UNIT 0: 8000 BCE TO 1200 CE

This unit begins with an important Marker Event - the Neolithic Revolution - continues with the
development of the major world religions and the rise and fall of classical civilizations, and then
ends during post-classical times, also known as the Middle Ages.

ENVIRONMENTAL AND PERIODIZATION ISSUES

When, how, and why did people give up their wandering and settle to live in one place? First of
all, it happened in different parts of the world at different times, but settled communities had
developed in many places by 8000 BCE. The ability to settle was based almost entirely on
successful cultivation of crops and domestication of animals. These drastic changes in human life
are known collectively as the Neolithic Revolution that almost certainly happened independently
in different places over a large span of time.
The changes that resulted include:
● Increase in reliable food supplies - Agricultural skills allowed people to control food
production, and domestication of animals both helped to make agricultural production
more efficient and increased the availability of food.
● Rapid increase in total human population - Reliable food supplies meant that people were
less likely to starve to death. With increasing life spans came increasing reproduction,
and more children meant that there were more people to tend the land and animals.
● Job specialization - Other occupations than farming developed, since fewer people were
needed to produce food. Some early specialized jobs include priests, traders, and builders.
● Widening of gender differences - Status distinctions between men and women increased,
as men took over most agricultural cultivation and domestication of animals. Women
were responsible for raising children, cooking food, and keeping the house, but in
virtually all of the early civilizations men became more and more dominant. A patriarchal
system commonly developed, with men holding power in the family, the economy, and
the government.
● Development of distinction between settled people and "nomads" - All people did not
settle into communities but remained as hunters and gatherers. As more settled
communities developed, the distinction between agriculturalists and hunters and gatherers
grew.

THE NATURE OF CIVILIZATION

These changes in turn allowed the development of "civilization," a basic organizing principle in
world history. Civilization may be defined in many ways, but it is generally characterized by:
● Large cities that dominate the countryside around them - Growing populations required
more food production, so the cities controlled their hinterlands in order to guarantee a
reliable and continuous supply of food for their inhabitants.

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 ● Monumental architecture and public building projects that take many forms - They may
include temples, palaces, irrigation projects, city walls, public arenas, government
buildings, and aqueducts.
● A complex political organization - In order to coordinate activities and provide protection
for the cities and hinterlands, governments developed. The larger the area and population,
the more demanding political positions became, and control of the government began to
move away from kinship ties. Although many early rulers passed their authority down to
their sons, other factors became important, such as military prowess and ability.
● A written language - This important development in human history allowed societies to
organize and maintain the growing political, social, and economic structure that followed
settlement into agricultural areas. Those societies that developed a written language were
able to communicate multiple ideas and large amounts of information that in turn
encouraged greater complexity and growth.
● Specialization of labor - With basic food needs taken care of by fewer people, others
may specialize in jobs that help to improve the quality of life. For example, engineers
may construct bigger and better irrigation systems, and bureaucrats may increase their
level of government services.
● Advanced art and literature - In prehistoric times and in simple communities, most
artwork and literature was (is) produced by people who were preoccupied with activities
that sustained their lives, such as hunting and gathering or farming. Art consisted of
simple drawings, and literature usually took the form of oral stories passed down from
one generation to the next. With the advent of civilization, some people had the time to
concentrate on art and literature, making them their primary occupation.
● Long distance trade - As technologies improved and specialization increased, trade with
other civilization centers began. This trade led to cultural diffusion, or the spreading and
sharing of cultural characteristics. Not only was material culture - objects such as pottery,
tools, and textiles - shared, but nonmaterial culture - such as beliefs, customs, and values
- also spread, contributing to the cosmopolitan nature of cities.
COMMON CHARACTERISTICS OF THE RIVER-VALLEY
CIVILIZATIONS
● Location in river valleys - Rivers provided water for crops, as well as the easiest form of
transportation. All four river valleys of the earliest civilizations had very fertile soil called
loess, or soil carried and deposited as river water traveled downstream.
● Complex irrigation systems - Controlling the flow of the rivers was a major issue for all
of the civilizations, and all of them channeled the water for agricultural use through
irrigation systems.
● Development of legal codes - The most famous set of laws was Hammurabi's Code, but
all wrote and implemented laws as political organization and long-distance trade grew
more complex.

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 ● Use of money - Long distance trade made the barter system (trading one type of good for
another) impractical, so all the civilizations developed some form of money for economic
exchanges.
● More formal scientific knowledge, numbering systems, and calendars - Developments in
these areas varied from civilization to civilization, but all formalized knowledge in at
least some of these areas.
● Intensification of social inequality - In all river valley civilizations, gender inequality
grew, and all practiced some form of slavery. Slaves were often captives in war or
hereditary, and they were used for household work, public building projects, and
agricultural production.
COMPARISONS OF EARLY RIVER VALLEY CIVILIZATIONS
(3500 BCE - 1200 BCE OR SO)

POLITICAL
SOCIAL
CULTURE ORGANIZATIO
STRUCTURE
N

City-states and
Cuneiform writing; Epic of warrior kings in Job specialization -
Gilgamesh almost constant farmers, merchants,
Extensive trade with Egypt conflict with one craftsmen, political
and the Indus Valley another administrators, priests
Early use of bronze tools, Social classes as a
chariots Large empires in result
Advanced astronomy; later times Slaves for domestic
MESOPOTAMIA service
math based on 60
(developed by 3500
BCE) Pessimistic view of world, Hammurabi's Code merchant class
perhaps due to important
unpredictable flooding of
the rivers Competition
among city states Marriage contracts
Polytheism - gods as well as frequent for women; women
powerful, often cruel invasions led to of upper classes less
Kings powerful, but not less political equal than lower
divine stability than in class counterparts
Egypt

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 Divine kingship -
the pharaoh; highly
Concerned with decorative
centralized,
arts, shipbuilding, some Smaller nobility than
authoritarian
medical knowledge Mesopotamia; fewer
government
Less extensive trade, merchants
especially in earlier eras Priests have high
Generally stable
Polytheism, with pharaoh status (only ones who
EGYPT (developed government
as a god; strong belief in understand the
by 3000 BCE) throughout the 3
afterlife complex hieroglyphic
kingdoms
Optimistic view of life written language)
(regular, controllable Women - probably
flooding of the river) Extensive higher status than in
bureaucracy; Mesopotamia
Hieroglyphics - complex,
pharaoh's power
pictorial language
channeled through
regional governors

Priests have highest

Writing system only status, based on
recently decipherable position as
Assumed to be
Trade with both intermediaries
complex and
Mesopotamians and China between gods and
thought to be
people
pottery making centralized
INDUS VALLEY
(developed by 2500 Cruder weapons than Limited
Mesopotamians - stone information, but Differences in house
BCE)
arrowheads, no swords large granaries sizes indicate strong
near the cities class distinctions
Polytheism; fertility
goddesses indicate
centralized control
Two cities: Harappa and Statues reflects
Mohenjo-Dara reverence for female
reproductive function

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 Oracles bones used to
communicate with
ancestors Centralized
Writing highly valued, government, power
complex pictorial language in the hands of the Social classes -
with 3000 characters emperor warrior aristocrats,
Uniform written language bureaucrats, farmers,
SHANG CHINA slaves
became bond among Government
(developed by 1700
people who spoke many preoccupied with
BCE)
different languages flood control of the Patriarchal society;
Bronze weapons and tools, rivers women as wives and
horse-drawn chariots Job specialization - concubines
Geographical separation bureaucrats,
from other civilizations, farmers, slaves
though probably traded
with the Indus Valley

BELIEF SYSTEMS before 600 BCE

HINDUISM
The beginnings of Hinduism are difficult to trace, but the religion originated with the polytheism
that the Aryans brought as they began invading the Indian subcontinent sometime after 2000
BCE. Important writings include The Vedas, the sacred texts of Hinduism, the Ramayana, and
the Mahabharata.
Hinduism assumes the eternal existence of a universal spirit that guides all life on earth. A piece
of the spirit is trapped inside humans and other living creatures. The most important desire of the
spirit is to be reunited with the universal spirit. When someone dies, their spirit usually is reborn
in a new body. A person's caste membership is a clear indication of how close he or she is to the
desired reunion. Some basic tenets of Hinduism are
● Reincarnation - Spirits are reborn in different people after one body dies. This rebirth has
no beginning and no end, and is part of the larger universal spirit that pervades all of life.
● Karma - This widely used word actually refers to the pattern of cause and effect that
transcends individual human lives. Whether or not an individual fulfills his/her duties in
one life determines what happens in the next.
● Dharma - Duties called dharma are attached to each caste position. For example, a
warrior's dharma is to fight honorably, and a wife's duty is to serve her husband
faithfully. Even the lowliest caste has dharma attached to it. If one fulfills this dharma,
the reward is to be reborn into a higher caste. Only the spirit of a member of the highest
caste (originally the priests) has the opportunity to be reunited with the universal spirit.

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 ● Moksha - Moksha is the highest, most sought-after goal for the spirit. It describes the
reunion with the universal spirit.
The universal spirit is represented by Brahman, a god that takes many different shapes. Two of
Brahman's forms are Vishnu the Creator, and Shiva the Destroyer. Hinduism is very difficult to
categorize as either polytheistic or monotheistic because of the central belief in the universal
spirit. Do each of Brahman's forms represent a different god, or are they all the same?
JUDAISM
As noted earlier, Judaism was the first clearly monotheistic religion. At the heart of the religion
was a belief in a Covenant, or agreement, between God and the Jewish people, that God would
provide for them as long as they obeyed him. The Ten Commandments set down rules for
relationships among human beings, as well as human relationships to God. Because they were
specially chosen by God, Jews came to see themselves as separate from others and did not seek
to convert others to the religion. As a result, Judaism has remained a relatively small religion.
However, its influence on other larger religions, including Christianity, and Islam is vast, and so
it remains as a very significant "root religion."

COMMON FEATURES OF CLASSICAL CIVILIZATIONS

The three areas of classical civilizations developed their own beliefs, lifestyles, political
institutions, and social structures. However, there were important similarities among them:
● Patriarchal family structures - Like the river valley civilizations that preceded them, the
classical civilization valued male authority within families, as well as in most other areas
of life.
● Agricultural-based economies - Despite more sophisticated and complex job
specialization, the most common occupation in all areas was farming.
● Complex governments - Because they were so large, these three civilizations had to
invent new ways to keep their lands together politically. Their governments were large
and complex, although they each had unique ways of governing
● Expanding trade base - Their economic systems were complex. Although they generally
operated independently, trade routes connected them by both land and sea.
CLASSICAL CIVILIZATIONS

Culture Political Organization Social Structure

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 Perfection of military Basic division
Two eras:
techniques: conquer but between patricians
don't oppress; division of 1) Republic - rule by
(aristocrats) and
army into legions, aristocrats, with some
plebeians (free
emphasizing organization power shared with
farmers), although a
and rewarding military assemblies; Senate most
middle class of
talent powerful, with two
merchants grew
consuls chosen to rule,
Art, literature, during the empire;
Rome (about generally selected from
philosophy, science wealth based on land
500 BCE to the military
derivative from Greece ownership; gap
476 CE, 2) Empire - non- between rich and
Superb engineering and
although hereditary emperor; poor grew with time
architecture techniques;
eastern half generally chosen by
extensive road systems; Male dominated
continued for predecessor
monumental architecture family structure
another Extensive colonization
-buildings, aqueducts, Inequality increased
thousand and military conquest
bridges during the empire,
years) during both eras
Polytheism, derivative with great
from Greeks; Christianity Development of an dependence on
developed during Empire overarching set of laws, slavery during the
period, but not dominant restrictions that all had to late empire; slaves
until very late obey; Roman law sets in used in households,
place principle of rule of mines, large estates,
Great city of Rome -
law, not rule by whim of all kinds of manual
buildings, arenas, design
the political leader labor
copied in smaller cities

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 Confucianism developed
during late Zhou; by Han
times, it dominated the Zhou - emperor rules by
political and social mandate of heaven, or
structure. belief that dynasties rise
and fall according to the Family basic unit of
Legalism and Daoism
will of heaven, or the society, with loyalty
develop during same era;
ancestors. Emperor was and obedience
Buddhism appears, but
the "son of heaven." stressed
not influential yet
Threats from nomads Wealth generally
from the south and west Emperor housed in the based on land
spark the first forbidden city, separate ownership;
construction of the Great from all others emergence of
Wall; clay soldiers, lavish scholar gentry
China (about tomb for first emperor Growth of a large
Political authority
500 BCE to Shi Huangdi merchant class, but
controlled by Confucian
600 CE) Chinese identity values, with emperor in merchants generally
cemented during Han era: full control but bound by lower status
the "Han" Chinese duty Some slavery, but
Han - a "golden age" Political power centralized not much
with prosperity from under Shi Huangdi - often Patriarchal society
trade along the Silk seen as the first real reinforced by
Road; inventions include emperor Confucian values
water mills, paper, that emphasized
Han - strong centralized
compasses, and pottery obedience of wife to
government, supported by
and silk-making; calendar husband
the educated scholar
Capital of Xi'an possibly bureaucrats who obtained
the most sophisticated, positions through civil
diverse city in the world service exams
at the time; many other
large cities

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 Aryan religious stories Complex social
written down into Vedas, hierarchy based on
and Hinduism became Lack of political unity -
caste membership;
the dominant religion, geographic barriers and
occupations strictly
although Buddhism diversity of people; tended
dictated by caste
began in India during this to fragment into small
era; kingdoms;
Political authority less Decline in the status
Mauryans Buddhist,
important than caste of women during
Guptas Hindu
membership and group Gupta,
India Extensive trade routes corresponding to
allegiances
within subcontinent and increased emphasis
with others; connections Mauryan and Gupta on acquisition and
to Silk Road, and heart of Empires formed based on inheritance of
Indian Ocean trade; military conquest;
property; ritual of
coined money for trade Mauryan Emperor Ashoka
sati for wealthy
seen as greatest; converted
So-called Arabic women (widow
to Buddhism, kept the
numerals developed in cremates herself in
religion alive
India, employing a 10- her husband's
based system funeral pyre)

GLOBAL TRADE AND CONTACT

During the classical era the major civilizations were not entirely isolated from one another.
Migrations continued, and trade increased, diffusing technologies, ideas, and goods from
civilization centers to more parts of the world. However, the process was slow. Chinese
inventions such as paper had not yet reached societies outside East Asia by the end of the
classical era. The Western Hemisphere was not yet in contact with the Eastern Hemisphere.
Nevertheless, a great deal of cultural diffusion did take place, and larger areas of the world were
in contact with one another than in previous eras.

TRADE DURING THE CLASSICAL ERA (1000 BCE to 600 CE)

Route Description What traded? Who participated? Cultural diffusion

Overland from western From west to Chariot warfare, the

Chinese, Indians,
China to the east - horses, stirrup, music, diversity
Parthians, central
Mediterranean Trade fruits, walnuts of populations,
Silk Asians, Romans
made possible by From east to Buddhism, wealth and
Road Primary agents of prosperity (particularly
development of a camel west - silk,
hybrid capable of long trade - central important for central
spices, pottery,
dry trips Asian nomads Asian nomads)
paper

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 Lateen sail (flattened
By water from Canton triangular shape)
Pigments, permitted sailing far
in China to Southeast Chinese, Indians,
Indian pearls, spices, from coast
Asia to India to eastern Malays, Persians,
Ocean bananas and
Africa and the Middle Arabs, people on Created a trading class
Trade other tropical
East; monsoon- Africa's east coast with mixture of
fruits
controlled cultures, ties to
homeland broken

THE LATE CLASSICAL ERA: THE FALL OF EMPIRES (200 TO 600 CE)
The classical civilizations experienced significant decline and/or conquest in the time period
between about 200 and 600 CE, and because the empires were larger and more connected, their
fall had an even more significant impact on the course of world history. Han China was the first
to fall (around 220 CE), then the Western Roman Empire (476 CE), and finally the Gupta in 550
CE.
SIMILARITIES
Several common factors caused all three empires to fall:
● Attacks from the Huns - The Huns were a nomadic people of Asia that began to migrate
south and west during this time period. Their migration was probably caused by drought
and lack of pasture, and the invention and use of the stirrup facilitated their attacks on all
three established civilizations.
● Deterioration of political institutions - All three empires were riddled by political
corruption during their latter days, and all three suffered under weak-willed rulers. Moral
decay also characterized the years prior to their respective falls.
● Protection/maintenance of borders - All empires found that their borders had grown so
large that their military had trouble guarding them. A primary example is the failure of
the Great Wall to keep the Huns out of China. The Huns generally just went around it.
● Diseases that followed the trade routes - Plagues and epidemics may have killed off as
much as half of the population of each empire.
DIFFERENCES
Even though the empires shared common reasons for their declines, some significant differences
also may be seen.
● The Gupta's dependence on alliances with regional princes broke down, exhibiting the
tendency toward political fragmentation on the Indian subcontinent.
● Rome's empire lasted much longer than did either of the other two. The Roman Empire
also split in two, and the eastern half endured for another 1000 years after the west fell.

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 ● The fall of empire affected the three areas in different ways. The fall of the Gupta
probably had the least impact, partly because political unity wasn't the rule anyway, and
partly because the traditions of Hinduism and the caste system (the glue that held the area
together) continued on after the empire fell. The fall of the Han Dynasty was problematic
for China because strong centralized government was in place, and social disorder
resulted from the loss of authority. However, dynastic cycles that followed the dictates of
the Mandate of Heaven were well defined in China, and the Confucian traditions
continued to give coherence to Chinese society. The most devastating fall of all occurred
in Rome. Roman civilization depended almost exclusively on the ability of the
government and the military to control territory. Even though Christianity emerged as a
major religion, it appeared so late in the life of the empire that it provided little to unify
people as Romans after the empire fell. Instead, the areas of the empire fragmented into
small parts and developed unique characteristics, and the Western Roman Empire never
united again.
COMMON CONSEQUENCES
The fall of the three empires had some important consequences that represent major turning
points in world history:
● Trade was disrupted but survived, keeping intact the trend toward increased long-distance
contact. Trade on the Indian Ocean even increased as conflict and decline of political
authority affected overland trade.
● The importance of religion increased as political authority decreased. In the west,
religion, particularly Christianity, was left to slowly develop authority in many areas of
people's lives. Buddhism also spread quickly into China, presenting itself as competition
to Confucian traditions.
● Political disunity in the Middle East forged the way for the appearance of a new religion
in the 7th century. By 600 CE Islam was in the wings waiting to make its entrance onto
the world stage.
BELIEF SYSTEMS (600 BCE to 800 CE)
Each of the classical civilizations had very different belief systems that partially account for the
very different directions that the three areas took in succeeding eras. Rome and Greece were
polytheistic, but Christianity had a firm footing by the time the western empire fell. Hinduism
dominated Indian society from very early times, although Buddhism also took root in India.
From China's early days, ancestors were revered, a belief reinforced by the philosophy of
Confucianism. Other belief systems, such as Daoism, Confucianism and Buddhism, also
flourished in China by 600 CE.
BUDDHISM
Buddhism began in India in the Ganges River are during the 6th century BCE. Its founder was
Siddhartha Gautama, who later became known as the Buddha, or the "Enlightened One."
Siddhartha was the son of a wealthy Hindu prince who grew up with many advantages in life.
However, as a young man he did not find answers to the meaning of life in Hinduism, so he left
home to become an ascetic, or wandering holy man. His Enlightenment came while sitting under
a tree, and the revelations of that day form the basic tenets of Buddhism:

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 ● The Four Noble Truths - 1) All of life is suffering; 2) Suffering is caused by false
desires for things that do not bring satisfaction; 3) Suffering may be relieved by removing
the desire; 4) Desire may be removed by following the Eightfold Path.
● The Eightfold Path to Enlightenment - The ultimate goal is to follow the path to
nirvana, or a state of contentment that occurs when the individual's soul unites with the
universal spirit. The eight steps must be achieved one by one, starting with a change in
thoughts and intentions, followed by changes in life style and actions, that prelude a
higher thought process through meditation. Eventually, a "breakthrough" occurs when
nirvana is achieved that gives the person a whole new understanding of life.
Although Buddhism, like Hinduism, emphasizes the soul's yearning for understandings on a
higher plane, it generally supported the notion that anyone of any social position could follow the
Eightfold Path successfully. Buddhists believed that changes in thought processes and life styles
brought enlightenment, not the powers of one's caste. Although the Buddha actively spread the
new beliefs during his long lifetime, the new religion faced oppression after his death from
Hindus who saw it as a threat to the basic social and religious structure that held India together.
Buddhism probably survived only because the Mauryan emperor Ashoka converted to it and
promoted its practice. However, in the long run, Buddhism did much better in areas where it
spread through cultural diffusion, such as Southeast Asia, China, and Japan.
CONFUCIANISM
Three important belief systems (Confucianism, Daoism, and Legalism) emerged in China during
the Warring States Period (403-221 BCE) between the Zhou and Han Dynasties. Although the
period was politically chaotic, it hosted a cultural flowering that left a permanent mark on
Chinese history.
Confucius contemplated why China had fallen into chaos, and concluded that the Mandate of
Heaven had been lost because of poor behavior of not only the Chinese emperor, but all his
subjects as well. His plan for reestablishing Chinese society profoundly affected the course of
Chinese history and eventually spread to many other areas of Asia as well. He emphasized the
importance of harmony, order, and obedience and believed that if five basic relationships were
sound, all of society would be, too:
● Emperor/subject - the emperor has the responsibility to take care of his subjects, and
subjects must obey the emperor
● Father/son - the father takes care of the son, and the son obeys the father

● Older brother/younger brother - the older brother takes care of the younger brother, who
in turn obeys him
● Husband/wife - the husband takes care of the wife, who in turn obeys him

● Friend/friend -The only relationship that does not assume inequality should be
characterized by mutual care and obedience
● Confucius also defined the "superior man" - one who exhibits ren (kindness), li (sense of
proper behavior), and Xiao (filial piety, or loyalty to the family).

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Confucianism accepted and endorsed inequality as an important part of an ordered society. It
confirmed the power of the emperor, but held him responsible for his people, and it reinforced
the patriarchal family structure that was already in place in China. Because Confucianism
focused on social order and political organization, it is generally seen as a philosophy rather than
a religion. Religions are more likely to emphasize spiritual topics, not society and politics.
DAOISM
The founder of Daoism is believed to have been Laozi, a spiritualist who probably lived in the
4th century BCE. The religion centers on the Dao (sometimes referred to as the "Way" or
"Path"), the original force of the cosmos that is an eternal and unchanging principle that governs
all the workings of the world. The Dao is passive - not active, good nor bad - but it just is. It
cannot be changed, so humans must learn to live with it. According to Daoism, human strivings
have brought the world to chaos because they resist the Dao. A chief characteristic is a
disengagement from the affairs of the world, including government. The less government, the
better. Live simply, in harmony with nature. Daoism encourages introspection, development of
inner contentment, and no ambition to change the Dao.
Both Confucianism and Daoism encourage self knowledge and acceptance of the ways things
are. However, Confucianism is activist and extroverted, and Daoism is reflective and
introspective. The same individual may believe in the importance of both belief systems, unlike
many people in western societies who think that a person may only adhere to one belief system
or another.
CHRISTIANITY
Christianity grew directly out of Judaism, with its founder Jesus of Nazareth born and raised as a
Jew in the area just east of the Mediterranean Sea. During his lifetime, the area was controlled by
Rome as a province in the empire. Christianity originated partly from a long-standing Jewish
belief in the coming of a Messiah, or a leader who would restore the Jewish kingdom to its
former glory days. Jesus' followers saw him as the Messiah who would cleanse the Jewish
religion of its rigid and haughty priests and assure life after death to all that followed Christian
precepts. In this way, its appeal to ordinary people may be compared to that of Buddhism, as it
struggled to emerge from the Hindu caste system. Christianity's broad appeal of the masses, as
well as deliberate conversion efforts by its early apostles, meant that the religion grew steadily
and eventually became the religion with the most followers in the modern world.
Jesus was a prophet and teacher whose followers came to believe that he was the son of God. He
advocated a moral code based on love, charity, and humility. His disciples predicted a final
judgment day when God would reward the righteous with immortality and condemn sinners to
eternal hell. Jesus was arrested and executed by Roman officials because he aroused suspicions
among Jewish leaders, and he was seen by many as a dangerous rebel rouser. After his death, his
apostles spread the faith. Especially important was Paul, a Jew who was familiar with Greco-
Roman culture. He explained Christian principles in ways that Greeks and Romans understood,
and he established churches all over the eastern end of the Mediterranean, and even as far away
as Rome.
Christianity grew steadily in the Roman Empire, but not without clashes with Roman authorities.
Eventually in the 4th century CE, the Emperor Constantine was converted to Christianity and
established a new capital in the eastern city of Byzantium, which he renamed Constantinople. As
a result, the religion grew west and north from Rome, and also east from Constantinople, greatly
extending its reach.

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By the end of the classical era, these major belief systems had expanded to many areas of the
world, and with the fall of empires in the late classical era, came to be major forces in shaping
world history. One major religion - Islam - remained to be established in the 7th century as part
of the next great period that extended from 600 to 1450 CE.

THE DIVISION OF CHRISTENDOM

The Roman Empire was divided into two parts during the 4th century C.E. when imperial power
shifted eastward from Rome to Byzantium. The emperor Constantine moved to the new center,
and renamed the city Constantinople. As Christianity spread, it developed religious centers in
both Rome and Constantinople, and as the two areas grew more politically independent,
Christian practices and beliefs also split in different directions. Even though the church remained
officially tied for many years after Rome fell in 476, in effect two different churches developed:
the Eastern Orthodox Church in the east and the Roman Catholic Church in the west. The schism
became official in 1054, when the Roman Pope and the Patriarch in Constantinople agreed that
their religious differences could not be reconciled.
THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE
This Empire survived for almost a millennium after the western empire collapsed. For a time, it
was a powerful Christian Empire, but it came under pressure from Islamic Turkish people by the
11th century, and finally fell to the Ottoman Turks in 1453.
A tendency to exalt Byzantine emperors as absolute rulers of both state and church was
reinforced by the appearance of Justinian in the 6th century. He was an energetic, capable ruler
with an energetic, capable wife called Theodora, a very religious Christian. Although they never
resolved the many religious disputes that disrupted the empire, Justinian had many noteworthy
accomplishments:
● The building of the Hagia Sophia, a magnificent domed church that still stands today as a
Muslim mosque
● Extension of the political boundaries of the empire to regain most of the western
territories again, only to be lost by later emperors
● The development of the Justinian Code, a law code that systemized Roman law going
back to the Republic and continuing through the empire
● Of the accomplishments listed, the Justinian Code is the emperor's most enduring legacy,
since it became the basis of law in western Europe and eventually the United States.

THE ISLAMIC WORLD

Islam - the religion with the second largest number of supporters in the world today - started in
the sparsely populated Arabian Peninsula among the Bedouins, a nomadic group that controlled
trade routes across the desert. In the early 7th century, a few trade towns, such as Mecca and
Medina, were centers for camel caravans that were a link in the long distance trade network that
stretched from the Mediterranean to eastern China. Mecca was also was the destination for
religious pilgrims who traveled there to visit shrines to countless gods and spirits. In the center of
the city was a simple house of worship called the Ka'aba, which contained among its many idols
the Black Stone, believed to have been placed there by Abraham, the founder of Judaism.
THE FOUNDING OF ISLAM

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Islam was founded in Mecca by Muhammad, a trader and business manager for his wife,
Khadijah, a wealthy businesswoman. According to Muslim belief, one night while he was
meditating Muhammad heard the voice of the angel Gabriel, who told him that he was a
messenger of God. Muhammad became convinced that he was the last of the prophets, and that
the one true god, Allah, was speaking to him through Gabriel. He came back into the city to
begin spreading the new religion, and he insisted that all other gods were false. His followers
came to be called Muslims, or people who have submitted to the will of Allah.
Muhammad's ministry became controversial, partly because city leaders feared that Mecca would
lose its position as a pilgrimage center of people accepted Muhammad's monotheism. In 622
C.E. he was forced to leave Mecca for fear of his life, and this famous flight to the city of
Yathrib became known as the Hijrah, the official founding date for the new religion. In Yathrib
he converted many to Islam, and he renamed the city "Medina," or "city of the Prophet." He
called the community the umma, a term that came to refer to the entire population of Muslim
believers.
As Islam spread, Muhammad continued to draw the ire of Mecca's leadership, and he became an
astute military leader in the hostilities that followed. In 630, the Prophet and 10,000 of his
followers captured Mecca and destroyed the idols in the Ka'aba. He proclaimed the structure as
the holy structure of Allah, and the Black Stone came to symbolize the replacement of
polytheism by the faith in one god.
ISLAMIC BELIEFS AND PRACTICES
The Five Pillars of faith are five duties at the heart of the religion. These practices represent a
Muslim's submission to the will of God.
● Faith - When a person converts to Islam, he or she recites the Declaration of Faith,
"There is no God but Allah, and Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah."
● Prayer - Muslims must face the city of Mecca and pray five times a day. The prayer often
takes place in mosques (Islamic holy houses), but Muslims may stop to pray anywhere.
● Alms - All Muslims are expected to give money for the poor through a special religious
tax called alms. Muhammad taught the responsibility to support the less fortunate.
● Fasting - During the Islamic holy month of Ramadan, Muslims fast from sunup to
sundown. Only a simple meal is eaten at the end of the day.
● Pilgrimage - Muslims are expected to make a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in their
lifetime. This event, called the hajj, takes place once a year, and people arrive from all
over the world to worship at the Ka'aba and several other holy sites nearby.
The single most important source of religious authority for Muslims is the Qur'an, the holy book
believed to be the actual words of Allah. According to Islam, Allah expressed his will through
the Angel Gabriel, who revealed it to Muhammad. After Muhammad's death these revelations
were collected into a book, the Qur'an. Early followers developed a body of law known as
shari'a, which regulated the family life, moral conduct, and business and community life of
Muslims. Shari'a still is an important force in many Muslim countries today even if they have
separate bodies of official national laws.
THE SPREAD OF ISLAM

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Muhammad died in 632 CE, only ten years after the hijrah, but by that time, Islam had spread
over much of the Arabian Peninsula. The government set up was called a caliphate, ruled by a
caliph (a title that means "successor" or "deputy) selected by the leaders of the umma. The first
caliph was Abu-Bakr, one of Muhammad's close friends. He was followed by three successive
caliphs who all had known the Prophet, and were "rightly guided" by the Qur'an and the memory
of Muhammad. By the middle of the 8th century Muslim armies had conquered land from the
Atlantic Ocean to the Indus River, and the caliphate stretched 6000 miles east to west.
Religious zeal certainly played an important role in the rapid spread of Islam during the 7th and
8th centuries C.E. However, several other factors help to explain the phenomenon:
● Well-disciplined armies - For the most part the Muslim commanders were able, war
tactics were effective, and the armies were efficiently organized.
● Weakness of the Byzantine and Persian Empires - As the Islamic armies spread north,
they were aided by the weakness of the empires they sought to conquer. Both the
Byzantine and Persian Empires were weaker than they had been in previous times, and
many of their subjects were willing to convert to the new religion.
● Treatment of conquered peoples - Conquered people were allowed to retain their own
religions. Muslims considered Christians and Jews to be superior to polytheistic people,
not only because they were monotheistic, but also because they too adhered to a written
religious code. As a result, Muslims called Christians and Jews "people of the book."
Many conquered people chose to convert to Islam, not only because of its appeal, but
because as Muslims they did not have to pay a poll tax.
THE SUNNI-SHI'A SPLIT
The Arab tribes had fought with one another for centuries before the advent of Islam, and the
religion failed to prevent serious splits from occurring in the caliphate. The death of
Muhammad's son-in-law Ali in 661 triggered a civil war. A family known as the Umayyads
emerged to take control, but Ali's death sparked a fundamental division that has lasted over the
centuries. The two main groups were:
● Sunni - In the interest of peace, most Muslims accepted the Umayyads' rule, believing
that the caliph should continue to be selected by the leaders of the Muslim community.
This group called themselves the Sunni, meaning "the followers of Muhammad's
example."
● Shi'a - This group thought that the caliph should be a relative of the Prophet, and so they
rejected the Umayyads' authority. "Shi'a" means "the party of Ali," and they sought
revenge for Ali's death.
Many other splits followed, including the formation of the Sufi, who reacted to the luxurious
lives of the later caliphs by pursuing a life of poverty and devotion to a spiritual path. They
shared many characteristics of other ascetics, such as Buddhist and Christian monks, with their
emphasis on meditation and chanting.
THE CHANGING STATUS OF WOMEN
The patriarchal system characterized most early civilizations, and Arabia was no exception.
However, women enjoyed rights not always given in other lands, such as inheriting property,

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divorcing husbands, and engaging in business ventures (like Muhammad's wife Khadijah.) The
Qur'an emphasized equality of all people before Allah, but for the most part, Islam reinforced
male dominance.
Muslims also adopted the long-standing custom of veiling women. Upper class women in
Mesopotamia wore veils as early as the 13th century BCE, and the practice had spread to Persia
and the eastern Mediterranean long before Muhammad lived. When Muslims conquered these
lands, the custom remained intact, as well as the practice of women venturing outside the house
only in the company of servants or chaperones.
ARTS, SCIENCES, AND TECHNOLOGIES
Because Islam was always a missionary religion, learned officials and judges helped to bridge
cultural differences and spread Islamic values throughout the dar al-Islam, as Islamic lands came
to be known. Formal educational institutions were established to help in this mission, and they
attracted scholars from all over, and so we see a flowering of arts, sciences, and new
technologies in Islamic areas in the 12th through 15th centuries.
When Persia became a part of the caliphate, the conquerors adapted much of the rich cultural
heritage of that land. Muslims became acquainted, then, with the literary, artistic, philosophical,
and scientific traditions of others. Persians was the principle language of literature, poetry,
history, and political theory, and the verse of the Rubaiyat by Omar Khayyam is probably the
most famous example. Although many of the stories of The Arabian Nights or The Thousand and
One Nights were passed down orally from generation to generation, they were written down in
Persian.
Islamic states in northern India also adapted mathematics from the people they conquered, using
their Hindi numerals, which Europeans later called "Arabic numerals." The number system
included a symbol for zero, a very important concept for basic calculations and multiplication.
Muslims are generally credited with the development of mathematical thought, particularly
algebra. Muslims also were interested in Greek philosophy, science, and medical writings. An
Islamic scholar, Nasir al-Din, studied and improved upon the cosmological model of Ptolemy, an
ancient Greek astronomer.

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