UNIVERSITY OF LAGOS

FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

MASTER OF PUBLIC AND INTERNATIONAL AFFAIR (MPIA)

COURSE CODE: PIA 808

COURSE TITLE: SOCIOLOGY OF DEVELOPMENT

LECTURER: DR AUGUSTINE AGUGUA

TERM PAPER

ON

THE INDEPTH UNDERSTANDING OF THE VIEWPOINT OF MICHAEL

FOUCAULT AND DEVELOPMENT

ADEWUMI AYOMIKUN HANNAH: 239088038

OCHEJA JOY: 239088037

ADEGBOYE KEHINDE FAWAZ: 239088033

1.0. INTRODUCTION

Development is basically an economic concept that has positive connotations; it

involves the application of certain economic and technical measures to utilize
available resources to instigate economic growth and improve people’s quality of
life.

Michel Foucault was born on October 15, 1926, in Poitiers, France. His father, a
doctor with a strong disciplinary approach, and his mother, a teacher, provided him
with an education grounded in the humanities. In 1944, Foucault enrolled in the
prestigious Ècole Normale Supérieure in Paris to study philosophy. After
completing his coursework there, he eventually entered a program at the University
of Paris where he ultimately earned his B.A. in Psychology followed by a diploma
in Psychopathology in 1952.

Michel Foucault is best known for his theory of knowledge and power, which has
had a significant impact on the fields of sociology, political science, and history.
However, he was also a highly influential philosopher more broadly and made
important contributions to the fields of epistemology, ethics, and aesthetics.

Michel Foucault was a French philosopher who developed a theory of

knowledge/power that is known as "Foucault's theory." This theory has had a
significant impact on the fields of sociology, political science, and history. In
general, Foucault's theory argues that power is not something that is possessed by
certain individuals or groups but is instead something that is exercised through
discourse and regulation. In other words, power is not inherent in certain people or
institutions, but rather something that is created and perpetuated by the way we
talk and think about the world.

1.1. MICHAEL FOUCAULT VIEWPOINT ON DEVELOPMENT.

In his book " The Biopolitics of Development: Reading Michel Foucault in the
Postcolonial Present." this book offers an original analytic and theorization of the
biopolitics of development in the postcolonial present, and draws significantly
from the later works of Michel Foucault on biopolitics. Foucault’s works have had
a massive influence on postcolonial literatures, particularly in political science and
international relations, and several authors of this book have themselves made
significant contributions to that influence.

While Foucault’s thought has been inspirational for understanding colonial

biopolitics as well as governmental rationalities concerned with development, his
works have too often failed to inspire studies of political subjectivity. Instead, they
have been used to stoke the myth of the inevitability of the decline of collective
political subjects, often describing an increasingly limited horizon of political
possibilities, and provoking a disenchantment with the political itself in
postcolonial works and studies.

Working against the grain of current Foucauldian scholarship, this book underlines
the importance of Foucault’s work for the capacity to recognize how this degraded
view of political subjectivity came about, particularly within the framework of the
discourses and politics of ‘development’, and with particular attention to the
predicaments of postcolonial peoples. It explores how we can use Foucault’s ideas
to recover the vital capacity to think and act politically at a time when
fundamentally human capacities to think, know and to act purposively in the world
are being pathologized as expressions of the hubris and ‘underdevelopment’ of
postcolonial peoples.

Why and how it is that life in postcolonial settings has been depoliticized to such
dramatic effect? The immediacy of these themes will be obvious to anyone living
in the South of the world. But within the academy they remain heavily under-
addressed. In thinking about what it means to read Michel Foucault today, this
book tackles some significant questions and problems: Not simply that of how to
explain the ways in which postcolonial regimes of governance have achieved the
debasements of political subjectivity they have; nor that of how we might better
equip them with the means to suborn the life of postcolonial peoples more fully;
but that of how such peoples, in their subjection to governance, can and do resist,
subvert, escape and defy the imposition of modes of governance which seek to
remove their lives of those very capacities for resistance, subversion, flight, and
defiance.
Foucault’s entire philosophy is based on the assumption that human knowledge
and existence are profoundly historical. He argues that what is most human about
man is his history. He discusses the notions of history, change and historical
method at some length at various points in his career. He uses history as a means of
demonstrating that there is no such thing as historical necessity that things could
have been and could be otherwise.

Here are some crucial aspects of Foucault's viewpoints and their development over
time:

1. ARCHAEOLOGY AND GENEALOGY

Archaeology: Foucault's early work is characterized by the method of

"archaeology," which he used to analyze the historical conditions of knowledge
and discourse. Key works include "The Birth of the Clinic" (1963) and "The Order
of Things" (1966).

Archaeology examines the rules and structures that underlie the formation of
knowledge in different historical periods.

 Genealogy: In his later work, Foucault shifted to the method of "genealogy,"

influenced by Friedrich Nietzsche. Genealogy focuses on the historical
development of power relations and the ways in which power shapes
knowledge and vice versa. Key works include "Discipline and Punish"
(1975) and "The History of Sexuality" (1976-1984).

2. POWER AND KNOWLEDGE

Foucault is perhaps best known for his exploration of the relationship between
power and knowledge. He argued that power and knowledge are inextricably
linked and that power is not just repressive but also productive.

Power operates through various institutions and practices, such as prisons, schools,
hospitals, and asylums.

3. DISCIPLINE AND BIOPOLITICS

Discipline: In "Discipline and Punish," Foucault examines the rise of disciplinary

societies, where power is exercised through surveillance and normalization. He
discusses the transition from sovereign power, which was exercised through
punishment, to disciplinary power, which is exercised through the regulation of
bodies and behaviors.

4. BIOPOLITICS: Foucault introduced the concept of "biopolitics" to describe

the ways in which power is exercised over populations. This involves the
management of life, health, and bodies, and is a key theme in "The History of
Sexuality."

5. SUBJECTIVITY AND ETHICS: Foucault's later work focuses on the

formation of subjectivity and the self. He explores how individuals become
subjects through power relations and discourses. In his final works, he turned to
ethics and the "care of the self," examining how individuals can resist power and
transform themselves.

6. MADNESS AND CIVILIZATION: In "Madness and Civilization" (1961),

Foucault explores the history of madness and the ways in which society has treated
the mad. He argues that the treatment of madness reflects broader power relations
and cultural norms.

7. CRITIQUE OF MODERNITY: Foucault is critical of modernity and its

claims to progress and rationality. He challenges the idea that modern institutions
are inherently more humane or rational than those of the past. His work often
reveals the darker side of modernity, such as the ways in which rational institutions
can be used to control and oppress.

8. DEVELOPMENT OF FOUCAULT'S THOUGHT

Foucault's thought evolved over time, moving from an early focus on the history of
science and medicine to a broader analysis of power, knowledge, and subjectivity.
His methodologies also evolved, from archaeology to genealogy, reflecting his
growing interest in the dynamics of power and resistance.

Throughout his work, Foucault remained committed to a critical analysis of

contemporary society and its institutions. Foucault's ideas have had a profound
impact on a wide range of disciplines and continue to be a source of inspiration and
debate. His work challenges us to think critically about the ways in which power
operates in society and how we might resist and transform it.
9. DISCOURSE ANALYSIS

Discourse, for Foucault, is more than language; it is a system of representation that

constructs knowledge and meaning. In "The Archaeology of Knowledge" (1969),
he outlines how discourses are formed, maintained, and transformed. He examines
how discourses define what can be said, who can speak, and what counts as
knowledge.

10. GOVERNMENTALITY

Governmentality, a term Foucault coined, refers to the art of governing beyond the
state, encompassing a wide range of control techniques and institutions. In his
lectures at the Collège de France, especially "Security, Territory, Population"
(1977-78) and "The Birth of Biopolitics" (1978-79), he explores how modern states
govern populations.

He examines the shift from sovereign power to governmental power, which

focuses on managing the welfare of populations through policies and economic
practices.

11. TECHNOLOGIES OF THE SELF

Foucault’s later work delves into how individuals can shape and transform their
own identities. He explores the concept of "technologies of the self," which are
practices and techniques that individuals use to understand themselves and shape
their own behavior.

In works like "The Use of Pleasure" (1984) and "The Care of the Self" (1984), he
looks at ancient practices of self-care and how they can inform contemporary ways
of living.

12. RESISTANCE AND POWER

Foucault emphasizes that where there is power, there is always resistance.

Resistance is not just a counter-force to power but is embedded within power
relations. He investigates how marginalized groups can resist dominant discourses
and create alternative ways of knowing and being.

13. SEXUALITY AND IDENTITY

In "The History of Sexuality," Foucault examines how sexuality is not merely a
biological given but a socially constructed phenomenon. He looks at how different
historical periods have understood and regulated sexuality. He argues that the
modern discourse on sexuality is a form of biopower, controlling individuals by
defining normal and abnormal sexual behavior.

14. CRITIQUE OF HUMANISM

Foucault is critical of traditional humanism, which posits a fixed, universal human

nature. He argues that human subjectivity is historically and culturally contingent.
His work challenges the notion of an autonomous, rational individual, emphasizing
instead the ways in which subjectivities are constructed through power relations.

14. INFLUENCE ON OTHER FIELDS

Foucault’s ideas have influenced a wide range of disciplines, including sociology,

cultural studies, gender studies, and political theory. His work has been used to
analyze contemporary issues such as surveillance, neoliberalism, mental health,
and social justice. Scholars have expanded on his concepts, applying them to new
contexts and developing new theoretical frameworks.

15. RECEPTION AND CRITIQUE

Foucault’s work has been both celebrated and critiqued. Critics argue that his focus
on power can be overly deterministic and neglects the role of human agency.
Others have critiqued his methods, arguing that they lack empirical rigor.

Despite these criticisms, Foucault remains one of the most influential thinkers of
the 20th century, with his work continuing to inspire and challenge scholars across
disciplines.

16. PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS

Foucault's analyses have practical implications for how we think about social
justice, ethics, and governance.

His work encourages a critical stance towards institutions and practices that are
often taken for granted.
It also provides tools for thinking about how to resist and transform existing power
relations.

2.0 HIS EARLY WORK VIEW POINTS FOCUSES ON:

1. ARCHAEOLOGY OF KNOWLEDGE

Archaeological Method Concept: In his early work, Foucault developed the

archaeological method to study historical systems of thought and knowledge. This
approach examines the underlying rules and structures that govern the production
of knowledge in different historical periods.

Key Works:

"Madness and Civilization"(1961): Foucault investigates the history of how

madness has been perceived and treated, revealing shifts in societal attitudes and
institutions.

"The Birth of the Clinic"(1963): He analyzes the development of medical

perception and the clinical gaze.

"The Order of Things"(1966): This book explores the historical development of the
human sciences and the epistemic structures that underpin them.

"The Archaeology of Knowledge"(1969): Foucault articulates his archaeological

method, emphasizing the analysis of discursive formations and the conditions of
possibility for knowledge.

2. SHIFT TO GENEALOGY AND POWER/KNOWLEDGE

Genealogical Method Concept: Influenced by Nietzsche, Foucault's genealogical

method focuses on the historical development of power relations and their impact
on knowledge and society. This approach examines how power operates through
discourse and institutions to shape human behavior and understanding.
Key Works:

"Discipline and Punish"(1975): Foucault explores the evolution of penal systems,

highlighting the shift from sovereign power to disciplinary power. He examines
how modern institutions like prisons, schools, and hospitals discipline individuals
through surveillance and normalization.

"The History of Sexuality, Volume 1: An Introduction"(1976): Foucault introduces

the concept of biopower, the regulation of populations through the control of
bodies and sexuality. He challenges the repressive hypothesis, arguing that modern
societies have proliferated discourses on sexuality to exercise control.

3. POWER AND ITS MECHANISMS

Power/Knowledge Concept: Foucault argues that power and knowledge are

intertwined, with power producing knowledge and vice versa. He emphasizes that
power is not merely repressive but also productive, shaping what is accepted as
truth and how individuals understand themselves.

Key Ideas:

Disciplinary Power: Explored in "Discipline and Punish,"Foucault examines how

disciplinary mechanisms operate through surveillance, normalization, and the
organization of space and time.

Biopower: Introduced in "The History of Sexuality,"biopower refers to the

regulation of populations through various institutions and practices, focusing on
aspects like health, sexuality, and reproduction.

4. GOVERNMENTALITY

Governmentality Concept: Foucault's notion of governmentality expands the

concept of governance beyond the state to include a wide range of control
techniques and institutions. He examines how modern states manage populations
through policies, economic practices, and social norms.

Key Works:
Lectures at the Collège de France, particularly "Security, Territory,
Population"(1977-78) and "The Birth of Biopolitics"(1978-79), where he explores
the art of government and the rise of neoliberalism.

5. TECHNOLOGIES OF THE SELF AND ETHICS

Technologies of the Self Concept: In his later work, Foucault focuses on how
individuals can shape and transform their own identities through practices and
techniques, which he calls "technologies of the self."

Key Works:

"The Use of Pleasure"(1984) and "The Care of the Self"(1984): Foucault examines
ancient practices of self-care and how they can inform contemporary ways of
living. He explores how individuals can resist power and transform themselves
through ethical self-formation.

6. MADNESS AND CIVILIZATION

Madness and Civilization Concept: Foucault's "Madness and Civilization"explores

the historical treatment of madness and how it reflects broader societal norms and
power relations.

Key Ideas:

Exclusion of the Mad: He examines how societies have excluded and marginalized
the mad, reflecting broader mechanisms of social control.

Shift in Perceptions: Foucault traces the shifts in how madness has been perceived,
from a symbol of unreason to a medicalized condition.

7. CRITIQUE OF MODERNITY AND HUMANISM

Critique of Modernity Concept: Foucault is critical of modernity’s claims to

progress and rationality, revealing the darker side of modern institutions and their
potential for control and oppression.
Key Ideas:

Rejection of Universal Truths: He challenges the notion of universal, objective

truths, emphasizing the historical and cultural contingencies of knowledge.

Examination of Rational Institutions: Foucault scrutinizes institutions like prisons,

asylums, and clinics, highlighting how they can be used to control and discipline
individuals.

8. INFLUENCE AND LEGACY

Influence Impact: Foucault's work has profoundly influenced various fields,

including sociology, anthropology, cultural studies, gender studies, and political
theory. His ideas about power, discourse, and the self-have been applied to
contemporary issues such as surveillance, mental health, social justice, and
neoliberalism.

Scholarly Expansion: Scholars have expanded on Foucault's concepts, developing

new theoretical frameworks and applying his ideas to new contexts.

3.0 CRITICISMS ON MICHEL FOUCAULT'S VIEWPOINTS AND

DEVELOPMENT.

Michel Foucault's work, while highly influential, has also faced significant
criticism from various scholars and intellectuals. Critiques of Foucault's theories
often focus on his views on power, knowledge, subjectivity, and historical
methodology. Here are some of the main criticisms of Foucault's work:

1. METHODOLOGICAL CRITIQUES

Lack of Empirical Rigor: Critics argue that Foucault’s historical analyses often
lack empirical rigor and are sometimes based on selective or anecdotal evidence.
Historian Lawrence Stone criticized Foucault for what he saw as a tendency to
generalize from limited examples without sufficient empirical support.
Historical Accuracy: Some historians have questioned the accuracy of Foucault’s
historical narratives. For example, in "Discipline and Punish," Foucault's portrayal
of the transition from sovereign power to disciplinary power has been challenged
as oversimplified and not entirely accurate. Scholars like Ian Hacking have pointed
out that Foucault’s interpretations can sometimes be too sweeping and overlook
important nuances and variations.

2. CONCEPTUAL CRITIQUES

Determinism and Agency: Foucault’s focus on power structures has been criticized
for downplaying human agency and resistance. Critics argue that his work
sometimes presents individuals as merely passive subjects of power.

Nancy Fraser and other feminist theorists have argued that Foucault’s
conceptualization of power leaves little room for genuine resistance or the
possibility of progressive social change.

Power and Resistance: Some critics argue that Foucault's notion of power as
ubiquitous and pervasive makes it difficult to conceptualize meaningful resistance.
If power is everywhere, then resistance itself becomes problematic to define and
locate. Jurgen Habermas criticized Foucault for what he saw as a failure to provide
normative criteria for judging power and resistance, making it difficult to
distinguish between different forms of power.

3. ETHICAL AND POLITICAL CRITIQUES

Normative Ambiguity: Foucault's refusal to adopt a clear normative stance has

been criticized for leading to ethical ambiguity. Critics argue that without a clear
normative framework, it is challenging to evaluate the implications of power
relations.

Habermas, in particular, criticized Foucault for lacking a clear commitment to

democratic values and for not providing a basis for critique.

Political Engagement: Some critics argue that Foucault's work lacks a coherent
political project or agenda. While he was involved in various political causes, his
theoretical work is often seen as detached from practical political engagement.
Scholars like Charles Taylor have pointed out that Foucault's genealogical
approach may undermine the possibility of social critique by relativizing all
knowledge and power structures.

4. EPISTEMOLOGICAL CRITIQUES

Relativism: Foucault’s rejection of universal truths and his emphasis on the

historical contingency of knowledge have led to accusations of relativism. Critics
argue that this perspective can undermine the possibility of objective knowledge
and truth.

Philosopher Richard Rorty and others have debated the implications of Foucault’s
relativism for the pursuit of knowledge and the role of intellectual inquiry.

Anti-Humanism: Foucault's anti-humanist stance, which rejects the idea of a fixed

human nature or universal human essence, has been controversial. Critics argue
that this perspective can lead to a denial of the inherent dignity and rights of
individuals.

Critics like Noam Chomsky have engaged with Foucault in debates, challenging
his dismissal of human nature and universal values.

5. FEMINIST CRITIQUES

Gender and Sexuality: While Foucault’s work on sexuality has been influential in
gender studies, some feminist scholars have criticized him for neglecting the role
of gender in his analysis of power.

Feminists like Nancy Hartsock and Judith Butler have critiqued Foucault for not
adequately addressing the specific ways in which power operates through gendered
bodies and identities.

Intersectionality: Foucault has been criticized for not fully incorporating the
concept of intersectionality in his analysis of power. Critics argue that he does not
sufficiently address how different axes of identity, such as race, gender, and class,
intersect and affect power dynamics.
Kimberlé Crenshaw and other intersectional theorists have pointed out that
Foucault’s analyses can be limited by not fully accounting for these overlapping
and intersecting social categories.

CONCLUSION

Despite these criticisms, Foucault's work remains influential and continues to be a

major point of reference in various fields. His innovative analyses of power,
knowledge, and subjectivity have provided valuable insights and tools for
understanding contemporary social and political issues. The criticisms of his work
highlight important debates about methodology, ethics, and the nature of power,
contributing to the ongoing development and refinement of critical theory.

Michel Foucault’s viewpoints provide a profound and critical lens for examining
the complexities of power, knowledge, and subjectivity. His work challenges us to
question the taken-for-granted assumptions of our time and to consider the
historical and cultural contingencies of our own beliefs and practices. By doing so,
Foucault opens up possibilities for new forms of knowledge and new ways of
being in the world.