Deformation of Solids
1 Response of materials to applied stress
1.1 Elastic deformation
• Deformation that is reversible.
• That is the material returns to its original shape.
• The shape of the material is fully recovered when the force/stress that is
causing the deformation is removed.
1.1.1 Uniaxial Linear Elastic Response
• Assumptions:
o Loading condition is uniaxial, that is the load is applied uniformly along
a single axis.
o The material under investigation is uniform in structure, and therefore
will exhibit the same elastic behaviour no matter what direction within
the material is chosen as the loading axis. Basically, this uniform
behaviour is known as isotropic.
• Robert Hooke observation can be expressed mathematically using the
equation of an elastic spring.
𝐹 = 𝑘𝑥 (1-1)
Where 𝐹 is the applied force, 𝑘 is the proportionality factor which is often
referred to as the spring constant and 𝑥 which is the associated displacement.
• When the force acts on the cross-sectional area 𝐴 and the displacement 𝑥
related to some reference gage length 𝑙, Eq. (1-1) can be written as
𝜎 = 𝐸𝜀 (1-2)
where 𝜎 = 𝐹/𝐴 is the stress, 𝐸 is proportionality constant which is often
referred to as Young’s modulus or the modulus of elasticity and 𝜀 = 𝑥/𝑙 is the
strain.
1.2 Plastic deformation
• Deformation that is irreversible.
• The material is permanently deformed.
• After unloading, some strain is recovered.
• When the stress is removed or the material is unloaded, the material does not
return to its original shape.
• At microscopic level: the process involves the movement of dislocations in
response to the applied stress.
2 Fracture Mechanics
• Fracture Mechanics concerns behaviour of materials containing cracks or
other small cracks.
• The term “flaws” refers to small pores, holes, inclusions, or microcracks.
2.1 Ductile Fracture
• Normally occurs in a trans granular manner (through the grains) in metals
that have good ductility and toughness.
• Often, a considerable amount of deformation including necking is observed in
the failed component.
• Deformation occurs before the final fracture.
• Ductile fractures are usually caused by simple overloads or by applying too
high of a stress to the material.
2.2 Brittle Fracture
• Any crack or imperfection limits the ability of a ceramic to withstand a
tensile stress.
• This is because a crack (sometimes called a Griffith flaw) concentrates and
magnifies the applied stress.
• The figure below shows a crack of length 𝑎 at the surface of a brittle
material.
• The radius 𝑟 of the crack is also shown.
Homework/Self Study
1 Dislocation
• Dislocations are line imperfections in an otherwise perfect crystal.
• They typically are introduced into a crystal during solidification of the
material or when the material is deformed permanently.
• Dislocations are particularly useful in explaining deformation and
strengthening in metallic materials.
• There are three types of dislocations:
o Screw dislocation
o Edge dislocation
o and Mixed dislocation
1.1 Screw dislocations
• The Figure below illustrates screw dislocations by cutting partway through a
perfect crystal and then skewing the crystal by one atom spacing.
• Procedure:
If we follow a crystallographic plane one revolution around the axis on which the
crystal was skewed, starting at point 𝑥 and traveling equal atom spacings in each
direction, we finish at point 𝑦 one atom spacing below our starting point
• If screw dislocation were not present, the loop would close.
• The vector required to close the loop is called Burgers loop 𝒃.
• Procedure:
If we continued our rotation, we would trace out a spiral path. The axis, or line
around which we trace out this path, is the screw dislocation. The Burgers
vector is parallel to the screw dislocation.
1.2 Edge dislocations
• The Figure below illustrates edge dislocations by slicing partway through a
perfect crystal, spreading the crystal apart, and partly filling the cut with an
extra half plane of atoms.
• Bottom edge of this inserted plane represents the edge dislocation.
• Procedure:
If we describe a clockwise loop around the edge dislocation, starting at point 𝑥
and traveling an equal number of atom spacings in each direction, we finish at
point 𝑦 one atom spacing from the starting point
• The absence of an edge dislocation would have resulted in the loop closing.
• Again, the vector required to complete the loop is the Burgers vector.
• In this case, the Burgers vector is perpendicular to the dislocation.
• The introduction of the dislocation results in the atoms above the dislocation
line to squeeze too closely together while the atoms below the dislocation are
stretched too far apart.
1.3 Mixed dislocations
• Mixed dislocations have both edge and screw components, with a
transition region between them.
• The Burgers vector, however, remains the same for all portions of the mixed
dislocation.
1.4 Roles in Plastic deformation
• Dislocations are most significant in metals and alloys since they provide a
mechanism for plastic deformation, which is the cumulative effect of slip of
numerous dislocations.
• Plastic deformation refers to irreversible deformation or change in
shape that occurs when the force or stress that caused it is removed.
• This is because the applied stress causes dislocation motion that in turn
causes permanent deformation.
2 Heat treatment of Steel
2.1 Annealing
• A heat treatment used to eliminate some or all of the effects of cold working.
• Annealing at a low temperature may be used to eliminate the residual
stresses produced during cold working without affecting the mechanical
properties of the finished part.
• Annealing may be used to completely eliminate the strain hardening
achieved during cold working.
• The final part is soft and ductile but still has a good surface finish and
dimensional accuracy.
• After annealing, additional cold work may be done since the ductility is
restored, by combining repeated cycles of cold working and annealing ,
large total deformations may be achieved.
• Other thermal treatments described using the term annealing:
o Glasses may be annealed, or heat treated to eliminate residual
stresses.
o Cast irons and steels may be annealed to produce the maximum
ductility, even though no prior cold work was done to the material.
2.1.1 Three stages in the annealing process
(i) Recovery
• Dislocation reduction:
o The original cold-worked microstructure consists of deformed grains
with numerous tangled dislocations.
o Initial heating allows dislocations to move and form the boundaries
of a polygonized subgrain structure.
o Dislocation density remains virtually unchanged.
• Stress Relief:
o Low-temperature treatment removes residual stresses without
changing dislocation density, known as recovery.
• Effect on Properties:
o Mechanical properties remain relatively unchanged.
o High electrical conductivity is restored, beneficial for materials like
copper or aluminium used in electrical applications.
o Often improves corrosion resistance.
(ii) Recrystallization Stage
• New grain formation:
o When heated above a certain temperature, rapid recovery
eliminates residual stresses and forms polygonized dislocation
structures.
o New small grains nucleate at the boundaries of the polygonized
structure, eliminating most dislocations.
• Recrystallization temperature:
o The temperature at which new grains form with low dislocation
density is the recrystallization temperature.
• Effect on Properties:
o Recrystallized metal has low strength but high ductility.
(iii) Grain Growth Stage
• Grain coarsening:
o At higher annealing temperatures, grains begin to grow, with
favoured grains consuming smaller grains.
o Driven by the reduction in grain boundary area.
• Undesirable effects:
o Grain growth is usually undesirable as it can reduce mechanical
strength.
o Occurs in materials subjected to high temperatures, not necessarily
related to cold working.
• Applications and considerations:
o Can occur in ceramic materials and affect optical properties.
o Sometimes desirable in applications like alumina ceramics for
lighting, where large grains minimize light scattering.
2.2 Tempering
