments and political
movement of states, how the powerful states monopolize and influence the weaker states. Example: In
the United States the form of government is a Federal form while in the Philippines it is a Presidential
form.
2. Gender Politics – It is a study in Political science wherein the issue is who will be the ideal leader a man
or a woman? Who is more inclined to be corrupt a man politician or a woman?
3. Local Government and Administration – It is a study of allocation of governmental powers from national to
local governments. It discusses the relationship of the Central government and local government unit.
Example: centralization and decentralization.
4. Political Institutions – It traces the evolution of state and its elements. For example, Every new
administration in the Philippine government propose the changing of our constitution. Like changes from
Presidential to Parliamentary, from Unitary to Federal.
5. Political Dynamics – elections, elitism, pluralism, behavioralism, women in politics, the role of mass media
and public opinions are considered in the depth-analysis of political phenomena.
6. Political Economy – The study of economics in relation to politics can be a great help to solve problems
in world economy. In time of Covid pandemic all businesses was closed during the lockdown, hence the
government has to do something because prolonging the enhanced community quarantine or ECQ will
bring big problem in the economic life of every individual and the economy of the nation as well. The public
safety was likewise given importance by the government by educating the public to new normal protocols.
(example: wearing of mask, social distancing, washing hands or sanitizing).
7. Political Theories – Example of theories used in Political science are: Aristotle’s idea that man by nature
is a political animal. John Locke also believed that man is a rational being and needed a state for their
everyday living such as peace and order, essential services and to settle their conflicts. (Ayson and
Reyes, 2000)

PS 1 – Fundamentals of Political Science, Chapter 1 Module 3

8. Legal Philosophy – law focuses on divine, natural and positive laws while Political Science has many
aspects considering its scope is broader that law.
9. International Relations and Diplomacy – study of political science focused also on the state and the
relationship of a state with another state. The Philippine government have ambassadors in other state to
help in maintaining the good relationship with other states. It also protect the Philippine Overseas Workers
employed in the different states of the world.
10. Political Science and Research – Political analyst usually used pure research and applied research, and
expository method of research.

Lesson 4 - Objectives of Political Science

The following are the objectives of Political Science Courses:
1. The prime objective of the study of Political Science is education of citizens, equipping them to charge the
obligations of democratic citizenship.

a. Political Science equips them with knowledge about their rights, duties and obligations in a democratic
milieu.
Intelligent and responsible citizenship makes a democratic nation strong and stable.
Ignorance of the civic rights, duties and obligations weakens the national foundation and causes
it collapse.
b. The study of political science gives the students the civic skills and humane ideals requisite for
responsible participation in the political and social life of a democracy.
Students of political science will exercise their rights of suffrage effectively by voting wisely during
election. Political Science makes the student informed about political concepts, institutions, and
practices and leads him towards his development for civic efficiency.

2. Knowledge of political science prepares students for career in law, foreign service, public administration,
politics, teaching, economics etc.

Political science is one of the preparatory course in law. With the implementation of the K-12 program
they can also teach in senior high school. They can also teach in college if they will continue studying
Master in Political Science. They can be a future public administrator, a politician, a policeman, etc.

3. The study of political science seeks to gather knowledge and understanding of government, how it
operates, the conduct of elections, who are his representatives, etc.

The different forms of government, organizational structure and functions of government,

qualification of voters and dates of election, qualification and functions of members of congress, the
qualifications of the president are only a few of the knowledge that political science students will
learn.

4. It also enables every Filipino to discharge and exercise more intelligently and more efficient to his duties
as a citizen.

The duties and obligations as member of the society and rights as a citizen are being discussed in
Political Science.

5. Knowledge of Political Science, local and comparative with other states, constitutes particularly useful
equipment for the Filipinos who desire to participate effectively and usefully in our political growth and
development.

PS 1 – Fundamentals of Political Science, Chapter 1 Module 4

 Studying the advantages and disadvantages of the different form of government will give insights to
the students on how to vote during referendum in case that the present government will be changed
to other form of government. Example in the Philippines, changing the government from Presidential
to Parliamentary or from Unitary to Federal system.

Lesson 5 -. Methodologies in Political Science

The following are the methods used by political scientist in the study of political institutions and
situations (Zulueta, 2003, p. 4-7).
1. Philosophical Method. During the times of Plato and Aristotle, Greek philosophers, both philosophized
about government and man’s political activities. Since then, political scientist have expounded and
analysed political theories of what the government ought to be and how it ought to function. Plato, in his
famous book “The Republic,” believed that man is a rational being and needed a state for their everyday
living such as peace and order, essential services and to settle their conflicts. (Ayson and Reyes, 2000)
2. Historical Method. The historical method seems to be the most popular of all the methods employed in
studying political science. This method looks into the political institutions which thrived in the past eras
and appraises the political growth and development brought about by the tides of time. Using these as
frame of reference, political analysts may be able to make certain inferences for future plans of action.
3. Experimental Method. This method seeks to discover, by a series of experiments, certain general truths
on political problems relating to rule of action or political machinery that is best adapted to or workable
under certain conditions. There have been a lot of political experimentations in all governments. The
process of government is in fact a series of experiments.
Policies in the government continuously changed. Many parents, politicians, teachers and citizens are
against the implementation of the K to 12 program and yet the Philippine government push through its
implementation. It was implemented by the government because they want to be in accord with the
curriculum in Asian countries. There are problems during the initial implementation but everything goes
smoothly because the government tried to resolve the problem along the way of the implementation.
4. Observation Method. This method deals with the study of political institutions by observing their actual
performance. High government officials are sent to other countries to observe the operations of their
government. Observation as a method is gaining popularity among political scientist because the actual
working of the government and the political institutions are seen and felt in the outside world of political
life.
5. Psychological Method. This method attempts to explain political phenomenon by means of psychological
laws. Psychology has been rendering invaluable aid to the government in the management of the affairs
of the state.
Psychological method was often used by politicians especially during election. In their political platform
usually the target are the poor people. They used this propaganda because many of the voters are
coming from the poor class. Example: Erap para sa Mahirap, para sa mga nasa laylayan, etc.
6. Sociological and Biological Methods. These methods regard the state like a dynamic organism whose
component parts and the focal interest are the individuals. They seek to explain the growth and
development of the state in the premise of the evolutionary method.
This methods can be attributed to the leadership of families in the politics of the Philippines and may
also the reason why political dynasty is existing in our country. It can be observed in the Philippine politics
that a set of officials is just coming from one clan. Example of political families in the history of
Catanduanes are the Albertos, Verceles, and Joson.
A few of the prominent politician today who are presently in power and their political career started
because their families are inclined in politics are the families of Escudero, Salceda, Abalos, Fuentebella,

PS 1 – Fundamentals of Political Science, Chapter 1 Module 5

 Villafuerte, Arroyo, Binay, Marcos, Belmonte, Macapagal, Revilla, Sotto, Cojuangco, and Zubiri. They
remain in power and their political career was influenced by the senior members of the clan.
7. Juridical Method. A state without laws will be in chaos. People will not be free from exercising their
freedom because there will be no entity that will settle what is right and wrong. The rights of every citizen
can only be protected if there will be a legal entity who will protect them. Juridical method are used in
resolving conflicts in politics.
8. Analytical Method. This method deals with the way the political scientists analyze different political
institutions and their programs. It dissects a political entity by making a detailed study of each part to
show their interrelation. Example in the study of the Philippine government it can be divided into the
different branches of the government - the legislative, executive, and judicial branches; Constitutional
Commission - the Commission on Audit, Commission on Audit and the Civil Service Commission; the
local government units - the cities, provinces, municipalities and barangays.
9. Behavioral Method – This method seeks to study the political behaviour of the people, public officials and
candidates for government positions. The political scientist analyzes the behaviour of the people under
certain conditions especially during public hearings, social, movements, and election campaigns so that
he can devise certain mechanisms to forecast political trends.
During the 2016 presidential election the people of the Philippines was attracted to the slogan of the
present president Rodrigo Roa Duterte who was then the incumbent mayor of Davao City. His slogan
are “Tapang at Malasakit”, “Matapang na Solusyon” and “Mabilis na Aksyon”. Among the cases that they
featured in the political advertisement that remained in the mind of the electorates are the drug problem
in the Philippines and the tanim bala at the Ninoy Aquino International Airport (NAIA). This political Ad
made president Duterte very popular to the masses because they want immediate action and change in
the Philippine politics. By that time the people are already upset on how the government resolved
problems of the society, thus President Duterte won in the 2016 election.
10. Mathematical Method. Statistics is very important in the study of political science. Numbers can provide
as reference in the decision of government officials. For instance, numbers of positive patient becomes
the basis of the decision of government officials in the problem brought about by the COVID 19 pandemic.
The declaration of the enhanced community quarantine in Luzon last March 16, 2020 was based on the
positive cases of COVID 19 in the Philippines. Later, other parts of the countries was declared to be
under the Modified Enhanced Community Quarantine (EMECQ) considered as high-risk areas, General
Community Quarantine (GCQ) they are places considered as moderate-risk, and Modified General
Community Quarantine (MGCQ) areas that are low-risk. The basis for the classification of such areas
are the number of COVID 19 cases in every areas or provinces.
Republic Act No. 11469 or the “Bayanihan to Heal as One Act” was approved by President Rodrigo
Duterte in order to address the problem related to COVID 19 pandemic of which the numbers count most
in every detailed policies. Example, number of positive cases, number of people who will be given relief
goods and qualified for cash assistance, the hospital beds, the benefits that can be given to the fatalities
especially the frontliners etc.

Lesson 6 - Relationship of Political Science with other Studies

Political Science in related to the following branches of learning:
1. History – The bond between the political scientist and the historian is obvious in the observation that
“history is past politics and politics present history.” The political scientist frequently adopts a “historical
approach” and employs knowledge of the past when he seeks to interpret present and probable
developments in political phenomena.
One aspects that evolves in the history of the Philippine is the attempts of government officials especially
the members of executive and legislative department is to change the Philippine government.

PS 1 – Fundamentals of Political Science, Chapter 1 Module 6

 In the 1935 constitution considered to be the longest constitution in the Philippines the form of
government is Presidential. In 1972 it was changed to Parliamentary form of government under former
president Ferdinand E. Marcos. After the EDSA people power 1 former president Corazon C. Aquino,
the widow of Ninoy Aquino was installed as a de facto president of the Republic of the Philippines. De
facto in the sense that her installation is not in accordance with the 1972 Constitution. In 1987 the Filipino
people approved through a plebiscite on February 2, 1987 the new Constitution of the Philippines
adopting a Presidential form of government. After six years members of the legislative department
planned to change the Philippine Constitution with a new government which is a Parliamentary form of
government. Such attempts did not prosper until the presidency of Benigno Aquino III . When President
Rodrigo Roa Duterte becomes the president, his allies wanted to change the Philippine Government from
Unitary to Federal system.
The above situation describe that history will always be related to Political Science. This is because
history may serve as a guide to government officials in making decisions in the present situation of the
country. Just like in the leadership of Corazon Aquino, they prefer to go back to the Presidential form of
government in order to avoid dictatorship as what happened during the time of Marcos. In the 1987
constitution it was emphasized that the President shall only serve for six years and cannot be re-elected
and anyone who succeeded him shall only serve for his unexpired term if the services was rendered four
or more years.
2. Economics – the study of production, distribution, and conservation, and consumption of wealth were
coupled under the name of political economy. Today these fields are jointly concern with the fact that
economic conditions affect the organization development, activities of the states, which in turn modify or
even prescribe economic conditions. The political scientist regularly adopts an “economic approach”
when seeking to interpret such matters as “public financial policies” and government regulations of
business.

In the mid of the COVID 19 pandemic the government gives authority to open the businesses and
industries in the provinces or areas under GCQ and MGCQ. The public is still warned to wear mask,
sanitize and observe social distancing. The government decided to open the business and industries in
order to help the economy and at the same time to allow the people to work because many families will
suffer and business or industries will be closed.

3. Geography – Geopolitics (a science concerned with the study of the influences of physical factors such
as population pressures, sources of raw materials, geography etc. upon domestic and foreign politics)
indicates on approach which a political scientist frequently must adopt to help explain such phenomena
as the early growth of democracy.

The Philippines is composed of 5,107 islands situated at the confluence of the South China Sea, the
Indonesian archipelago, the Philippine Sea and Pacific Ocean. It forms the outer edge of maritime
Southeast Asia, and for much of its modern history has served as a gateway between western powers
and continental Asia. A former colony of both Spain and the United States, the Philippines today consists
of three island clusters: Luzon, Visayas and Mindanao. Luzon, with the country’s capital in Manila, is the
political, cultural and economic core of modern Philippines. It is highly urbanized relative to the rest of
the country, boasts a large port and deep harbor, and accounts for roughly one-third of the Philippines
GDP. Mindanao has long been a hotbed for political unrest and insurgent movements and is populated
by the predominantly Muslim Moro tribes. It is also an important fruit and produce exporter. The
Philippines is shaped by sharp geographic, economic and social divisions between a primarily urban
north — in Luzon — and a heavily agricultural, poorer south. This, along with the fractured island
geography, makes effective national integration difficult. (https://worldview.stratfor.com/region/asia-
pacific/philippines)

4. Sociology – the study of society as a whole. A social science course that enriches political science by its
contributions to the study of social problems, juvenile delinquency, housing problems, etc. are data
available to the political scientists to evaluate, and which may be later become interesting and basic
subjects of legislations.

PS 1 – Fundamentals of Political Science, Chapter 1 Module 7

 The problems in society will likewise be the problems of the government. The government introduces
programs to solve social problems, juvenile delinquency, housing problems, etc. by promulgating and
implementing laws.
The following are some of the programs of the government to alleviate poverty in the Philippines:
1. Four Ps or the Pantawid Pamilyang Pilipino Program (4Ps)
2. Free tertiary education
3. Housing Materials Assistance (HOMA) Program
4. Comprehensive Health Care Program
5. K to 12 Basic Education

5. Psychology – Psychology is the foundations of Political Science. Many political thinkers such as Thomas
Hobbes to Jeremy Bentham tried to evolve a whole science of politics based on psychology. The study
of political behavior is a good example of how these men used psychology in their theories about politics.

Jeremy Bentham – father of utilitarianism in 10th century England, formulated in theory of political
behavior on the fundamental reality that men act always in pursuit of their self-interest.
Thomas Aquinas and Thomas Hobbes – expounded their theories of morale and politics on a solid
foundation of reality by recognizing the fact that man’s instinctive desire is to preserve himself.
During election period political parties have their own platform of government. Most of their platform is
to serve the people especially the poor. Their political slogan also aims to improve the life of the Filipino
people specially the poor.
Examples of Political Slogan:
Erap Para sa Mahirap by Joseph Ejercito Estrada, Kung walang corrupt, walang mahirap, Benigno C.
Aquino, Jr. ; Tapang at Malasakit, Rodrigo R. Duterte, Para sa mga nasa Laylayan, Leni Robredo; and
Gaganda ang Buhay kay Binay.
As observed the poor are given attention because they know that these people always hope that their
life will improve with the help of the government.
6. Anthropology – students of politics are benefited by the anthropological theory of the state.
Anthropologists believe that the state evolved from the family, and from the clan into bigger or more
extensive groupings (i.e. the tribe and finally the nation, bound by common ties and goals.
Aristotle writes that man is by nature a political animal, the anthropologist helps the students of
political science to understand this it means that man is a rational, civilized and cultural being.
The clans are important aspect in the eye of the politician during election campaign in the Philippines.
These clans usually hold reunions and the political candidate are being invited and presented during
the reunion. Clans are also considered in choosing a ward leader during election campaign especially
in provinces.

7. Philosophy - Political theories about the origin of the state, individualism, democracy, communism, the
separation of governmental powers, and others are but a few examples of the personal philosophies of
those who advocated them.

Every Philippine President have its own political philosophy in terms of the forms of government. Example
of this is during the time of Ferdinand E. Marcos he prefer the Democratic-Parliamentary form of
government; Corazon C. Aquino administration choose to have Democratic-Presidential; while Rodrigo R.
Duterte administration prefer to change the Unitary type of government to Federal.

8. Statistics and Logic – political theorists must possess a broad scientific background and knowledge of
current political problems and he must employ scientific methods in gathering and evaluating data and in
drawing conclusions.

PS 1 – Fundamentals of Political Science, Chapter 1 Module 8

 In this time of Covid 19 pandemic statistics and logic is very crucial in the decision making of the
government. The higher the number of positive patients the higher are the needs of the government to
attend to in terms of the number of the following:

1. Health workers/frontliners;
2. hospital beds;
3. personal protective equipment;
4. medical supplies;
5. ventilators;
6. quarantine facilities;
7. testing centers, testing kits;
8. cash/good assistance;
9. assistance to the unemployed; and etc.

9. Jurisprudence – branch of public law is concerned with the analysis of existing legal systems and also
with the ethical, historical, sociological and psychological foundations of law. Law and state are
inseparable. All states proclaim laws, effective within their jurisdiction, and enforce them through a
system of penalties.

In the Philippines, the legislative, executive and judicial department are separated. They are independent
but coordinate with each other. The legislative department promulgate the laws, the executive
department execute the laws while the judicial department interpret the law. The judicial department
checks whether the laws promulgated by congress is within the bound of the Constitution of the
Philippines and see to it that the laws are implemented by the executive department.

Lesson 7 – Task of Political Thinkers

The following are the task of political thinkers:
1. According to Agpalo (1998: p. 36), as cited by Valenzuela, (2012: p. 7) the professional political scientists
must have a doctoral degree in order to give a creditable work especially in political research, others
with bachelor’s degree and with master’s degree (especially in line with their specialization to teach in
private colleges and universities.
2. Book writing about political science;
3. Work as lawyers and diplomat in other countries; and
4. Conduct Political research (quantitative and qualitative) which requires reading, writing questionnaires in
order to measure the variables with the help of the respondents. The political thinkers analyses and
interprets the data gathered.

Lesson 8 – Careers in Political Science

Graduates of political science:
1. Proceed to Legal studies such as Bachelor of Laws or taking up Legal Management.
2. Those who are teaching in tertiary education proceed to Masteral studies and Doctorate degree.
3. Can be a professional writer in political science, politician, administrator, speaker, professional lecturer,
political adviser and political scientist.

PS 1 – Fundamentals of Political Science, Chapter 1 Module 9

Lesson 9 - History of Political Science in the Philippines
Political science started in the Philippines during the time of Jose Rizal when he became a propagandist
through his writings in La Solidaridad and his two novels Noli Me Tangere and El Filibusterismo. His two
novels attacked the wrong doings of the friars since that time the state and the church is not separated.
Other propagandist against the Spanish government are Marcelo H. del Pilar a lawyer and recognized
political scientist and Graciano Lopez Jaena, an orator.
The University of the Philippines was the first school who offered political science as a field of discipline in
1915 under the College of Liberal Arts with George A. Malcolm, an American as the first appointed Dean.
(Agpalo:1998, p.4) as cited by (Valenzuela: 2016, p. 8).
Other colleges like Far Eastern University and University of Santo Tomas started to offer Political Science
with a separate department of political Science. At present more than 100 tertiary schools offering the
program all over the country.
The Commission on Higher Education issued CHED Memorandum No. 51, series of 2017 entitled “Policies,
Standards and Guidelines (PSGs) for the BA Political Science (BA PoS) Program”. Such policies took effect
last academic year 2018-2019. The CMO served as the guide and standard for the establishment,
transformation of the current Bachelor of Arts in Political Science (BA Pos) curriculum towards a learner- or
a student centered approach. All private Higher Education Institutions (HEIs), State Universities and
Colleges (SUCs) and Local Universities and Colleges (LUCs) with existing authorization to operate Bachelor
of Arts in Political Science programs are given three years to comply with the provision of the said CHED
Memorandum.

References
Ayson, Florentino G. and Reyes, Dolores A. 2000. Fundamentals of Political Science, Second
Edition.Mandaluyong City: National Book Store.

Valenzuela, Edwin E. 2012 . Understanding Basic Concepts in Political Science. Intramuros, Manila: Purely
Books Tradining and Pulblishing Corpo.

Valenzuela, Edwin E. 2016. Understanding Basic Concepts in Political Science. 2nd Edition . Intramuros,
Manila: Purely Books Tradining and Pulblishing Corporation.

Laurente, Reynold R. 2006. Essentials of Political Science 2. Manila: Philippines, Rex Book Store.
https://worldview.stratfor.com/region/asia-pacific/philippines
Zueleta, Francisco M. 2003. Foundations and Dynamics of Political Science. Mandaluyong City,
Philippines: Academic Publishing Corporation.

PS 1 – Fundamentals of Political Science, Chapter 1 Module 10

Chapter 2
Concepts in Political Science

Learning Outcomes:
After studying the module the students are expected to:
1. Distinguish power from authority
2. Critique the three types of authority
3. Distinguish state and nation
4. Classify the different types of states
5. Discuss the purposes of state
6. Make a chart showing the functions and obligations of the state
7. Classify the different theories of state
8. Trace the evolution of modern states
9. Analyze the different essential elements of state

Lesson 1: Power and Authority

Lesson 2: Nation-State
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Lesson 1 – Power and Authority

The Meaning of Power and Authority

Authority derives from the Latin word auctoritas and is a concept used to indicate the
foundational right to exercise power, which can be formalized by the State and exercised by way of judges,
monarchs, rulers, police officers or other appointed executives of government, or the ecclesiastical or
priestly appointed representatives of a higher spiritual power (God or other deities). The term authority can
also be used to indicate an academic knowledge of an area (as in an authority on a subject), or to refer to
an original or natural obligation (as in the authority of a father).

In government, the term authority is often used interchangeably with power. However, their
meanings differ: while power is defined as "the ability to influence somebody to do something that he/she
would not have done", authority refers to a claim of legitimacy, the justification and right to exercise that
power.

Authority is legal and formal right to a person, who can take decisions, give orders and commands to
others to perform a particular task. It is conferred to high officials, to accomplish organization’s objectives. It
is hierarchical in nature, it flows downward, i.e. delegated from superior to the subordinate.

In general, authority is exercised to get things done through others. It is attached to the position, i.e.
any person who gets the position enjoys the authority attached to it, the higher the position, the higher would
be his authority. As the authority lies in the designation, in the absence of authority, the position offered to
the person would be of no use. Moreover, it is restricted to the organisation only.

The Difference between Power and Authority

The difference between power and authority can be drawn clearly on the following grounds:

1. Power is defined as the ability or potential of an individual to influence others and control their actions.
Authority is the legal and formal right to give orders and commands, and take decisions.

PS 1 – Fundamentals of Political Science, Chapter 1 Module 11

2. Power is a personal trait, i.e. an acquired ability, whereas authority is a formal right that vest in the
hands of high officials or management personnel.
3. The major source of power is knowledge and expertise. On the other hand, position and office determine
the authority of a person.
4. Power flows in any direction, i.e. it can be upward, downward, crosswise or diagonal, lateral. As
opposed to authority, that flows only in one direction, i.e. downward (from superior to subordinate).
5. The power lies in person, in essence, a person acquires it, but authority lies in the designation, i.e.
whoever get the designation, get the authority attached to it.
6. Authority is legitimate whereas the power is not.

The Three Types of Authority

The sociologist and philosopher Max Weber distinguishes three types of authority—charismatic, traditional
and legal-rational—each of which corresponds to a brand of leadership that is operative in contemporary
society. Jeffry Ocay, a scholar in critical theory, explains that the achievement of a particular form of political
order in any democracy depends on prevailing conditions “in which different forms of society cohere” and
different ways “in which consensus is achieved.”

1. Charismatic authority points to an individual who possesses certain traits that make a leader extraordinary.
This type of leader is not only capable of but actually possesses the superior power of charisma to rally
diverse and conflict-prone people behind him. His power comes from the massive trust and almost
unbreakable faith people put in him.

2. Traditional authority indicates the presence of a dominant personality. This leader is someone who
depends on established tradition or order. While this leader is also a dominant personality, the prevailing
order in society gives him the mandate to rule. This type of leadership, however, is reflective of everyday
routine and conduct.

3. Legal-rational authority is one that is grounded in clearly defined laws. The obedience of people is not
based on the capacity of any leader but on the legitimacy and competence that procedures and laws
bestow upon persons in authority. Contemporary society depends on this type of rationalization, as the
complexities of its problems require the emergence of a bureaucracy that embodies order and
systematization.

All three forms exhibit a specific weakness or problem

1. Charismatic leadership can be problematic because it is somehow based on some form of a messianic
promise of overhauling an unjust system. It is not impossible, however, to find such type of a leader, as
history would show. Consider Mahatma Gandhi, Martin Luther King Jr., or Nelson Mandela. A charismatic
leader holds the mission to unite his people amid adversity and differences in order to attain an almost
insurmountable goal.

2. Traditional authority poses its particular difficulty insofar as it is based on some kind of a dominant power.
For Weber, all authority exhibits some form of domination. A traditional leader may rely on or even exploit
prevailing practices. Traditional authority may suffer from a lack of moral regularity in the creation of legal
standards.

3. Legal-rational authority makes manifest the power of the bureaucracy over the individual. In the exercise
of authority, the administration of power, laws and rules, including institutional duties and protocols, have
control over individuals. While order and systematization are desirable, the bureaucracy may not be able
to fully address the problems and concerns of everyone, as what the development of nation-states today
suggests.

PS 1 – Fundamentals of Political Science, Chapter 1 Module 12

 Modern societies rely on legal-rational authority in terms of finding a common ground in which
consensus may be achieved. But consensus on the basis of agreements often lacks flexibility, which may
embody the dominance of a bureaucratic mentality of which government service is sometimes accused.

Weber’s analysis of modern societies also points to the idea that capitalist states do give rise to
bureaucratic authority. Instrumental reason, grounded in the “means to an end” discourse, can be found
in the exercise of authority on the basis of laws, rules and procedures that govern citizens. For Weber,
legal-rational authority has been successful in Protestant countries because Protestantism fills the bill in
terms of responsible capitalism. The basic point is that Protestant ethics emphasizes hard work and
individual responsibility, which are both necessary in order to maintain and pursue the ends of capitalism.

As a people, Filipinos not only need to have the knowledge about the character traits of the leaders
we so desire. More importantly, we have the moral duty to understand collectively the basic requirements
that confer legitimacy on the mandate of government officials in whom we entrust the future of this nation.
Democracy is about how and why power must be reconfigured so that it emanates from the center in
order to capacitate the peripheries. But democratic change cannot be achieved simply by means of
rewriting our laws. An ideal discourse situation in the grassroots must be present.

The Philippines has always been a difficult case. Right now, what the country needs is a unifying
leader who must exhibit both political will and charisma, one who can bring about social and political
cohesion in the pursuit of public interest. Given the problems that we have, becoming the country’s leader
should be an unenviable position. But we have to make the right choice. The continuing saga that is
Philippine democracy is not wanting in terms of potential heroes and villains.

Leadership Power
Everyone leads differently, but all leadership involves authority. Most leaders exhibit the same types of
leadership power.

Each leader usually exhibits at least one of these types of leadership power.

1. Legitimate power is traditional power – it is the type of power a manager, executive, or another leading
official in a company has due to the status of their position.

2. Information power - one gains information power when they know something other people want to know.
This information could be anything from gossip to intricate knowledge about a person or company.

3. Expert power - people who have more knowledge or experience than other members of their team exhibit
expert power. For example, an executive with 20 years of experience in their field has expert power over
a recent college graduate who is just starting their career.

4. Reward power - a leader who has the ability to reward an employee or team member (with money,
praise, etc.) has reward power.

5. Coercive power - is the opposite of reward power; a leader who can punish an employee or team member
has coercive power. Because the threat of punishment can persuade an employee to act a certain way,
this type of leadership power is called “coercive power.”

6. Referent power - is all about “who you know.” A leader with lots of referent power may have many
connections or a large social network they can use to their advantage. Someone with referent power may
also be close to an executive with legitimate power.

7. Charismatic power - charismatic leaders have the ability to influence others. While they may or may not
have an established network of contacts, they usually have a natural ability to persuade or inspire others.

8. Moral power - A leader who has moral power over his or her employees and exhibits ethical leadership has
been placed on a pedestal, so to speak, due to their beliefs and actions. A leader’s good qualities can

PS 1 – Fundamentals of Political Science, Chapter 1 Module 13

 lead to them having moral power over an employee, because the employee may be inspired to replicate
the leader’s actions.

Lesson 2 – Nation-State
State-Nation Defined
State is a group of people, living in a definite territory, having a government of their own and enjoying
independence from other country.
Nation a large body of people united by common descent, history, culture, or language, inhabiting a
particular state or territory.
Nation is a group of people bound together by certain characteristics such as common social origin,
language, customs and traditions and who believe that they are one and distinct from others.

State Distinguished from Nation

1. State is a political concept while nation is an ethnic concept.
State is a political concept, a legal fiction. It has perpetual existence as long as its four elements are
intact.
Nation – is an ethnic or a sociological collectivity of individuals, a sociological collectivity of individuals
who possess in common certain non-political characteristics such as:
a. common racial origin
b. common language
c. common religion
d. common historical experience
e. common cultural and social tradition

There must be among them a common unifying bond that holds them together: emotionally, culturally,
spiritually and socially. They must demonstrate a spirit of national unity.

Even if some of the essential elements of nation may not be present, like absence of common social
origin, religion or culture, are those of a state, like absence of sovereignty or lack of territory provided the
spirit of nationalism is strong among the people, they still constitute a nation although they do not form a
state.
2. State is not subject to external control while a nation may or may not be independent of external control.
3. A single state may consist of one or more nations or people, and conversely, a single nation may be made
up of several states.
A nation may comprise several states. Example: Egypt, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Lebanon, Jordan, Algeria
and Libya, among others, while each is a separate state, all belong to the Arab nation.
On the other hand, it is also possible for a single state to be made up of more than one nation. Example:
United states, which was a melting pot of many nations that were eventually amalgamated into the
“American nation,” or of Malaysia, whose population consists of Malay and Chinese, or of the United
Kingdom, which is composed of England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland.
A state need not be a state at all, as demonstrated by Poles after the dismemberment of their country in
1975 again in World War II or by the Jews before the creation of the State of Israel in 1948. (Cruz, 2002)
as cited by Laurente, 2006).

PS 1 – Fundamentals of Political Science, Chapter 1 Module 14

Types of States

1. Simple State – Type of state in which there is only one state and no other states included on their
statehood. Example – Philippines and Japan.
2. Composite States – Type of state in which there are many states merged to form a single entity.
Examples: United States of America, United Kingdom and the former Czechoslovakia

Purposes and Functions of State

1. Domestic Order and Tranquility - the government can realize this by providing laws to regulate the
people’s conduct and an effective system of law enforcement.

Essential Functions

a. Maintenance of an effective police force to apprehend criminals and suppress domestic violence.

b. Keeping an independent and impartial court system to settle disputes.

2. Common Defense of the State

Undertaking to defend the state from external aggression. To attain this end:

a. government build strong armed forces for common defense

b. establishing order
c. protecting national security.

3. Blessings of Liberty and Justice

Freedom of the individual to enjoy these rights is dependent upon government, which is instituted to
safeguard them.
Freedom of speech and of the press, freedom of association, freedom of religion and the rights of
persons accused of crime should not be subject for restraints.

4. Promotion of the General Welfare

Undertaken by the government by performing service functions like:

a. creation of essential public service (establishment of roads and bridges)

b. promotion of health and sanitation
c. regulation of business and dissemination of public information.
d. Other governmental activities relative to the case of the general interests and well-being of the
state.

5. Promotion of Public Morality

This end of the state is concerned with value judgments and moral standards. The government
should:

a. government build strong armed forces for common defense It should set a high standard of
morality in running the affairs of the state.

Rights and Obligations of the State

Rights of the State

Cruz (1971) as cited by Valenzuela, (2016) enumerated the following rights of states.

PS 1 – Fundamentals of Political Science, Chapter 1 Module 15

1. Existence – A state should exist if all elements are acquired such as government, territory, people and
sovereignty.

2. Independence – The right of the state to manage its affairs without the intervention coming from other
states as defined by Aurego-Aruego-Torres (1981). There are two types of independence; de-facto and
de-jure. The former existence in fact but not in law and the latter both in existence of fact and in law.
Example: Philippine independence in two declarations – June 12 and July (1898 and 1946 respectively).

3. Self-defense – Self-defense is considered as one of very important right of the state. The Philippine
constitution of 1987 reiterates that – “Civilian authority is, at all times, supreme over the military. The
Armed Forces of the Philippines is the protector of the people and the state. Its goal is to secure the
sovereignty of the state and the integrity of the national territory.” (Art. II section 3, 1987 Philippine
Constitution). It means that the state shall be protected by its armed forces as designed also by the
Geneva Convention Laws on War and protocol of conventional weapons ratified by the United Nations
Organizations.

4. Property and Domain – Property of the State consists of territorial (within the limits of territory) and non-
territorial (outside the domain of the state) such as embassies, consulates, warship, airship even
submarines of the armed forces; on the other-hand, domain consists of aerial, maritime and fluvial and
terrestrial (land) which is also a part of the jurisdiction of the state. Outer space is not included.

5. Equality – The essence of equality among state is more on juridical rather than factual. Physically states
are not equal when it comes to territorial size, number of population, economy, military might and so on.
On the other-hand equality of states are stated in international law regarding to the rights to
representation (in United Nations Organization), right to vote and the right to self-preservation.

6. Territorial Acquisition (Expansion)

According to Aruego and Aruego Torres, (1981) the following are the territorial acquisition of the
states:

a. Discovery and Occupation – An unknown territory should be discovered first and there is a need of
effective occupation to draw its boundaries of claimant. Such as the case of discovery of Spratley
Islands by a Filipino navigator named – Thomas Cloma; on the other-hand after its discovery of group
of islands there is no effective occupation and that the reason why China and Vietnam claimed some
portion of islands. It should be simultaneously done, discovery and effective occupation to complete
the process of claiming of unknown territory.

b. Prescription – The concept of prescription is a long process. There is no specific rule as far as
international law is concern (Cruz: 1971 p. 86). It should be considered the consensual agreement of
states in practicing their sovereign in a certain portion of territory or unknown territory as a whole.

c. Cession – Almost the same as of prescription, on the other hand, there should be a formal agreement
between two or more states. Such as sale, just like the case of the Philippine islands ceded by Spain
to the United States for 20 million dollars; donation, exchange, and even testamentary dispositions
(Cruz: 1971 p. 87).

d. Conquest – This acquisition is merely traditional. Just like the empire builders of Rome and Greece
in which a certain state used force or military might to conquer territories. This is a barbaric style of
claiming territories, named or unnamed.

e. Accretion - This is the process whereby territory will expand by natural (alluvium and erosion of the
soil) and by man-made such as reclamation projects (e.g. the Macapagal Highway along the coastline
of Manila Bay in Metropolitan Manila, Philippines).

PS 1 – Fundamentals of Political Science, Chapter 1 Module 16

 f. Jurisdiction – This right merely pertains to the power and authority of the state. Whether the jurisdiction
of the state is territorial or non-territorial possessions. Jurisdiction also considered the scope of
administration of the state whether persons or things.

g. Legation – This is the right of the state to establish relations with other states. There are two types of
categories of this right; the active and the passive right. The former is the right of the state to send
foreign dignitaries such as ambassadors and consuls; while the latter is the receiving of such foreign
representatives or public ministers.

Obligation of States

1. Capable to enter international treaty and agreements where the statehood is not subject as an issue.

2. States shall participate in political and economic declarations where they could stand on the major concern
or issues; and

3. They are capable to join international organizations like United Nations Organizations or economic block
such as Asian Free Trade Area (AFTA), North Atlantic Free Trade Area (NAFTA), Organization of
Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) or Asia Pacific
Economic Caucus (APEC).

Theories of State

According to Valenzuela (2016) the following are the theoretical origins of state:

1. Divine-Right-Theory – Was popularized during the 17th centuries when most people believed that “God
vested political power to his representatives here on earth” and that was no other than monarchs as well
as they are also recognized by the Papacy. This theory was also epitomized by King Louis XIV wherein
he reiterated that his political power claimed in the name of God. The people believed that their leader
was God sent to them.

2. Contract Theory – Was popularized by John Lock and Jean-Jacques Rousseau (Social Contract) tackles
about the relationship between the government and the governed. According to this theory, man is
sociable and needs a powerful sovereign to protect his basic rights i.e. the right to life, liberty and property.
The theory holds that the government and sovereign were set up by the people in order to protect their
basic rights and avoid absolutism and the abuse of power against them. The very essence of the theory
is that the constitution per se wherein the contract of the sovereign and the people’s rights should be
limited, and the protection of the basic rights of every individual.

3. Patriarchal Theory – The theory holds ancient societies were ruled by male based on their belief that male
belief that male is powerful over female. Mostly even today, that family is ruled by the father. The male
designation is most likely believed because male can think and decide firmly which is contrary to female.

4. Force or “might makes” right” Theory - Might makes right theory known as the force theory was
popularized by Thomas Hobbes where man is at war with every man. According to this theory, the strong
groups can use selfishness. According to this theory, the strong groups can use force with other groups
in order to form the state. Example: the American Revolution wherein they were united in order to use
force against their British counterpart, domed the United States of American with its 13 original states,
and followed by other 37 states.

5. Historical Theory - State was a product of historical development of the society. According to Aristotle,
state was evolved from a family to tribes, tribes into a clan into a nation and a nation into a state.
Moreover, state is only a product of human civilization in terms of organization of individuals just like a
colony, school of fishes and flock of a sheep.

PS 1 – Fundamentals of Political Science, Chapter 1 Module 17

6. Instinctive Theory - state is a product of necessity. Man is weak if he is alone and according to English
proverb that “no man is an island”. Therefore, the organization of the society can be considered as the
formation of the state.

7. Biological Theory – Biology is the study of life. Just like life itself, state exists because of the life within
the society and that is human. Just like instinctive theory, wherein man is needed a companion in order
to live and that is the harmonious relationship of the government and the governed.

Evolution of Modern States

States are the product of evolution, which were discussed by the following political thinkers:

1. According to Aristotle

Aristotle, a Greek thinker wrote a book entitled “The Politics “ wherein according to him, State is
considered a moral idea. As a moralist, State, just like an individual should be moral in the sense that
the foundation of state is family. He also designed that state comes from individual, into family, into clan,
tribe, nation up to state. The evolution of State is merely coming from the people and the group of people
organized themselves to form the modern state.

Aside from the basic four elements of state, modern political analyst considered the fifth element-
recognition wherein according from the words of Aruego-Aruego-Torres (1981) as cited by Valenzuela
(2016) “recognition is an act which gives the state an international status.” In short, modern civilization
should accept the legal consequences of recognition. Cruz (1971) on the other hand classifies
recognition into two: express and implied. Express – is by verbal or writing; Implied – formal agreement
which the two states undergoes official intercourse. Moreover, recognition should be considered as an
element of modern states to attain legal status quo.

2. According to Marx

Karl Marx, a German sociologist, discussed in his “theory of Revolution” that the “State withers
away” in the sense that there no more social classes and the abolishment of private property. For him
the state should be abolished in order to abolish the higher class-the elites and the capitalists comprises
in the government in order to attain the communism stage.

3. According to Immanuel Kant

Immanuel Kant, a German philosopher wrote the book entitled “The Eternal Peace”. According to
him, there is concept of generation of States such as:

a. That there will be the Federation of States such as the one world government (which was idealized the
concept of the United Nations);

b. That states should adjudicate their conflicts in one judicial court or world court; and

c. State must maintain a police force and one world army (which idealized the United States of America
as the policeman of the world.)

Essential Elements of State

1. People are a mass of population living within the state. Without people there can be no functionaries to
govern and no subjects to be governed. The number of people comprising the state is not definite.

2. Territory includes the lands over which the jurisdiction of the state extends rivers and lakes therein, certain
area of the sea and air space above.

PS 1 – Fundamentals of Political Science, Chapter 1 Module 18

 Domain of State

a. fluvial – rivers, lakes and springs

b. terrestial – lands
c. maritime – seas and oceans
d. aerial – air space above

3. Government – agency through which the will of the state is formulated, expressed and carried out. The
word is sometimes used to the person or aggregate of those persons in whose hands are place for the
time being the function of political control.

4. Sovereignty – supreme power of the state to enforce its will upon its citizens through laws. Also means
independence from the control of other states.

In democracy, sovereignty resides on the people. It is the power of the people to elect or charge
officials who will make the laws of the land.
Symbols of State are flag, zeal, currency and stamps.

Flag of the Philippines

Three (3) stars represent Luzon, Visaya, and Mindanao.

The 8 rays refers to the 8 provinces who revolts against the Spaniards:
Cavite, Bulacan, Batangas, Laguna, Manila, Nueva Ecija, Pampanga and Tarlac.

Two Aspects of Sovereignty

1. Internal Sovereignty – is the supreme or absolute power of a state to enforce its will on the people
within its territory. It implies therefore, that the government must possess adequate powers to
control and regulate the conduct and affairs of the people within the borders of the state.

2. External Sovereignty – means independence of a state from control by any state. External
sovereignty of a state should be recognized and respected by the nation-states.

Characteristics of Sovereignty

1. Absolute – The exercise by the state of its sovereign powers is absolute in the sense that the state
is not subject to restrictions by another other power. Jean Bodin (1530-1597), father of the modern
theory of sovereignty, defined sovereignty as the supreme power over subjects and their possessions
unrestrained by law. It is unrestrained by law because the sovereign is the source of law.

According to De Maistre, a French political philosopher during the French Revolution sovereignty is
“always one, inviolable, and absolute” no matter where it is located and how it is defined.

2. Comprehensive – The sovereignty of a nation-state is comprehensive for its supreme legal authority
extends to all- the citizens, aliens, associations or organizations within its boundaries. Rules of
international relations, however, provide several exceptions to this characteristic. Under the principle
of mutual respect or international courtesy, diplomatic immunity is extended to foreign ambassadors
and ministers together with their respective families during the period of their assignment in the host
nation-state. Under the principle of ex-territoriality, diplomatic immunity means that diplomatic
representatives and their families are exempted from the local jurisdiction of the state.

3. Permanent Sovereignty is perpetual in the sense that as long as the state exists, sovereignty also
exists. This is so because sovereignty is an inherent attribute of the state. Rulers may be ousted
through elections, or they may be overthrown from power through revolutions. Government may be
changed from one form to another. However, as long as the state exists, sovereignty is always
present a one of its element.

PS 1 – Fundamentals of Political Science, Chapter 1 Module 19

 4. Indivisible – Indivisibility has caused misunderstanding among political theories. Bodin, for example,
sought to prove the indivisibility of sovereignty by his theory that sovereignty should reside in an
absolute monarch unrestrained by law because the sovereign is the source of law. It is perpetual,
inalienable, and not subject to prescription. Yet, he also advocated the sovereign should be limited
by the laws of the nation, laws of God and the natural law. There is no doubt in the mind of Bodin
that the sovereign is requires to respect agreements involving political obligations toward his
subjects or toward other sovereigns and the right of private property.

Sovereignty, according to Rosseau, a French social contractualist and political philosopher

who came much later than Bodin, is inalienable and indivisible in terms of the “general will” which is
posited in the great body of people. Such general will is always for the common good of the polity.
For every act of sovereignty, every act in the name of the general will and not particular individual
wills.

Sovereignty cannot be divided; there could only be one supreme power in a state. The state
may grant the exercise of some powers to its political subdivisions, but “what it grants it may take
away”. The authority to govern may be shared, but not the supreme power. There is only one state
with one sovereignty.

Types of State Sovereignty

1. Legal Sovereignty – defined as the supreme authority of the state expressed by the law and the
constitution, which even authority, has the power to make the law or amend the constitution, that authority
exercises legal or constituent sovereignty.

John Austin – famous jurist describes law as a supreme command enforced by the ruler upon his people
who in turn render habitual loyalty and obedience to their ruler.

In the Philippines it is the Congress or the constitutional convention and the people, which exercise legal
authority. Amends to the constitution may be proposed by:

a. Congress
b. Constitutional convention
c. By the people through initiative

Proposal from Congress requires ¾ of vote of all members of the congress.

Initiative requires petition of at least 12% of the total number of registered voters of every legislative
districts represented by 3% of the registered voters.

2. Political Sovereignty – is the supreme will of the state expressed by the electorate. Also called electoral
sovereignty in the sense that, the supreme authority of the state is exercised by the electorate, in the
choice of public officers at least during election time.

3. Popular Sovereignty - supreme power of the state, which resides in the people. This authority means
that the people are the ultimate source of power and so they possess coercive power to control
government through which they allow themselves to be governed. It was said that sovereignty resides
in the people and all government authority emanates from them.

4. De Facto Sovereignty – vested on a person who has succeeded in displacing the legitimate sovereign.
The authority of coercive power of this person or group of persons exists in fact and is sanctioned by the
people within the state territory.

5. De Jure Sovereignty a state is de jure from the viewpoint of recognizing states. Theory of de Jure
Sovereignty is that the supreme legal authority of the state is based on the supremacy of law.

PS 1 – Fundamentals of Political Science, Chapter 1 Module 20

References:
https://keydifferences.com/difference-between-power-and-authority.html

https://opinion.inquirer.net/85293/max-webers-3-types-of-authority By: Christopher Ryan

Maboloc - @inquirerdotnet Philippine Daily Inquirer / 12:06 AM May 29, 2015

Read more: https://opinion.inquirer.net/85293/max-webers-3-types-of-authority#ixzz6TSgEulfn

Follow us: @inquirerdotnet on Twitter | inquirerdotnet on Facebook

https://yscouts.com/executive/types-of-leadership-power/ BY Y SCOUTS|MAY 9TH, 2014|EXECUTIVE

https://www.iedunote.com/power

PS 1 – Fundamentals of Political Science, Chapter 1 Module 21

CHAPTER 3
The Concept of Government

Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the chapter, the students are expected to:
1. Define government and state
2. Make a chart showing the concept of government of the
different political philosophers
3. Make a list of the different forms/classification of
government applicable to the history of the Philippines
4. Explain the immunity and inherent powers of the state
5. Analyze if the functions of government are carried out by the
present administration.

Lesson 1. Government Distinguished from State

Lesson 2. Political Philosophers’ Concept of Government
Lesson 3. Forms/Classifications of Government
Lesson 4. Immunity and Inherent Powers of the State
Lesson 5. The Functions of Government

===================================================================

Lesson 1 – Government Distinguished from State

State is an ideal person, invisible, intangible, immutable and existing only in contemplation of law.

Government is an agent and, within the sphere of its agency, it is a perfect representative, but outside
of that it is a lawless usurpation (Cruz, 1993 as cited by Laurence, 2006).

Government is considered as a management of state affairs where the wealth of the state is properly
distributed to the people. Government sets a provider and protector of the society such as in the case of
legal principle “sic utere tuo ut alienum non laedas” - “subordination of individual interest for the benefit of
the greatest number.” (Valenzuela, 2016).

Lesson 2 - Political Philosophers’ Concept of Government

1. Aristotelian Concept of Government

Aristotle, student of Plato and one of the pillars of the science of politics discussed the classification of
government based on the quantitative and qualitative concepts.

Monarchy is ruled by one person but the monarch could be a tyrant. Aristocracy is ruled by a few but
oligarchy is ruled by a wealthy selfish few. In case of many, polity or the constitutional government is
good while the perverted system is the democracy or ruled by many and uneducated individuals.
(Valenzuela, 2016).

PS 1 – Fundamentals of Political Science, Chapter 1 Module 22

 No. of Persons Quantitative Concept Qualitative Concept
Exercising Sovereign
GOOD BAD
Power
ONE MONARCHY TYRANNY
FEW ARISTOCRACY OLIGARCHY
MANY POLITY DEMOCRACY

2. Machiavellian Concept of Government

Niccolo Machiavelli, one of the greatest political thinkers during Renaissance Period. According to him,
a prince should possess characteristics in order to retain its political power in the government. He is
advocating a republican form of government wherein he set aside the value judgement (might be
descriptive or prescriptive) of the individual of the state itself. He also classified the government into two:
the republicanism and the monarchical (monarchy).

3. Hobbes Model of Government

Thomas Hobbes, a British Philosopher, defended the monarchical type of government wherein the
sovereign (ruler) must act as “leviathan” so that there must be peace and comfort in the society and the
sovereign is above the social contract. The ruler cannot depose in the sense that God will punish him or
her for their tyranny.

4. Marxian Model of Government

Karl Marx, well-known German sociologist and philosopher, wrote its observations and idealized the
revolution as the overall change of the status quo on which the “state withers away” including the
government as the element of the state. He believed that government including the church and capitalists
were organized in order to oppress the people. The highest stage, which is communism will become the
improvement of human conditions and not by the government.

5. Lockean Model of Government

John Locke was a British Philosopher. One of his major works in political philosophy was the idea of
social contract. According to him that “GOD, having made man such a creature that, in His own judgment,
it was not good for him to be alone, put him under strong obligations of necessity, convenience, and
inclination, to drive him into society, as well as fitted him with understanding and language to continue
and enjoy it. He also discussed the separation of powers in the government- the executive, legislative
and judiciary, working hand in hand to promote peace and safeguard the rights of the individuals within
society. The government was made in order to protect the life, liberty and property of every individual
within the state.

Lesson 3 - Forms/Classifications of Government

A. According to the number of persons who share in exercising the sovereign powers of the State

1. Monarchy – known as the rule of one. A monarchical government is ruled by a King or by an

Emperor.

a. Absolute Monarchy - One in which the ruler rules by Divine right. Prevailed in the ancient oriental
empires where the rulers considers themselves as the descendants of God

b. Constitutional Monarchy – One in which the authority of the ruler is limited by the Constitution.

2. Aristocracy – This is the government of the few for the benefit of the few. Or one in which political
power is exercised by a few privileged class like the intellectuals or the rich people.

PS 1 – Fundamentals of Political Science, Chapter 1 Module 23

 3. Democracy – The government of the many. Abraham Lincoln defined it as the government of the
people by the people, and for the people.

a. Direct or Pure Democracy – One in which the will of the state is formulated or expressed directly
by the people in a mass meeting or assembly.

b. Indirect, Representative or Republican – One in which the will of the State is formulated and
expressed through the select body or persons or delegates chosen by the people to act as their
representatives in the government.

Advantages of Democracy

1. It is more durable and impregnable to the blandishments of rebellions and world-wide wars.

2. It is founded upon a social foundation composed of a large middle lass which is neither rich nor
poor – a body of citizens large enough to give the state a popular foundation, strong enough to hold
government responsible, and “select enough to avoid the evils of government by the masses.”

3. It allows experimentation by trial and error to attain consequently the desired results for a stable
and effective government.

Disadvantages of Democracy

1. It is slow, fickle and extravagant.

2. It may lead to the role of the mob.
3. The government established by the people is a reflective of their emotions, prejudices and average
intelligence.

B. According to the nature of tenure of the officials

1. Hereditary – Ruled by persons deriving powers from their predecessors who are related to them by
consanguinity. Emperorship or kingship is an example of this government.

2. Elective or Popular – the administrators of the government are chosen by the people through the
electoral process of a certain country.

C. According to the distribution or concentration of governmental powers

1. Unitary or Centralized – the powers of government are concentrated in the central government
represented by the majority party in power.

Advantages of Unitary

a. It is simple in structure
b. There is no duplication of offices and services with those of the central and national government,
thus insuring greater economy in governmental expenditures.
c. There is uniformity of laws and public policy and administration of government.
d. There is no conflict of jurisdiction between the national government and its local government units.
e. It is easy to pinpoint responsibility for any misdeed or anomaly committed by government officials,
or for any inefficiency of government.

Disadvantages of Unitary

a. Over-centralized administrative control over local affairs overburdens the central government with
numerous local problems.

b. In a unitary state, the national officials are responsible for determining the policies to regulate the
conduct of local affairs.

PS 1 – Fundamentals of Political Science, Chapter 1 Module 24

 c. Restraints local initiative and interest in managing the affairs of the local government.

d. Hastens the creation of a large centralized bureaucracy. There is much red tape in the solution of
people’s problem.

e. Generally not suitable to a large country with a culturally heterogenous population.

2. Federal – Governmental powers are distributed between the central government and the local
governments or states. Each one being supreme within its territorial boundaries but not in external
relations.

Advantages of Federal Government

a. The government is independent in its sphere of jurisdiction within its scope of authority – the feral
government dealing with national and international matters, and the local government, with
problems that are local or regional in nature.

b. Provides uniformity when it is needed in terms of federal laws, policies and administration, and
allows wide diversity of local policies to be determined and promulgated by local officers in their
respective localities.

c. enhanced Interest of the people in their local government is.

d. It relieves the national government of time-consuming efforts in solving local problems.

e. Provides great opportunities for local government to experiment on new legislative and
administrative methods of solving people’s problems.

Disadvantages of Federal Government

a. The structure and organization of the political machinery is complex.

b. There is duplication of officers and personnel, and maintaining the operation of the government
system would cause a heavy financial burden to the government.

c. Overlapping of functions may occur in many areas of government activity to the consternation of
both central and local government.

d. Whenever governmental problems arise on the boundary line of authority as prescribed by the
constitution, both federal and local governments may be hesitant to act on these problems
causing unnecessary delay in solving them.

e. Lack of uniform legislation on many matters makes the problems of administration more difficult.

D. According to the relations of legislature and the executive

1. Parliamentary System – The Chief Executive (the Prime Minister) and his cabinet is directly
responsible to the legislative branch of the government whereas, the Head of State occupies the
position of irresponsibility. The Head of State is just a ceremonial figure. The Prime Minister and his
Cabinet remain in office as long as they have the confidence and support of the parliamentary
majority. They are removable by parliament by means of parliamentary censure on the members of
the cabinet and no-confidence vote against the Prime Minister.

Most outstanding among other features of the parliamentary system are:

a. collective ministerial responsibility

b. fusion of executive and legislative powers

PS 1 – Fundamentals of Political Science, Chapter 1 Module 25

 c cabinet responsibility to Parliament
d. party discipline.

2. Presidential System – The Chief Executive (the President) is directly responsible to the people for he
is directly chosen by them during elections. The three branches of the government are distinct and
separate from each other. The legislature enacts the law, the executive executes the law, and the
judiciary applies or interprets the law. The president holds office for a specific period of time as fixed
by the constitution of the state. He appoints the members of his Cabinet who are his alter egos and
responsible to him only. The cabinet members serve at the pleasure and measure of the President.

The essential element of the presidential system is the separation of powers of the executive,
legislative and judicial branches which is made more effective by checks and balances of the three
branches.

Lesson 4 - Kinds of Government

1. Democracy – ruled by the people. The term came from two Greek words – “demos” and “kratos” which
mean to rule by the people. Some related terms of democracy are “republic” and representative
governance.

2. Authoritarianism – is the same as of Aristotelian classification (aristocracy or oligarchy) wherein a group

of people run the affairs of the state.

3. Totalitarianism – is actually ruled by a powerful dictator such as Hitler’s rule in Germany and Mussolini’s
rule in Italy during the World War II. The necessity of this government is a charismatic leader, all words
come from his mouth is the main source of law; he controls the mind and behaviour of the people.

4. Socialism – a government which is ruled by a socialist or communist party. It is more economic rather
than political. The main slogan of this government is – “from each according to his ability and to each
according to his needs” Example People’s Republic of China, North Korea and Vietnam and Cuba.

5. Communism - Actually, no government will exist in communism. As Marx says that “the State withers
away” then there is a plan to abolish the ruling classes including the government by means of a bloody
revolution.

Lesson 5 - Immunity and Inherent Powers of the State

Immunity of the State

Article XVI of the 1987 Constitution Sec. 3 states that “the State may not be sued without its consent.

Section 10 of Executive Order No. 292, Book I, Chapter 3, Section 10 Non-suitability of the
State, states that “No suit shall lie against the State except with its consent as provided by law”.

Likewise Section 11, The State’s Responsibility for Acts of Agents of the same code states that:

“(1) The State shall be legally bound and responsible only through the acts performed in accordance
with the Constitution and the laws by its duly authorized representatives.

(2) The State shall not be bound by the mistakes or errors of its officers or agents in the exercise of
their functions.”

The classic justification for the non-suitability of the State is that provided by Mr. Justice Oliver Weldell
Holmes: “There can be no legal right against the authority which makes the law on which the right depends”

PS 1 – Fundamentals of Political Science, Chapter 1 Module 26

(Kawanakao vs. Polybank, 205 U.S. 349). Article VI, Section 11 of the Constitution also grants parliamentary
immunities, viz: “A senator or member of the House of Representatives shall, in all offenses punishable by
not more than six years imprisonment, be privileged from arrest while the congress is in session. No member
shall be questioned nor be held liable in any other place for any speech or debate in the congress or in any
committee thereof.” Mr. Justice Isagani A. Cruz explains the rationale for this immunity in the following
manner: “xxx The first is intended to ensure representation of the constituents of the member of the Congress
by preventing attempts to keep him from attending its sessions. The second enables the legislators to
express views bearing upon the public interest without fear of accountability outside the halls of the legislature
for his inability to support his statements with the usual evidence required in the court of justice. In other
words, he is given more leeway than the ordinary citizen in the ventilation of matters that ought to be divulged
for the public good.

Inherent Powers of the State

The fundamental powers of the state are: 1) the police power, 2) the power of eminent domain, and
3) the power of taxation. It is said that these powers are inherent because they need to expressly
conferred by constitutional provisions as they are supposed to co-exist with the State. The moment the
State comes into being it deemed invested these powers as its innate attributes.

Similarities of the three Inherent Powers of the State

1. They are inherent in the State and may be exercised by it without need of express constitutional grant.

2. They are not only necessary but also indispensable. The State cannot continue or be effective unless it
is able to exercise them.

3. They are methods by which the state interferes with private rights.

4. They all presuppose an equivalent compensation for the private rights interfered with.

5. They are exercised primarily by the legislature.

Limitations in Exercising the Inherent Powers of the State

Despite being inherent and indispensable, the inherent powers of the state are not without restrictions. It is
common knowledge that ours is a government of limited powers and that these prerogatives may not be
exercised to trample upon the rights guaranteed under the Bill of Rights. The exercise of these fundamental
powers is subject at all times to the limitations and requirements of the Constitution and may in proper cases
be annulled by the courts of justice.

1. POLICE POWER – is the power of the state to enact and enforce laws and to regular property and liberty
in the promotion of the general welfare of the people. It is the power to regulate the behavior or conduct
of its citizen in the interest of the common good within the limits of the state’s laws. This power of the
state is not only confined to its citizens but also to the foreigners temporarily staying within the state.

Characteristic of Police Power

a. The police power is considered the most pervasive, the least limitable, and the most demanding of
the three powers.

The justification is found in the ancient Latin maxims, Salus populi est suprema lex. (The welfare of
the people is the supreme law. And Sic utere tuo ut alienum non laedas (To use your property so as
not to injure others) which call for the subordination of individual benefit to interests of the greater
number. It has even been held that the police power may not be bargain away through the medium
of a contract or even a treaty. The provision in Article III of the Philippine Constitution, which protects
and guarantees the non-impairment of obligations and contract deals with a subject affecting the
public welfare.

PS 1 – Fundamentals of Political Science, Chapter 1 Module 27

 b. The police power is dynamic, not static and must move with the moving society it is supposed to
regulate.

Being dynamic, police power can be exercised again and again, as often as it is necessary for the
protection or the promotion of the public welfare. Conditions change, circumstances vary; and to
every such alternation the police power must conform. Police power continues to change even as
constraints on liberty diminish and private property becomes more and more affected with public
interest and therefore subject to regulation.

c. Police power may sometimes use taxing power as an implementation for the attainment of a
legitimate police objective. As a rule, police power is vested in the national legislature. Pursuant
however to a validity delegated legislative authority, the President and Administrative bodies, as well
as law making bodies of local government units, may exercise the same local government units
exercise the power under the general welfare clauses. No mandamus is available to coerce the
exercise of the police power. The only remedy against legislative inaction is a resort to the bar of
public opinion, a refusal of the electorate to return to the legislature members who, in their view, have
been remiss in the discharge of their duties.

Examples of Police Power Laws

a. On Public morals – those punishing public scandal, vagrancy and prostitution; prohibiting illegal
gambling, etc.

b. General Welfare and convenience – Those penalizing the turning loose of large cattle or permitting
them to run loose in streets and plazas of municipalities; regulating prices of commodities;
regulating distances between gasoline stations etc.

c. Public safety – those requiring a license to drive motor vehicles; authorizing the demolition of
buildings or improvements which constitute a fire hazard.

d. Public health – Those providing paternity and maternity leave for working men and women
respectively; those regulating the medical profession, etc.

2. POWER OF EMINENT DOMAIN

This power enables the state to take private property for public use upon payment of just
compensation. In the implementation of the programs of the government, such as infrastructure
projects, the private properties that are affected or included in the project will be taken are paid by the
government based on the existing market value. The power of eminent domain, otherwise known as
the power of expropriation, “is the highest and most exact idea of property remaining in the
government” that they may be acquired for some public purpose through a method “in the nature of
compulsory sale to the state”. It is the right or power of the State or those to whom the power has been
lawfully delegate to take private property for public use upon payment of just compensation.

Who May Exercise Eminent Domain?

Just like the police power, the power of eminent domain is primarily lodged in the law-making body, but
may be validly delegated to other government entities and to private corporation like the so called quasi-
republic corporation, serving essential public needs or operating public utilities. Under the law, the
following may exercise the power of expropriation: (1) the Congress; (2) the President; (3) the local
legislative bodies; (4) certain public corporations, like the Land Registration, Authority and the MWSS;
(5) Quasi-public corporations like the PNR, PLDT and the MERALCO.
Requisite in taking the Property

a. Necessity – When the power is exercised by legislature, the question of necessity is generally a
political question, but when exercised by a delegate, the determination of whether there is genuine
necessity for the exercise is a justifiable question.

PS 1 – Fundamentals of Political Science, Chapter 1 Module 28

 b. Private Property – Anything that can come under the dominion of man or can be the subject of
contract is subject to expropriation. This will include real and personal, tangible and intangible
properties.

c. Just Compensation – described as a full and fair equivalent of property taken from the private owner
by the expropriator. The compensation to be just must be fair not only to the owner but also to the
expropriator. The court is invested with the power to ascertain just to compensation by determining
first the actual or basic value of the property. The basic or market value of the property subject of
expropriation is the price that may be agreed upon the parties willing but not compelled to enter into
a contract of sale.

Factors to be considered in arriving at the fair market value of the property are the following:

a. the cost of acquisition

b. the current value of properties
c. its actual or potential uses; and,
d. the size, shape or location and the tax declaration.

3. POWER OF TAXATION – is the power of the state to impose and collect revenues for the operation of
the government. The money generated from the people in the form of different taxes shall be used in the
operations of government, for infrastructure programs and other expenditures of the state. Generally, the
revenues collected shall go back to the people in the form of services.

Purpose and Importance of Taxation

a. To raise revenues of funds to support the government and its service

b. Utilized as a tool to carry out the national objective or social and economic development.

The importance of taxation derives from the unavoidable obligation of the government to protect the
people and extend them benefits in the form of public projects and services. In return, people are
subjected to the reciprocal duty of sharing the expenses in the form of taxes.

The Nature of Taxation

1. The power of taxation is inherent in sovereignty being indispensable in the existence of the
government. It is inherent because it exists without the necessity of any specific grant of the power
by the Constitution. Just like the police power and the power of eminent domain, it exists
independently of the Constitution.

2. It is essentially a legislative function. Even in the absence of any Constitutional grant, the power falls
to the legislative branch as part of the more general power of law making.

Constitutional Limitations of Taxation

1. Territory – which requires that the person or property taxed must be subjected to the jurisdiction of
the taxing State.

2. International comity – under which the property of a foreign state may not be taxed by another.
3. Exemptions of governmental agencies performing governmental function.

4. Prohibition against the delegation of legislative power under the principle of protestas delegata non
delegare protest; and,

5. The levy of taxes must be for public purpose.

What is the Theory of Taxation?

PS 1 – Fundamentals of Political Science, Chapter 1 Module 29

 The power of taxation proceeds from the theory that without funds, the Government cannot meet the
various essential expenses it has to incur to enable it to exist and function effectively. Therefore the
existence of the government is necessity; that is cannot continue without means to pays its expenses.
Along this line, the government has to call upon its citizens and residents to assume monetary burdens
and pay taxes so that it can perform its function, meet its widely expanding services and carry on its legal
as well as constitutional functions.

Scope of Taxation

The power of taxation is regarded as supreme, unlimited and comprehensive. It is so pervasive that it
reaches even the citizen abroad and his income earned from source outside.

What are Taxes

Taxes are enforced proportional contributions from persons and property levied by the State by virtue of
its sovereignty, for the support of the government and for all public needs.

The Important Characteristic of Taxes

1. It is an enforced proportional contribution because its imposition is not based upon the will of the
person taxed;

2. Equality or theoretical justice means that the tax burden should be proportionate to the tax payer’s
ability to pay. (This is so-called ability to pay principle); and

3. Administrative feasibility, which means that the tax laws should be capable of convenient, just and
effective administration.

The Functions of Government

A. Constituent functions

Constitute the very bonds of society and are, therefore, compulsory.

1. The keeping of order and providing for the protection of persons and property from violence and
robbery.

2. The fixing of the legal relations between husband and wife and between parents and children.

3. The regulation of the holding, transmissions and interchange of property, and the determination of
its liabilities for debt or for crime.

4. The determination of contractual rights between individuals.

5. The definition of punishment of crimes.

6. The administration of justice in civil cases.

7. The administration of political duties, privilege, and relations of citizens.

8. The dealings of the state with foreign powers.

9. The preservation of the state from external danger or encroachment.

10. The advancement of its international interests.

B. Ministrant Functions

PS 1 – Fundamentals of Political Science, Chapter 1 Module 30

 Those undertaken to advance the general interest of society, such as public works, public charity,
and regulation of trade and industry. These functions are merely optional. Significantly, though, it is the
performance and ministrant functions that distinguishes the paternalistic government from the merely
individualistic government, which is concerned only with the basic function of maintaining peace and
order.

Doctrine of Parens Patriae

One of the important tasks of the government is to act for the state as parens patriae, or guardian of
the rights of the people.

References:
https://keydifferences.com/difference-between-power-and-authority.html

https://opinion.inquirer.net/85293/max-webers-3-types-of-authority By: Christopher Ryan

Maboloc - @inquirerdotnet Philippine Daily Inquirer / 12:06 AM May 29, 2015

Read more: https://opinion.inquirer.net/85293/max-webers-3-types-of-authority#ixzz6TSgEulfn

Follow us: @inquirerdotnet on Twitter | inquirerdotnet on Facebook

https://yscouts.com/executive/types-of-leadership-power/ BY Y SCOUTS|MAY 9TH, 2014|EXECUTIVE

https://www.iedunote.com/power
https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/1987/07/25/executive-order-no-292-book-i-sovereignty-and-general-
administrationchapter-3
State-immunity-from-suit/

PS 1 – Fundamentals of Political Science, Chapter 1 Module 31