WEATHER

Weather- The condition of the atmosphere of a particular place over a short period of time.

Climate- This is the average condition of the atmosphere of a particular place over a long period of
about 35 years.

Atmosphere- This is the air that surrounds us. It consists of 3 layers.

1. Troposphere
2. Stratosphere
3. Ionosphere

Troposphere

*It extends from earth’s surface to a height of about 13km at the equator to 8km at the poles.

*It contains about 90% of the atmosphere’s water vapour.

*Here temperature decreases with height at a fairly uniform rate which is 6.5°c for every 1000m (1km)
ascent.

* This decrease in temperature is called the Normal lapse rate

* In the Troposphere there is also variable weather conditions because of the variable water content
present in the atmosphere.

* At the upper part of the Troposhere there is the Tropopause.

Stratosphere

 It extends from the Troposphere to height of about 100km

 Temperatures are very low and constant at about -50°c because there are no air currents, no
water vapour therefore no clouds.

Ionosphere

 It is above the Stratosphere

 This zone contains electrons and ions which influence Radio waves
DIAGRAM..Bunnett page 132 fig 13.1

ELEMENTS OF WEATHER

ELEMENT INSTRUMENT UNITS

Rainfall Raingauge mm
Air pressure Aneroid Barometer Millibars(mb)

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 Mercury Barometer
Windspeed Cup Anemometer Km/hour
Wind Direction WindVane Cardinal points-North, South,
West ,East
Temperature Minimum Thermometer Degrees Celcius (°c)
Maximum Thermometer
Six’s Thermometer
Sunshine Duration Sunshine Recorder Hours and minutes
Humidity Wet and Dry bulb Thermometers %(percentages)
Hygrometer
Cloudcover Observation Oktas

Weather Elements are measured and recorded in weather stations. All the instruments mentioned
above are kept in the weather station. In a weather station there is usually a Stevenson’s screen.

STEVENSON’S SCREEN

This is a wooden box which is used to keep all the thermometers, that is,

 Maximum Thermometer
 Minimum Thermometer
 Dry bulb and Wet bulb Thermometer
 Six’s Thermometer

Diagram-Bunnett page133 fig 13.2 a,b&c

Characteristics / Features of the Stevenson screen

 It is a wooden box built in such a way that the shade temperature can be measured.
 It is painted white to reflect sunlight( improve insulation)
 It stands 121cm or 1.21m above the ground so that heat radiated from the ground does not
affect the thermometers in the screen.
 The roof is double boarded to prevent the sun’s heat from reaching inside the screen.
 The four sides of the screen are louvred to allow free circulation of air
 The door of the screen faces south in the southern hemisphere/ north in northern hemisphere
to prevent direct sunlight from entering the screen when opened.

MEASURING ELEMENTS OF WEATHER

TEMPERATURE

Minimum Thermometer

Diagram-Bunnett page 134 fig 13.5 &13.6

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  It is used to record the lowest temperature of the day. It can be in the middle of the night or
early morning
 It contains alcohol (which has low freezing point) and a metal index
 When the temperature falls, the alcohol contracts and its meniscus pulls the metal index along
the tube.
 When temperature increases, the alcohol expands. However the index does not move but
remains in the position to which it was pulled
 The minimum temperature is obtained by reading the scale at the index which is nearer to the
meniscus
 The index is returned to the meniscus by raising the bulb of the thermometer

Maximum Thermometer

Diagram-Bunnett page 133 fig 13.3&13.4

 It is used to record the highest temperature of the day.

 It contains mercury and a metal index which indicates temperature.
 When the temperature rises, the mercury expands or pushes the index along the tube.
 When the temperature the temperature falls, the mercury contracts but the metal index
remains behind.
 The maximum temperature is obtained by reading the part of the metal index which was in
contact with the mercury.
 The metal index is then drawn back to the mercury by a magnet.

Six’s Thermometer

Diagram-Bunnett page 134 fig 13.7

 It is a u-shaped thermometer which is used to record both the maximum and minimum
temperatures at the same time.
 It has 2 metal indices and contains both mercury and alcohol
 The maximum temperature is read on the right-hand limb
 The minimum temperature is read on the left-hand limb
 When temperature rises, alcohol in the left-hand expands and pushes the mercury down the
left-hand limb and up the right-hand limb.
 The maximum temperature is read from the scale on the right-hand limb.
 When the temperature falls, the alcohol in the left-hand limb contracts and the alcohol vapour
liquefies
 This causes the mercury to flow in the reverse direction.

HOW TO CALCULATE THE TEMPERATURE READING

Mean Daily Temperature

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 This is the average temperature for one day. It is found by adding together the maximum and the
minimum temperature of a day then dividing by two.

Maximum Minimum Average Daily

30°c 14°c 44°c 22°c
48°c 28°c 76°c 38°c
36°c 32°c 68°c 34°c
16°c -3°c 13°c 6.5°c

The daily or diurnal temperature range

This is the difference between the maximum and minimum temperatures for one day.

Maximum Minimum Temperature Range

32°c 21°c 11°c
45°c 22°c 23°c
36°c 32°c 4°c
20°c 10°c 10°c

The mean/average monthly temperature

This is the sum of daily averages or mean of one month, divided by the number of days in a month.

e.g 1 572° C/ 28 days = 18.3 ° C

e.g 2 806° C/ 31 days = 39°C

The annual mean temperature

The sum of the mean monthly temperatures, divided by 12 months.

Example1 344/12= 28.6°C Example2 360/12= 30°c

The annual temperature range

The highest mean monthly temperature minus the lowest mean temperature, that is, the difference
between the hottest month and the coolest month.

36°c - 22°c =14°c

The monthly temperature range

This is the difference between the highest mean daily temperature and the lowest mean daily in a
month.

HUMIDITY

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Diagram Bunnett page 135 fig 13.8

This refers to the amount of water vapour in the air. Air absorbs water through the process of
evaporation. During evaporation water changes from liquid state to gaseous state.

*100% moist air= saturated air and no evaporation (air cannot hold more moisture)

* 0% moisture = dry air and more evaporation

Humidity depends on the temperature of the air. If the air gets warm its capacity to absorb moisture
increases but if it gets cooler it cannot get much water vapour.

Absolute Humidity- this refers to the amount of water vapour in a given volume of air at a particular
temperature.

Relative Humidity- this is the ratio between the absolute humidity of a given mass of the air and
maximum vapour that the air can hold at the same temperature .

NB: If relative humidity is 100%, the air is saturated.

-If it is 50%, then can absorb another 50%.

-If it is 1%, the air is dry and it can absorb 99% moisture.

Humidity is measured by an instrument called a hygrometer or wet bulb and dry bulb thermometer.

HYGROMETER

Diagram R. Bunnett page 135 fig 13.8 (leave half a page)

Below is the Hygrometer Table which is used to find Relative Humidity:

Dry bulb Wet bulb reading

20°c 22°c 24°c 26°c 28°c 30°c 32°c 34°c
20°c 100% - - - - - - -
25°c 65% 80% 80% 95% - - - -
30°c 40% 50% 60% 80% 90% 100% - -
35°c 24% 30% 35% 45% 57% 70% 82% 95%

A hygrometer consists of two (2) thermometres, wet bulb and dry bulb thermometers.

How it works:-

 The dry bulb thermometer is held in the air while the wet bulb thermometer has a piece of wet
cloth called muslin wrapped around its bulb.
 The muslin is dipped into a container of distilled water.
 If the air is dry the water will evaporate from muslin thus reducing the temperature.

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  Latent heat is lost.
 This is because the bulb will be cooled and as such the mercury will contract.
 The dry bulb thermometer will show a higher reading than the wet bulb thermometer because
the bulb has no muslin.
 If the air is too saturated the two thermometers will show the same reading.

NB: If the air is dry, relative humidity is low and evaporation is great, leading to the cooling of the
bulb. This leads to a great difference between the thermometers. To get humidity of air, we use a
special hygrometer table whcich shows the dry bulb thermometer reading and the depreciation of
the wet bulb thermometer.

Depression of the Wet Bulb

How to calculate the depression of wet bulb: it there is no reading for the wet bulb we calculate the
depression for the wet bulb. This is calculated by taking the reading of the wet bulb and dry bulb
thermometers, then find the difference between the two readings.

For Example: wet bulb reading= 23.5°c

Dry bulb reading =25.0°c

The answer: 1.5°c (This is the Depression of the Wet bulb)

RAINFALL

 It is measured by a rain gauge.

 A rain gauge consists of the following –copper cylinder, funnel and glass jar.

Diagram showing a raingauge. Goh Cheng page 115 fig 13 a and b.

The siting of a raingauge

 It is sunk into the ground so that the top of the funnel is about 30cm above ground level to
prevent heat radiation from causing evaporation
 It should be located on a grassy surface prevent any rain from splashing up from the ground into
the funnel.
 It is placed in an open ground away from buildings. Why? 1. To prevent obstruction by the
buildings. 2. To prevent runoff water from the roof tops from collecting into the funnel.
 Away from trees. Why? 1. To prevent obstruction by the trees 2. To prevent runoff water from
the trees from collecting into funnel.
 It should be in a fenced area to prevent animals from tempering with it.

How to Measure Rainfall

 Place a measuring cylinder on a flat surface.

 Pour water that has been collected in the glass jar into the measuring cylinder.

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  Take the reading at the bottom of the meniscus. Eye should be level with the meniscus.
 Take the reading in millimetres (mm), every 24 hours.

WIND DIRECTION

Diagram for wind vane page 121 fig 13.12 (Goh Cheng)

 It is measured with a wind vane.

 The wind vane indicates the direction of the wind.
 It consists of rotating arms pivoted on a vertical shaft.
 The rotating arm has a tail at one end and a pointer at the other.
 When the wind blows, the arm swings and the pointer faces the wind.
 The pointer always faces the direction from which the wind is blowing from.
 The wind is named after the directions from which they are blowing, e.g. when the wind blows
from the East it is called the Easterlies and when it blows from the West it is called the
Westerlies.

What is a Windrose?

 It is used for recording the direction of the prevailing winds over a period of a month.
 It consists of an eight-sided shape or octagon.
 Each side of an octagon represents a cardinal point.
 Each of the small rectangles represents a date or day which the wind comes from.
 When there is no wind or when it is calm, the days are recorded at the center of the octagon,
that is, in the box of the calm

Draw a wind rose-page 121(Goh Cheng) leave 9 lines.

WIND SPEEED

Draw a Cup Anemometer page 122 fig 13.14 (Goh Cheng) leave 6 lines.

 It is measured with a Cup Anemometer

 It consists of 3 or 4 cups fixed to metal arms that rotate freely on a vertical shaft
 When the wind blows, the cups rotate, the stronger the wind the faster the rotation.
 The number of rotations is recorded on a meter to give the speed of the wind in
km/h(kilometers/hour)

Draw Beaufort Scale on page 122-123(Goh Cheng) leave 1page

SUNSHINE DURATION

Draw a Sunshine Recorder page 122(Goh Cheng) leave 12 lines

 The number of hours and minutes are recorded on a sunshine recorder.

 A sunshine recorder consist of a glass sphere which is partially surrounded by a metal frame

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  In the metal frame, there is a sensitised card which is marked with hours and minutes
 How it works: The function of the glass sphere is to focus the sun rays on to the card
 When the sun moves across the sky, the rays burn a trace on the card
 A trace is left on the card when there is sunshine
 A card is then taken out and the length of the trace is converted into hours and minutes

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

 This is the weight of air that is exerted on the earth’s surface.

 Pressure varies with temperature and altitude
 The instrument used to measure pressure is called a Barometer
 The units used are millibars(mb).
 On the maps the places of equal pressure are joined by lines called Isobars.
 There are two types of Barometers, namely Aneroid and Mercury Barometers
1. Aneroid Barometer-
How it works: -it has a small metal box with very little air-when the pressure increases the
box bends inwards- the indicator moves to the right indicating high pressure- whens
pressure decreases the lid springs outward, the indicator moves to the left indicating low
pressure

Draw Aneroid Barometer page 117(Goh Cheng) leave 10 lines

2. A Mercury Barometer is a cumbersome instrument. It has a glass tube, mercury and a

container.
How it works:- when pressure increases the mercury in the container is pushed downwards
and goes upwards along the inverted glass tube, indicating high pressure. When pressure
decreases, the mercury in the glass tube flows in reverse direction down the glass tube to
indicate low pressure.

Draw Mercury Barometer page 116 (Goh Cheng) leave 10 lines

CLOUD COVER

 Clouds are visible masses of tiny water particles floating in the atmosphere.
 Clouds sometimes consist of ice crystals.
 When air is cooled condensation takes place.
 The Temperature at which condensation takes place is called Dew point temperature.
 Sometimes condensation takes place closer to the surface, e.g on trees and grass. The water
droplets which form on these surfaces is called Dew. Dew forms at night.

TYPES OF CLOUD

Draw Diagram page 139 fig 13.18(R. Bunnett) leave half a page

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The clouds are classified according to their form, height and appearance. There are four groups of
clouds.

1. High Clouds- they lie between 6000m and 12 000m

a) Cirrus clouds- they contain only tiny ice crystals. They are white. They are wispy. They are
fibrous or featherlike in appearance. They occur in bands or patches. Associated with fine
weather.

b) Cirrostratus- they are above 6000m. Consists of ice crystals. They form a thin sheet-like
layer. They look milky.
c) Cirrocumulus-at 6000. Made of ice crystals. They are globular or rippled like ripples in the
sand on a seashore. They form a thin cloud.
2. Middle Clouds- lie between 2100m and 6000m
a) Altocumulus
*they consist of water droplets they appear in layers
*they are globular or bumpy looking
*they have a flattened base arranged in lines or waves

b)Altostratus

*it consist of water droplets

*they form sheets of grey or watery- looking clouds they would be totally covering the sky.

3. Low clouds- below 2100m

a) Stratocumulus

* large globular masses

*bumpy-looking

*soft and grey in appearance

b) Nimbostratus

* dark grey and rainy looking

* dense and shapeless

*dense and shapeless

*a rain bearing cloud

*actually carries a lot of droplets

*they can bring continuous rain, snow or sleet.

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c)Stratus

*they are grey and thick

*they appear like a highland fog

*associated with dull weather with light drizzle

4. CLOUDS OF GREAT VERTICAL EXTENT

a) Cumulus clouds (see page 127)

*they are round topped and have a flat base
*they are whitish grey globular mass
*they consist of individual cloud units
*they are made of water droplets
*it is a fair weather cloud

b) Cumulonimbus

* appear white and black

*it is a rain bearing cloud associated with Convectional rainfall

*the top part of the cloud spreads out to form an anvil shape

*it is a thunder and lightning cloud

NB: Cumulus are the most common clouds in Botswana. The amount of cloud cover is measured in
oktas. One oktas represents 1 eighth of the sky covered with clouds.

WEATHER MAPS/SYNOPTIC CHARTS

Diagram from Geographical Enquiries page 28 fig 3.1 and fig 3.2

Leave 1 page for the diagram.

Pressure is shown in Isobars. These are lines joining places of equal pressure. Pressure is measured in
millibars.

Page 29 Geographical Enquiries . leave half a page.

FACTORS INFLUENCING TEMPERATURE

1. Altitude
2. Latitude
3. Cloud cover
4. Ocean currents and winds
5. Natural vegetation and soil

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 6. Continentality(Distance from the sea)
7. Slope, Shelter and Aspect
8. Length of day

The sun’s energy is called Insolation or solar radiation. It turns to heat energy at the Earth’s surface.

* 15% is absorbed by the atmosphere

*40% is reflected back into the space

*45% reaches the surface then warms the air by Radiation (heat waves sent out by the Earth’surface),
Conduction (passing of heat by contact) and convection (passing of heat by air currents). See page 131
Goh Cheng

1. ALTITUDE

Altitude means the height above sea level.

Leave 10 lines for the diagram page 134 Goh Cheng fig 14.7

 Water vapour and dust prevent heat on the surface from rapidly or quickly passing back to
space
 At high altitude (on the top of mountains) the air is Rarified (when the atmosphere has low
density especially due to low oxygen content) and there is little dust or vapour.
 So heat will rapidly escape and the air remains cold
 There is decrease in temperature by 6.5°C for every 1000m(1km) ascent. This is the Normal
Lapse Rate.

NB: This is what cause places of Higher altitude to be colder than those of Lower altitude.

2. LATITUDE

Diagram on Page 132 fig 14.3 Goh Cheng.

 More insolation reaches the earth surfaces when the angle of the sun’s rays is 90° than when it
is less.
 At tropical latitudes the sun’s heat will be more than at the temperate latitudes. And at the
temperate latitudes will be warmer than at the polar latitudes.
 The sun’s heat travels a shorter distance to reach equatorial latitudes but travels longer distance
to reach polar latitudes. When the rays travel longer distances, it gets absorbed by dust and
water vapour. This is what makes the polar latitudes to be colder than the tropics.

3. LENGTH OF DAY

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The length of day increases as the latitude increases in the northern hemisphere during summer. It also
increases in the same way in the southern hemisphere. The average daily temperature of a place having
14hours of day light is higher than that of a place only having 6 hours of a day light.

4. CLOUD COVER AND HUMIDITY

Diagram on 135 fig 14.11 a and b Goh Cheng.

The presence of cloud reduces incoming and outgoing radiation in most parts of equatorial Africa. There
is fall in temperatures during the rainy season due to the extensive coverage of clouds which reduces
solar radiation reaching the earth surface. In hot desert the absence of clouds explains very high
temperatures during the day and cold nights.

5. DISTANCE FROM THE SEA/CONTINENTALILY

Diagram A R. Bunnett page 146 fig 14.4 (a)

a) The above diagram shows what happens in temperate latitude in mid-summer

 The land absorbs heat quickly
 The sea absorbs heat slowly
 Therefore the coastal region will be cooled by the sea but it will be hot inland

b) Diagram B R. Bunnett page 146 fig 14.4(b)

The above diagram shows what happens in the temperate in mid winters temperate conditions.

 The coastal region will have mild winter while inland will be very cold. Why? Because the sea
loses heat slowly
 While land loses heat quickly

6. SLOPING, SHELTER AND ASPECT

Diagram on page 134 fig 14.9 Goh Cheng.
 Aspect is the direction in which a place faces. This brings local temperature variations. North
facing slopes are warmer than south facing slopes in the southern hemisphere
 South facing slopes are warmer than north facing slopes in the northern hemisphere
 In the tropics the mid- day sun is always high and aspect is of little significance
 Areas with tall buildings can be spaced to allow for the sun’s altitude

7. OCEAN CURRENTS AND WINDS

 We have warm and cold ocean currents
 Cold currents can be lower temperate of coastal regions
 The warm currents can raise temperate of coastal regions

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