Pandemics are for the most part disease outbreaks that - A pandemic is an outbreak of global proportions.

It
become widespread as a result of the spread of happens when a bacterium or novel virus becomes
human-to-human infection capable of spreading rapidly.
- There have been many significant disease - It causes serious illness and can spread easily
outbreaks and pandemics recorded in history, from one person to the next, from country to country.
including Black Death, Spanish Flu, Hong Kong - Pandemics are usually caused by an infectious
Flu, SARS, H7N9, Ebola, Zika and the latest agent that is newly capable of spreading rapidly across a
COVID-19 or coronavirus. wide geographical area and affects & harms many people.
- The term “pandemic” as defined by many - An epidemic is specific to one city, region or country,
medical institution, includes some key features one that is always present in a particular place or
like wide geographic extension, disease community; but a pandemic spreads beyond national
movement, novelty, severity, high attack rates borders possibly worldwide
and explosiveness, minimal population - Sometimes, pandemics are caused simply by a new
immunity, infectiousness and contagiousness, ability to spread instantly, such as with the Black Death.
which help us to understand the concept better, if Humans may have little or no immunity against a new
we examine similarities and differences among virus. Often a new virus cannot spread between people,
them. but if it changes, or mutates, it may start to spread easily.
- The pandemic related crises have been associated - In this case, a pandemic can result and the
with enormous negative impacts on health, death toll in a pandemic is generally higher than that in
economy, society and security of national and an epidemic
global communities. They have also caused - In case of influenza, seasonal outbreaks or epidemics
significant political and social disruption. are generally caused by subtypes of a virus that is already
circulating among people.
DEFINITION OF PANDEMICS - Pandemics, on the other hand, are generally
- The word “Pandemic” originates from the Greek pan caused by novel subtypes. These subtypes have not
meaning “all” and demos meaning “the people” circulated among people before.
- The internationally accepted definition of a pandemic as - A pandemic affects more people and can be
it appears in the Dictionary of Epidemiology is more deadly than an epidemic
straightforward and well-known: “an epidemic occurring - Antibiotic resistance increases the risk of future
worldwide, or over a very wide area, crossing pandemics. It can also lead to more social disruption,
international boundaries and usually affecting a large economic loss, and general hardship.
number of people” - The Spanish flu was the worst pandemic in history,
- The classical definition, however, includes nothing killing 100 million people.
about population immunity, virology or disease severity.
- By On the basis of this dictionary definition, Post Peak Region: Levels of pandemic influenza in most
pandemics can be said to occur annually in each of the countries with adequate surveillance have dropped below
temperate southern and northern hemispheres, given peak levels.
that the definition of the term is so wide - However, even though the situation is getting
- Seasonal epidemics cross international boundaries and better, it's not over and there's still a possibility that the
affect a large number of people. However, this said, virus could come back in a second wave, so it's essential
seasonal epidemics are not considered pandemics. to stay vigilant and prepared for a potential resurgence.
- Modern definitions include “extensive epidemic”, - The worst part of the outbreak has passed, but
“epidemic over a very wide area and usually affecting a there's a warning that another wave of the disease could
large proportion of the population”, and “distributed or come.
occurring widely throughout a region, country, continent
or globally”, among others. Post Pandemic Region: Levels of influenza activity have
- In the case of influenza, biologists also require that returned to the levels seen for seasonal influenza in most
pandemic strains undergo key genomic mutations, known countries with adequate surveillance.
as antigenic shifts. - The disease is no longer spreading at pandemic
- For the World Health Organization (WHO) to pronounce levels, but the economic and social impacts are still severe
a level six pandemic alert there has to be sustained due to the consequences of the pandemic, including
transmission in at least two regions at the same time. income loss, job loss, business closures, and lockdowns. It
- WHO’s standard definition of pandemic is important to maintain surveillance and update
influenza refers to a situation in which a new and highly pandemic preparedness and response plans accordingly
pathogenic viral subtype, one to which no one (or few) in and an intensive phase of recovery and evaluation may be
the human population has immunological resistance and required.
which is easily transmissible between humans, HISTORY OF PANDEMICS
establishes a foothold in the human population, at which The Spanish flu pandemic, from 1918 to 1920, claimed 100
point it rapidly spreads worldwide. million lives and is considered the worst in history.
Some pandemics and epidemics that have occurred
include:
a. Plague of Justinian (541 - 750) g. Avian flu (H1N1) (2009)
- also known as the “Bubonic Plague” - also known as “Bird Flu”
- estimates believe 100 million people died during this - human infections with avian influenza typically occur
time, which was half the world population through close contact with infected birds or their
- caused by the bacterium Yersinia Pestis primarily found environments
in rodents, particularly rats, and is transmitted to - handling or close contact with infected birds or their
humans through the bite of infected fleas (rodents - fleas body fluids, including saliva, feces, blood, and respiratory
- human - death) (it was the fleas that mainly caused the secretions and consumption of undercooked or raw
disease) poultry products, such as meat or eggs, from infected
birds
b. Black Death (1346 - 1350) - can also be transmitted from person to person through
- also known as “the Great Pestilence, the Great respiratory droplets when an infected person talked,
Mortality or the Plague” coughed, or sneezed and the virus can also become
- it swept through Europe, Asia, and Africa, causing the aerosolized and remain in the air, potentially leading to
deaths of an estimated 75-200 million people transmission over longer distances
- also caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis which is - the virus can also survive on surfaces for varying
the same bacterium responsible for the Plague of periods so touching contaminated surfaces and then
Justinian touching the face can result in transmission.
- the rodents with infected fleas are now able to pass the
infection onto humans by biting them or making contact h. COVID-19 (novel coronavirus) (2019)
- claimed more than 6.9 million lives
c. Cholera (1899 - 1923) - COVID-19 stands for "Coronavirus Disease 2019”
- intestinal infection caused by the Vibrio Cholerae - SARS-CoV-2: believed to have originated in bats and
bacterium may have been transmitted to humans through an
- its outbreaks are usually linked to contaminated water intermediate host
and poor sanitation - primarily spreads through respiratory droplets when an
- killed an estimate of 800,000 to one million people infected person talks, coughs, or sneezes
- Cholera leads to severe diarrhea and dehydration, which - close contact with an infected person can lead to
can be fatal if left untreated transmission, particularly if they are actively shedding
the virus
d. Spanish flu (H1N1) (1918 - 1920)
Some viruses are present in animals but rarely
- infected approximately one-third of the world's
spread to humans. Sometimes an event can happen that
population, with an estimated death toll of 50 million to
makes this possible. Health authorities are concerned
100 million people
when a case arises of an animal virus passing to humans,
- also known as “The Great Influenza”
as this can be an indication that the virus is changing.
- severe respiratory symptoms, including high fever,
cough, and pneumonia
Swine flu and bird/avian flu, refer to viruses that were
- H1N1 influenza A virus from avian origin: the virus have
common in pigs or feathered animals (birds), but not in
originated in birds or bird feathers and then jumped to
humans, until an antigenic shift occurred.
humans
- In recent years, there has also been concern about
viruses that have been linked to camels (causing Middle
e. Asian flu (H2N2) (1957 - 1958)
East Respiratory Syndrome or MERS) and from monkeys
- or “Asian Influenza” that came from the H2N2 subtype
(Ebola virus).
of the influenza A virus
- affected an estimate of 1 to 4 million people
HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) - attacks the
- also came from an avian source: infected birds shed
immune system
bird flu virus in their saliva, mucus, and feces and so
- if left untreated, HIV can lead to the disease AIDS
disease is transmitted through contact with these infected
(Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome), which weakens
birds
the immune system and makes the individual more
- influenza viruses commonly circulate among birds, and
susceptible to opportunistic infections and certain
occasionally, a new strain can emerge with the ability to
cancers
infect and spread among humans
- believed to have originated from non-human primates,
particularly monkeys or chimpanzees in Central Africa
f. Hong Kong influenza (1968 - 1969/ 2004 - 2006)
- transmitted from person to person (caught through
- was caused by the H3N2 influenza A virus
unprotected sex with an infected partner) through certain
- believed to have originated from a reassortment of
body fluids, such as blood, semen, vaginal fluids, rectal
avian, human, and possibly swine influenza viruses
fluids, breast milk, used needles, and genetics
- direct contact or eating infected birds/poultry can lead
to transmission as well as contact with their saliva, feces,
blood, or respiratory secretions
THE STAGES OF PANDEMIC - All these are a likely reality should a pandemic
- The etiology of pandemics can be split into six stages. with true potential for high morbidity and mortality
The World Health Organization (WHO) has six stage emerge.
influenza program:
- A security threat of pandemic influenza is not a recent
Stage 1: No animal influenza virus circulating among phenomenon. Global security is threatened from
animals has been reported to cause infection in humans. pandemics, in terms of lives and economic stability an
Stage 2: An animal influenza virus circulating in effective and efficient emergency response can reduce
domesticated or wild animals is known to have caused avoidable mortality and morbidity and reduce the types of
infection in humans and is therefore considered a specific economic and social impacts.
potential pandemic threat. - How to have an effective and efficient
Stage 3: An animal or human-animal influenza emergency management will be a critical task of
reasserting virus has caused sporadic cases or small governments to deal effectively with disease outbreaks,
clusters of diseases in people, but it has not resulted in our pandemic now and in the future.
human-to-human transmission sufficient to sustain
community-level outbreaks. TERRORISM - refer to acts of violence that target
Stage 4: Human-to-human transmission of an animal or civilians in the pursuit of ideological aims:
human-animal influenza reasserting virus able to sustain -political aim - terrorist groups seek to challenge or
community-level outbreaks has been verified. overthrow governments, establish new states, or gain
autonomy for specific regions
Stage 5: The same identified virus has caused sustained
community level outbreaks in two or more countries in -belief/religious aims - terrorists (and/or cults) use
one WHO region. violence to promote and impose their interpretation of a
particular religion, to challenge secular governments, or
Stage 6: In addition to the criteria defined in Phase 5, the
to engage in holy warfare, targeting non-believers or
same virus has caused sustained community level
those of different faiths.
outbreaks in at least one other country in another WHO
region. -cultural aim - some terrorist groups focus on preserving
or promoting their cultural identity, often in the face of
THE MODERN PANDEMICS perceived threats from globalization, assimilation, or
If an influenza pandemic were to emerge today, the cultural imperialism, resisting the erosion of traditional
following problems could arise: values, customs, and practices
1.) People today are more internationally mobile and - Terrorism is a tactic employed by a subset of groups
more likely to live in cities than in the past, who believe that violence is the most effective way to
factors which increase the risk of a virus achieve their objectives.
spreading.
2.) Faster communication increases the risk of The Nature of Human Rights
panic, and the chance that people who may be - Human rights are universal values and legal guarantees
infected will travel in an attempt to escape the that protect individuals and groups against actions and
disease, potentially taking the virus with them. omissions that interfere with fundamental freedoms,
3.) It can take months or years for a vaccine to entitlements and human dignity
become available, because pandemic viruses are - Human rights are universal—in other words, they
novel agents. belong inherently to all human beings—and are
4.) Medical facilities would be overwhelmed, and interdependent and indivisible
there could be shortages of personnel to provide
International Human Rights Law
vital community services, due to the demand and
- is reflected in a number of core international human
illness.
rights treaties and in customary international law
- Medical science has advanced rapidly in recent years,
- a set of rules and agreements that countries around the
but it is unlikely ever to offer full protection from a
world have agreed upon to protect and promote the
possible pandemic, because of the novel nature of the
fundamental rights and dignity of all individuals
diseases involved.
- these rights include things like the right to life, freedom
- The negative impacts of pandemics are serious.
from torture, freedom of speech, and many more
Pandemics have infected millions of people, causing
- these rules are meant to ensure that everyone is entitled
widespread serious illness in a large population and
to basic human rights and that governments are held
thousands of deaths.
accountable if they violate these rights
- It represents a serious threat not only to the population
of the world, but also to its economy. Impact and Responses to Terrorism on Human Rights
- The impact of economic loss can result in - Terrorism aims at the very destruction of human rights,
instability of the economy, which is through direct costs, democracy and the rule of law
long term burden, and indirect costs. - Threatens the dignity and security of human beings
- The social impacts of pandemics were severe, everywhere, endangers or takes innocent lives, creates an
including travel was strictly limited, and schools closing, environment that destroys the freedom from fear of the
markets and sporting events were closed. people, jeopardizes fundamental freedoms, and aims at
the destruction of human rights
 War. Iraq was found to possess chemical and biological
NUCLEAR PROLIFERATION - refers to the spread or weapons and to have an aggressive and widespread
increase in the number of nations or non-state entities program for the acquisition of nuclear weapons. All of
that possess nuclear weapons or the capability to develop these were forbidden to Iraq by the UN Security Council.
them
Proliferation among Nations
In the last hundred years, life expectancy doubled Any determined nation could develop and start
and many deadly illnesses were eradicated. The world stockpiling reasonably efficient and reliable nuclear
would be a better place to live, had the astonishing weapons within ten years and, in many cases, in a much
scientific discoveries not been devalued with building the shorter time. The knowledge, nonnuclear materials, and
atomic bomb – an invention that can destroy life on earth components needed for the production of nuclear
in an instant. weapons are accessible worldwide.

Fredrick Soddy, who together with Ernest The main technical barrier is obtaining the
Rutherford discovered in 1901 that radioactivity involved required nuclear material (highly enriched uranium or
the release of energy, described an atomic future in which plutonium), but even that is not much of a barrier today.
humanity could “transform a desert continent, thaw the Detailed information needed to design facilities for
frozen poles, and make the whole Earth one smiling producing nuclear weapon materials is public. Key
Garden of Eden.” While the poles are indeed thawing, the components of such facilities can be purchased through
earth hardly looks like paradise. Instead, people fear international markets. Using plutonium extracted from
nuclear Armageddon, and the power of the atom is spent fuel from nuclear reactors is also open to any
becoming synonymous with death and destruction. They country that has a civilian reactor or high-power research
envisioned a future where nuclear energy could benefit reactor.
mankind, but the reality has been overshadowed by
nuclear weapons and the fear of its destructive power. Another alternative, applicable to at least a dozen
nations, is the diversion of highly enriched uranium or
Today, nine countries have nuclear weapons and plutonium from other types of research facilities. These
many more can easily acquire those, although only few often contain enough material for at least several nuclear
are officially recognized as possessing nuclear weapons weapons. There are several ways that present safeguards
by the 1968 nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) -an against diversion of nuclear material from nonmilitary
international agreement where countries promise not to reactors and their supporting facilities could be defeated.
develop or spread nuclear weapons. Those are the United These facilities produce nuclear material suitable for use
States (1945), Russia (1949), the United Kingdom (1952), in weapons and many, allegedly used for peaceful
France (1960) and China (1964). Three countries never purposes, are not subject to proliferation safeguards of
joined the NPT but are known to possess nuclear the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA).
weapons: Israel (n/a), India (1974), Pakistan (1998), and
North Korea (2006). Further, even where IAEA safeguards do apply,
they cannot detect diversion of small amounts of nuclear
Two additional countries that present immediate material and, at many facilities, the annual threshold of
proliferation concerns are Iran and Syria. Citizens of detection is significantly greater than the amount of
those states have paid a heavy price in taxes and/or material needed for a nuclear explosive. In addition, even
sanctions and sacrificed opportunities for economic and nations currently adhering to international safeguards
educational development to build weapons that can can break the agreement at a later date if the nation
destroy their lives. decides its vital interests dictate, for example if the nation
is losing a conventional war. Even where there is no
Nuclear proliferation is greatly enhancing the current diversion of nuclear materials, the worldwide
likelihood of nuclear war. It dramatically increases the spread of plutonium produced in civilian nuclear power
number of scenarios for small-scale nuclear wars or reactors has produced “latent proliferation” — the
nuclear terrorism that could escalate to nuclear war ability to produce nuclear weapons in short order — in
between the superpowers. Deterrence, the cornerstone of every country with a nuclear power plant.
national security in present strategies, fails against
nuclear terrorism simply because there are no Nuclear explosives can be made with less than 6
well-defined targets against which to retaliate. The kilograms of plutonium, in size about enough to fill a
spread of weapons to potential adversaries has long been coffee cup. The world’s present inventory of plutonium
a concern of states, and measures have been taken to produced in civilian reactors is roughly 700,000
prevent this. kilograms, greater than the total amount in the world’s
nuclear arsenals. This plutonium is being produced in
The news as we speak is full of the word thirty-six countries. By the year 2000, there will be more
“proliferation” and war is impending between the United than 3 million kilograms of plutonium in the world,
States and Iraq over the acquisition of “weapons of mass enough for at least 500,000 nuclear weapons.
destruction” – WMD – by Iraq in contravention of the UN
Security Council resolutions dating from the 1991 Gulf
To summarize the point: credibly more than a hundred. This creates an atmosphere
The most difficult technical barrier for the in which the Arab nations can easily justify their own
production of nuclear weapons is access to the required attempts at developing nuclear weapons. In fact, the 1981
nuclear material. But thirty-six countries with nuclear Israeli air raid on the Iraqi research reactor at Osirak
power plants produce at least enough plutonium for forty (Tammuz) was motivated by fear it would be used as a
nuclear weapons per year from each plant. It is also source of materials for nuclear weapons.
possible that international illegal markets in nuclear
weapon materials or, conceivably, in complete nuclear Proliferation is also encouraged by the fact that
weapons, may develop in the future, as they have for a nearly fifty nations — including Argentina, Brazil, Chile,
wide variety of other weapons in the past. As with other China, France, India, Israel, Pakistan, Portugal, Saudi
weapons, the illegal suppliers of such materials could be Arabia, South Africa, Spain, and Vietnam — have not
criminals who steal the materials or act as middlemen signed the Non-Proliferation Treaty. The US and the USSR
between illegal suppliers and the buyer. were required by Article VI of the treaty “to pursue
negotiations in good faith on effective measures relating
The Psychology of National Proliferation to cessation of the nuclear arms race at an early date and
Proliferation of nuclear weapons among nations to nuclear disarmament.” Yet since the treaty went into
is terrifying enough. But, starting in the mid- 1960s, effect in 1970, the American strategic nuclear arsenal has
there has been a steadily increasing concern that grown from 4,000 warheads to 12,000 and the Soviet
non-national organizations might acquire nuclear arsenal has increased from 2,000 to 10,000.
weapons. Such organizations include established terrorist
organizations; new terrorist groups, possibly including Impact of Nuclear Proliferation
criminals planning to use the weapons for extortion; and Out of over 40 states that are capable of
desperate factions of an established government during a producing nuclear weapons, less than a quarter have done
coup. An extensive and detailed expression of this so. Acquiring the atomic bomb remains a deviation rather
concern and possible ways for alleviating it has recently than the norm. However, when existential threats are
been published by the International Task Force on concerned, one nuclear weapon state is already too many.
Prevention of Nuclear Terrorism. The current pattern of nuclear proliferation suggests
expansion of the nuclear club in the near future unless
As long as nations possessing nuclear weapons some decisive measures are taken.
continue to behave as though they feel more secure with
than without them, more non-nuclear countries can be 1. Inferring nuclear proliferation trends
expected to join “the nuclear club.” The danger of - Civilian and military uses of nuclear energy are too close
proliferation to the Indian subcontinent illustrates the for comfort. There is an inextricable link between civilian
psychology behind the phenomenon and how and military uses of nuclear energy. Most of the countries
proliferation spreads like an epidemic. presenting proliferation challenges today got a foot in the
door of the nuclear club by developing civilian nuclear
In 1945, near the end of World War II, the United programs with the assistance of a nuclear weapon state.
States exploded its first nuclear weapon. In the tense Iran and Iraq are two alarming examples of the NPT
East-West relations of the postwar period, the Soviet members that used their membership to receive the
Union detonated its first weapon in 1949. As relations technology useful to developing nuclear weapons.
between the Soviet Union and China chilled in the 1960s, Technological revolution has democratized access to
China conducted its first nuclear test in 1964. In its turn, nuclear know-how, and controlling knowledge borders
India, which had fought a border war with China in 1962, on infringing on scientific freedom. Unfortunately, the
then conducted a nuclear test in 1974. Although India’s IAEA system of declarations and inspections aimed at
nuclear test was claimed to be for peaceful purposes, and identifying physical aspects of proliferation cannot detect
it has repeatedly denied having any nuclear weapons, the spread of dangerous nuclear knowledge and expertise.
there is no question that India could quickly produce
2. Extrapolating proliferation motives
deliverable nuclear weapons at any time it so desired. In
- Fear and pride motivate states to build the bomb and
response, India’s traditional enemy, Pakistan, has pushed
few would openly argue today with the notion that
its own nuclear program to the point where, probably, it
nuclear weapons are extremely dangerous and that
too can make nuclear weapons any time it desires.
proliferators must be punished. But even though everyone
Proliferation enters a new, ironic phase with seems to condemn the atomic bomb, the slow but sure
India now considering production of nuclear weapons in spread around the world continues. Moral considerations
response to their possible acquisition by Pakistan. The failed to stop the states from craving nuclear weapons
Middle East is another area with high danger of because ethics and reason hardly play a big role in the
proliferation. There have been strong indications that, in decision to build the bomb. Examining proliferation
spite of official denials, Israel has been producing nuclear history, one comes across decisions made in fear and
weapons since the late 1960s. Convincing public distrust, on one hand, combined with pride and envy, on
revelations by a former employee of the Israeli nuclear the other. Security and prestige considerations lie behind
establishment in the fall of 1986 leave little doubt that the fateful choices of virtually all nuclear weapon states.
Israel has a substantial stockpile of nuclear weapons,
- Links of fear and distrust connecting nuclear weapon - Evidence that terrorist organizations are seeking
states are easy to discern: American nuclear ambitions nuclear weapons capabilities is mounting, and the risks
were spurred by those of Nazi Germany; Soviet nuclear are growing exponentially with the emergence of every
aspirations were rooted in the existence of the US bomb; new nuclear state and the weakening of controls in some
China’s nuclear program originated in its fear of UK’s and existing nuclear weapon states. Adequate assistance to
America’s arsenals; India’s nuclear ambitions were states with insufficient financial controls, inadequate
spurred by the fear of China’s; Pakistan’s bomb was border security, non-existent or anachronistic export
meant to counter India’s. Israel hoped its nuclear arsenal controls are needed.
would deter its many enemies in the Middle East. Iran
claimed it was threatened by Israel and the United States. Response to Nuclear Proliferation
North Korea invokes the danger emanating from South Nuclear proliferation - be it among nations or
Korea, the United States, and the West in general. terrorists - greatly increases the chance of nuclear
Similarly, it is the fear of rogue states’ acquiring atomic violence on a scale that would be intolerable. Proliferation
weapons that the five nuclear members of the Security increases the chance that nuclear weapons will fall into
Council use to justify dragging their feet on nuclear the hands of irrational people, either suicidal or with no
disarmament stipulated by Article VI of the NPT. concern for the fate of the world.

3. Nuclear Terrorism Irrational or outright psychotic leaders of

- The most straightforward way for terrorists to acquire military factions or terrorist groups might decide to use a
nuclear weapons would be to steal complete weapons few nuclear weapons under their control to stimulate a
from military facilities or transport vehicles. The global nuclear war, as an act of vengeance against
terrorist’s job is complicated somewhat because many humanity as a whole. Countless scenarios of this type can
weapons are protected by Permissive Action Links (PALs). be constructed. Limited nuclear wars between countries
PALs are like combination locks which prevent the with small numbers of nuclear weapons could escalate
weapon from being detonated until the correct secret into major nuclear wars between superpowers. For
access code (“combination”) has been entered. Some example, a nation in an advanced stage of “latent
PALs go further and are designed to make the nuclear proliferation,” finding itself losing a nonnuclear war,
weapon inoperable after any unsuccessful attempt to might complete the transition to deliverable nuclear
bypass the PAL. weapons and, in desperation, use them. If that should
happen in a region, such as the Middle East, where major
- While detailed assessment of the effectiveness of PALs superpower interests are at stake, the small nuclear war
is classified information, they are not an insurmountable could easily escalate into a global nuclear war.
obstacle. Organizations with access to skilled technicians
(internal or hired) could disassemble the stolen weapon In summary, much more serious international
and build a new one detonated in a different way. And attention than is now evident needs to be given to the
smart terrorists would focus on weapons that are not consequences of nuclear proliferation among nations,
protected. Terrorist organizations could also construct a terrorists, or criminals. Continuing to neglect this menace
nuclear weapon from scratch. As with nations, the main is a recipe for disaster. The problems with nuclear power
technical barrier is the acquisition of the required are those of affordability and safety. The goal of
plutonium or highly enriched uranium. This material nonproliferation must be faced, but can be achieved. But
could be obtained by theft, by “donation” from a nation “must be faced” means that eliminating the contribution
sympathetic to the terrorists, or by purchasing it on a of nuclear power to proliferation of nuclear weapons is a
black market. The problem of theft brings out an requirement–not an option.
important difference in protecting against national versus
terrorist diversion of nuclear materials.

- In the case of national diversion, only detection is

required. But in the case of terrorist diversion, strong
physical security is also needed since terrorists or
criminals might obtain material through a physical
attack. While the details of the physical security
mechanisms to counteract such threats are classified,
what has been publicly revealed tends not to inspire
confidence. It is highly doubtful that the physical security
afforded to plutonium and highly enriched uranium
would be effective against thefts involving the
sophistication displayed in many modern thefts of money
or other materials less valuable than a nuclear weapon;
the value of stolen nuclear materials would be measured
in millions of dollars and a complete weapon would be
worth many times more.