GROUP 2 | BSCE 1 – 3

AOYONG, Timothy Aaron 01 TORRES, Nathaniel 24

BANAAG, Nash 02 CAMAT, Dianne Xyryl 28
CABILLOY, Edmar Paul 03 CAMPANA, Sheiree May 29
CARIÑO, John Audie 07 GUTIERREZ, Pamela 36
PARIÑAS, James Troy 20 IDDUROT, Analea 38

ANALYTIC GEOMETRY
THE STRAIGHT LINE
A straight line is a line that does not change in direction. Though, it has a uniform slope.

GENERAL EQUATION OF A LINE: Ax + By + C = 0

DISTANCE FORMULA: 𝑑 = √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2

1. POINT – SLOPE FORM

DEFINITION: This form of a linear equation is derived from the equation for finding the slope of a line. The slope
of a line is the ratio of the line's elevation to its horizontal movement, or as it's more commonly known, rise over
run.

DERIVED FORMULA:
𝑦− 𝑦1
m= 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
𝑥− 𝑥1
whereas:
y1 = is the y value of the known point on the line;
m = is the slope;
x1 = is the x value of the known point.

EXAMPLES:
a. Find the point-slope equation of the line through (1, -1) and (5, 2).
𝑦− 𝑦1 3
y – y1 = m (x – x1) m= m=
𝑥− 𝑥1 4
3 2−(−1)
y – ( -1) = (x –1 ) m=
4 5− 1

b. Write the point-slope form of the line with a slope of 3 which passes through the point (2,5).
y – y1 = m (x – x1)
y – 5 = 3 (x – 2)

2. SLOPE – INTERCEPT FORM

DEFINITION: The slope-intercept form of a line is a way of writing the equation of a line so that the slope of the
line and the y-intercept are easily identifiable. The slope is the steepness of the line, and the y-intercept is the place
the line crosses the y-axis.

DERIVED FORMULA:

The slope of a line, m, is a measure of its steepness. The y-intercept of a line, b, is the y-coordinate of the point
where the graph of the line crosses the y-axis.
 EXAMPLES:
a. Write the equation of a line that passes through (0,0) or the origin and (1,3).
3− 0
m=
1− 0
m=3

y = mx + b
y = 3x + 0
y = 3x

b. Graph

-3x + y = 2
y = 3x + 2
m = 3 and b = 2.

The slope gives a rise of 3 units up and 1 unit to the right. That gives a point on the line of (0 + 1, 2 + 3) = (1, 5).

3. INTERCEPT FORM
DEFINITION: The intercept form of the line is the equation of the line segment based on the intercepts with both
axes.

DERIVED FORMULA:
a is the x-intercept.
b is the y-intercept.
a and b must be nonzero.

The values of a and b can be obtained from the general form equation.
If y = 0, x = a.
If x = 0, y = b.

A line does not have an intercept form equation in the following cases:
1. A line parallel to the x-axis, which has the equation y = k.
2. A line parallel to the x-axis, which has the equation x = k.
3. A line that passes through the origin, which has equation y = mx.

EXAMPLES:
a. A line has an x-intercept of 5 and a y-intercept of 3. Find its equation.
a=5
b=3

3x + 5y = 15
3x + 5y – 15 = 0

b. Consider a line whose intercepts on the x and y axes are 3 and -5 respectively
𝑥 𝑦
+ =1 -5x + 3y = -15
𝑎 𝑏
𝑥 𝑦
+ =1 -5x + 3y + 15 = 0
3 −5
4. PARALLEL AND PERPENDICULAR LINES
 DEFINITION: Parallel lines are lines in a plane that are always the same distance apart. Parallel lines never
intersect. Perpendicular lines are lines that intersect at a right (90 degrees) angle. The two slopes of perpendicular
lines are negative reciprocals.

DERIVED FORMULA:
Parallel: m1 = m2
Perpendicular: m1 m2 = -1

m1 = slope of the 1st line

m2 = slope of the 2nd line

EXAMPLES:
a. Find the slope of the line parallel to the 4x – 5y = 12.
4
y = mx + b 5y = 4x – 12 m=
5
4 12
4x – 5y = 12 y= x-
5 5
b. Find the slope of the line perpendicular to the line -6x - 9y = 4.
2
y = mx + b m1 = −
3
3
-6x - 9y = 4. m2 =
2
9y = – 6x + 4 m1m2 = -1
6 4 2 3
y=− x- − * = -1
9 9 3 2
2 4
y=− x- -1 = -1
3 9

5. NORMAL FORM OF A LINE

DEFINITION: The normal line to a curve at a particular point is the line through that point and perpendicular to
the tangent.

DERIVED FORMULA:

• To determine the normal form of a line Ax + By + C = 0, divide through by +_√ 𝐴2 + 𝐵2 , using the sign
of B in front of the square root, then transfer the constant term to the other side of the equation.
• To determine the normal form of the line Ax + C = 0, solve for x.
This used when endpoint of P is in the origin and the other one touches the given line.
p = xcosα + ysinα
To solve for p we have the formula:
𝑚𝑛
p=
√𝑚2 + 𝑛2

EXAMPLES:
a. p = 7 ; α= 45 b. m = 10 ; n = 14
𝑚𝑛
7 = xcos45 + ysin45 p= 2 2
1 1 √𝑚 + 𝑛
x* + y* = 7 10∗14
√2 √2 p=
𝑥 𝑦 √102 + 142
+ =7 p = 8.14
√2 √2
x + y = 7√2
 THE CIRCLE
A circle is the set of all points (x,y) in a plane whose distances from a fixed point is a constant. The fixed point is
called the center of the circle and the constant is called the radius of the circle.

General Equation: Ax2 + Bxy + Cy2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0

If C = A and B = 0, then it a circle.

Standard Equation:
Center at (h,k) = (x – h)2 + (y – k)2 = r2
Center at (0,0) = x2 + y 2 = r2

Degenerate Case of a Circle: (x – h)2 + (y – k)2 = 0 ==== This is called the point circle. It indicates that the only
point satisfying this equation is the point (h,k).

EXAMPLES:
a. x2 + y 2 = 9
02 + y 2 = 9
y2=9
y=3

x2 + 0 2 = 9
x2 = 9
x=3

b. x2 + y2 + 2x – 6y + 1 = 0
(x2 + 2x) + (y2 - 6y) = -1
(x2 + 2x + 1) + (y2 - 6y+9) = -1 + 1 + 9
(x + 1)2 + (x – 3)2 = 32
Center = (-1,3) r=3

THE CONIC SECTIONS

Conic sections can be defined as the locus of point that moves so that the ratio of its distance from a fixed point
called the focus to its distance from a fixed line called the directrix is constant. The constant ratio is called the eccentricity
of the conic.

PARABOLA
A locus of a points which are equidistant from a fixed point called the focus and a fixed line called the directrix. It
is a conic section whose eccentricity is equal to 1. Vertex is the midpoint between the focus and the directrix. Axis
of symmetry of the parabola is passing through the focus and the vertex.

General Equation: Ax2 + Bxy + Cy2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0

If B2 – 4AC = 0, then it a parabola.

STANDARD EQUATIONS
EQUATION VERTEX FOCUS DIRECTRIX DESCRIPTION
Axis of symmetry is parallel to
the y-axis.
(x – h)2 = 4p(y – k) (h,k) (h,k+p) y=k–p
Opens upward when p>0.
Opens downward when p<0.
 Axis of symmetry is parallel to
the x-axis.
(y – k)2 = 4p(x – h) (h,k) (h+p,k) x=h–p
Opens right when p>0.
Opens left when p<0.
Axis of symmetry is
Ax2 + Bx + Cy + D = 0 (0,0) (0,a) perpendicular to the to the x-
axis.
Axis of symmetry is
Ay2 + By + Cx+ D = 0 (0,0) (a,0) perpendicular to the to the y-
axis.
 Degenerate Case of a Parabola: (x – h)2 = 0 or (y – k)2 = 0 ===== This is the case in which p = 0 yields the
degenerate case forming either the vertical lines x = h or the horizontal line y = k. This implies that degeneracy in
the case of parabolas yields vertical or horizontal lines.

EXAMPLE:
y2 – 6y = 8x – 1 x y
y2 – 6y +9 = 8x – 1 + 9 -1 3
(y – 3)2 = 8x + 8 1 -1
(y – 3)2 = 8(x + 1) 1 7
7 -5
Vertex = (-1, 3)
ELLIPSE
 A locus of a point whose sum of the distances from two fixed points called the foci is constant and is equal to the
length of the major axis 2a. It is a conic whose eccentricity is less than 1. The line through the foci intersects the
ellipse at two points called vertices. The chord joining the vertices is the major axis, and its midpoint is the center
of the ellipse. The chord perpendicular to the major axis at the center at the center is the minor axis of the ellipse.

General Equation: Ax2 + Bxy + Cy2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0

If B2 – 4AC < 0, then it an ellipse.

STANDARD EQUATIONS
ENDPOINT OF
EQUATION CENTER VERTICES FOCI MAJOR AXIS
MINOR AXIS
(𝑥−ℎ)2 (𝑦−𝑘)2
+ =1 (h,k) (h±a, k) (h±c,k) (h,k±b) Horizontal
𝑎2 𝑏2
(𝑥−ℎ)2 (𝑦−𝑘)2
+ =1 (h,k) (h, k±a) (h,k±c) (h±b,k) Vertical
𝑏2 𝑎2

Ax2 + By2 = C (0,0) Either

Eccentricity Formula : e = c/a

Whereas: c = the length of the chord ranging from the center to the focus of the major axis
a = the length of the chord ranging from the center to one of the endpoint of the major axis

(𝑥−ℎ)2 (𝑦−𝑘)2 (𝑥−ℎ)2 (𝑦−𝑘)2

Degenerate Case of Ellipse: + =0 and + = 0 ; each of the cases yields the degeneracy
𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑏2 𝑎2
for ellipses. In each situation, the only point satisfying the equation is the center (h,k).

EXAMPLE:

HYPERBOLA
A locus of a point whose difference of the distances from two fixed points called the foci is constant and is equal to
the length of the transverse axis 2a. It is a conic section whose eccentricity is greater than 1.

General Eq: Ax2 + Bxy + Cy2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0

 If B2 – 4AC > 0, then it a hyperbola.

STANDARD EQUATIONS
ENDPOINT OF
TRANSVERSE
EQUATION CENTER VERTICES FOCI CONJUGATE
AXIS
AXIS
(𝑥−ℎ)2 (𝑦−𝑘)2
- =1 (h,k) (h±a, k) (h±c,k) (h,k±b) Horizontal
𝑎2 𝑏2

(𝑦−𝑘)2 (𝑥−ℎ)2
- =1 (h,k) (h, k±a) (h,k±c) (h±b,k) Vertical
𝑎2 𝑏2

xy = k
k > 0 = Q1 & Q3 (0,0) Diagonal
k < 0 = Q2 & Q4

Either Horizontal
Ax2 - By2 = C (0,0)
or Vertical

EQUATION ASYMPTOTES
(𝑥−ℎ)2 (𝑦−𝑘)2 𝑏
- =1 y = k ± (x – h)
𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑎

(𝑦−𝑘)2 (𝑥−ℎ)2 𝑎
- =1 y = k ± (x – h)
𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑏

xy = k
k > 0 = Q1 & Q3 Coordinate axes
k < 0 = Q2 & Q4

Ax2 - By2 = C Ax2 - By2 = 0

(𝑥−ℎ)2 (𝑦−𝑘)2
Degenerate Cases of Hyperbola: - = 0 ; forms two intersecting lines or asymptote of the hyperbola
𝑎2 𝑏2
(𝑦−𝑘)2 (𝑥−ℎ)2
- = 0 ; forms two intersecting lines or the asymptote of the hyperbola
𝑎2 𝑏2

EXAMPLES: 9x2 – 4y2 = 36

Intercepts
y=0
9x2 – 4(0)2 = 36 x=0
9x2 = 36 9(0)2 – 4y2 = 36
x2 = 4 -4y2 = 36
x = ±2 y2 = -9
y = 3i
(±2 , 0)

Hyperbola
x -6 -3 0 3 6
y ±8.5 ±3.35 x ±3.35 ±8.5

Asymptotes
x -6 -3 0 3 6
y -9 -9/2 0 9/2 9
x -6 -3 0 3 6
 y 9 9/2 0 -9/2 -9

ALGEBRAIC CURVES
An equation involving the variables x and y is satisfied by an infinite number of values of x and y, and each pair
of values corresponds to a point. When plotted on the Cartesian plane, these points follow a pattern according to the given
equation and form a definite geometric figure called the CURVE or LOCUS OF THE EQUATION.

Order Curve Examples

Quadratic
2 Circle, ellipse, hyperbola, parabola
curve
Cissoid of Diocles, conchoid of de Sluze, folium of Descartes, Maclaurin trisectrix, Maltese cross
Cubic
3 curve, Mordell curve, Ochoa curve, right strophoid, semicubical parabola, serpentine
curve
curve, Tschirnhausen cubic, witch of Agnesi
Ampersand curve, bean curve, bicorn, bicuspid curve, bifoliate, bifolium, bitangent-rich
curve, bow, bullet nose, butterfly curve, capricornoid, cardioid, Cartesian ovals, Cassini
Quartic ovals, conchoid of Nicomedes, cruciform, deltoid, devil's curve, Dürer's conchoid, eight curve, fish
4
curve curve, folium, hippopede, Kampyle of Eudoxus, Klein quartic, knot
curve, lemniscate, limaçon, links curve, pear-shaped curve, piriform curve, swastika curve, trefoil
curve, trifolium
Quintic
5 Burnside curve, butterfly catastrophe curve, stirrup curve
curve
Astroid, atriphtaloid, Cayley's sextic, cornoid, cycloid of Ceva, dumbbell curve, ellipse
Sextic
6 evolute, epicycloid, Freeth's nephroid, heart curve (first), limaçon
curve
evolute, nephroid, quadrifolium, scarabaeus curve, Talbot's curve
Octic
8 Pear curve
curve
Dodecic
12 Ranunculoid
curve

SYMMETRY
3 TYPES
1. X axis
The graph of an equation is symmetrical about x axis if whenever the coordinates in on the graph, then so is (x, -y).
The graph of an equation will have symmetrical about x axis if we het an equivalent equation when y is replaced by –
y.

2. Y axis
The graph of an equation is symmetrical about y axis if whenever the coordinates in on the graph, then so is (-x, y)
The graph of an equation will have symmetrical about x axis if we have an equivalent equation when x is replaced by –
x.

3. Origin
An asymptote of the curve y = f(x) (or in implicit form: f(x,y) = 0) is a straight line such that the distance between
the curve and the straight line lends to zero when the points on the curve approach infinity. There are three types of
 asymptotes, namely, vertical, horizontal and oblique asymptotes. Here is an algebraic method for finding oblique
(and also horizontal) asymptotes of algebraic curves.

(1) Replace y by mx + c in the equation of the curve and arrange the result in the form :

(2) Solve the simultaneous equation :

(3) For each pair of solutions of m and c, write the equation of an asymptote y = mx + c.

(4) If there is no term in (1), solve :

instead of the set of simultaneous equation in (2).

EXAMPLES:
a. Use the test for symmetry about the origin to determine if the graph of xy - 5x2 = 4 is symmetric about the origin.
xy - 5x2 = 4
(-x)(-y) - 5(-x)2 = 4
xy - 5x2 = 4

Conclusion: Since the resulting equation is equivalent to the original equation then the graph is symmetrical about
the origin.

b. Create an equation of a graph that will be symmetric(about y = x) with the graph of y = x 3 , for x > or = 0.
y = x3
x = y3
y = x1/3 , x > or = 0

You will see a lot more of this symmetry when we get into our discussion about functions and their inverses.

ASYMPTOTES
An asymptote of a curve that has an infinite branch is called a line such that the distance between the point lying on
the curve and the line approaches zero as the point moves along the branch to infinity. Asymptotes can
be vertical, oblique (slant) and horizontal. A horizontal asymptote is often considered as a special case of an oblique
asymptote.

VERTICAL SLANT HORIZONTAL

EXAMPLES
Find the domain and all asymptotes of the following function:
REGIONS
This refers to the areas of curves in a plane.
Below are the following formulae:

EXAMPLES:
ONE VALUED FUNCTIONS

A single-valued function is function that, for each point in the domain, has a unique value in the range. It is therefore one-
to-one or many-to-one. A single-valued complex function of a complex variable is a complex function that has
the same value at every point independent of the path along which it is reached by analytic continuation (Knopp 1996).

EXAMPLE:

TWO VALUED FUNCTIONS

A multivalued function, also known as a multiple-valued function (Knopp 1996, part 1 p. 103), is a "function" that
assumes two or more distinct values in its range for at least one point in its domain. While these "functions" are
not functions in the normal sense of being one-to-one or many-to-one, the usage is so common that there is no way to
dislodge it. When considering multivalued functions, it is therefore necessary to refer to usual "functions" as single-valued
functions.

EXAMPLE: