TVET CERTIFICATE III

TTTSR103 PRE-INTERMEDIATE WORKPLACE ENGLISH

CCMEN301
Communicate simply using English in familiar situations

Credits: 3 Learning hours: 30

Sector: All
Sub-sector: All

Module Note Issue date: October, 2020

Purpose statement
This module describes the skills, knowledge and attitudes to be acquired for the trainees. The trainee will
be able to give accounts of social events attended, describe social events attended, justify social activities
engaged in, talk about professional experiences and ambitions, discuss and express one’s own ideas and
opinions, write short compositions on familiar topics, write different kinds of sentences and paragraphs,
use punctuation marks, identify different types of compositions, develop any topic of interest into a
composition, extract specific information from a reading text, differentiate between the main ideas/points
and the supporting details, identify kinds of social letters, identify elements of social letters, provide
appropriate reply to social letters, capture and report the main points of a trade-related relatively slow
speech/recording, separate the main points from supporting details/commentary.

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Table of Contents

Elements of competence and performance criteria Page No.

Learning Unit Performance Criteria
Learning Unit 1: Talk about 1.1 Description of social events such as weddings, 3
familiar events and activities
funerals, social gatherings, religious ceremonies,
travels
1.2 Accurate account of social events and
ceremonies attended
1.3 Justification of social activities engaged in (why do
you go to church? Why do you attend weddings, etc.)
1.4 Talking about professional experiences and
ambitions
Learning Unit 2: Write short 2.1 Convenient development of any topic of interest 11
compositions on familiar
into a composition
topics
2.2 Correct identification of parts of a composition
(introduction, body, conclusion)
2.3 Correct identification of types of a
composition (essays, short stories, letters, emails)
2.4 Correct use of the building blocks of
sentences and paragraphs
2.5 Effective use of punctuation marks
Learning Unit 3: Read and 3.1 Extraction of specific information from the 26
interpret messages from
text read
simple texts and social letters
3.2 Identification of the most important ideas in
the text
3.3 Effective identification of the lessons
conveyed by the text
3.4 Identification of the main elements of social
letters
3.5 Provision of an appropriate reply to social
letters
Learning Unit 4: React to 4.1 Capturing and reporting the main points from 37
common trade-related oral
a trade-related relatively slow speech/ recording
English
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 4.2 Expression of own opinions/views on the
recording listened to
4.3 Discussion of ideas and opinions raised in
simple trade-related recordings/ speeches
4.4 Answering specific questions on a trade-
related audio material

Learning Unit 1 – Talk about familiar events and activities

LO 1.1 – Describe social events

● Description of social events

An event description is a statement or account giving the characteristics of an event. It is intended to give
a mental image of an event that took place.

A social event can be defined as a gathering where the purpose is to bring people together in a group so
they can socialise. Parties are social gatherings.

Examples of social events:

- Weddings
- Parties
- Birthdays
- Funerals
- Graduation ceremonies

When describing a social event, use descriptive words such as:

 Adjectives
 Adverbs
 Verbs
 Gerunds
 Colours

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 Shapes
 Weather, etc.

Descriptive language appeals to all five of our senses: taste, touch, sight, smell, and sound. When used
correctly, descriptive words can entertain, persuade, inform, and educate.

Adjectives

Adjectives are the most popular descriptor in English. Adjectives modify nouns and pronouns.
However, it’s worth noting that while all adjectives are descriptive words, not all descriptive words are
adjectives.

Adverbs

While adjectives provide further description for nouns, adverbs add on to verbs. Adverbs take things
up notch, though. They can also modify other adverbs, as well as adjectives. Adverbs can be used to
describe concepts such as time, place, circumstance, manner, or degree.

Verbs

Verbs are the action words in a sentence that describe what the subject is doing. Along with nouns,
verbs are the main part of a sentence or phrase, telling a story of what is taking place. In fact, without a
verb, full thoughts can’t be properly conveyed. The choice of verbs to be used depends on what you
want to describe. There are many types of verbs; in addition to the main categories of physical, mental
verbs, and state of being verbs, there are several other types of verbs.

Gerunds

Gerunds are created out of verbs, but function as noun. In English, gerunds end in –ing. Gerunds can be
descriptive words because they are often used to describe the actions of an individual.

There are many descriptive words. When it comes to using descriptive words, variety is a key. Instead
of overusing the same words, challenge yourself to come up with creative ways to appeal to your
listener’s senses.

Colours

One of the best ways to describe what we see is through colour. Using colours when describing an
event will help the audience understand what the event looked like.

Shapes

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 When describing a social event, you may need to use some words describing shapes. The words you
use to describe a shape may be technical or playful, finding similes to represent their shapes, such as
“he was as thin and lanky as a much-used toothbrush.”

Weather

You can use verbs and adjectives to describe the weather. There are also other words that can help
describe weather. Some adjectives used to describe weather are very similar in meaning (i.e., hot and
warm) and a little harder to distinguish, while others are completely different (i.e., rainy and sunny)
and easier to remember.

LO 1.2 – Give account of social events and ceremonies attended

● Giving accounts of social events

When describing an event, talk about when and where the event took place. Account of social events or
ceremonies attended should be given according to:

 What happen
 When they happen
 Where they take place
 Why they happen
 Who is involved in them
 How they happen
 How long they last

● Enquiring about social events using question words

 Who?
 When?
 Where?
 What?
 How?
 Why?

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These questions are sometimes called journalistic questions because all news stories should answer them.
Prepare answers to these WH-questions anytime you are going to talk about an event, an experience or
something that happened.

The above WH-question words help to make sure answers are provided for the following questions:

- Who was involved?

- What happened?
- When did it happen?
- Where did it happen?
- Why did it happen?
- How did it happen?

LO 1.3 – Justify social activities engaged in

● Using conjunctions to justify social activities by expressing their
 Reason
 We can begin a clause to give reason with these words:
- As it was getting late, I decided I should go home.
- We must be near the beach, because I can hear the waves.
- Because everything looked different, I had no idea where to go.
- Since he was going to be living in Sweden for some time, he thought he should read something
about the country.
 For, in that, inasmuch as:
- We must begin planning now, for the future may bring unexpected changes.
- The film was unusual in that there were only four actors in it.
- Clara and I have quite an easy life, inasmuch as neither of us has to work too hard but we earn
quite a lot of money.
 Because of, due to, owing to
- Because of is used before a noun or noun phrase: We were not able to come because of bad
weather.
- Due to: She was unable to run due to a leg injury.
- Owing to (not after the verb be): We have less money spent owing to budget cuts.
 Purpose
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  So that is usually followed by can, could, will or would:
- The police locked the door so that no one could get on.
 In order to, so as to: these are formal ways of expressing purpose
- Scientists used only local materials in order to/ so as to save money.

 Result
 So/ such +adjective+ that:
- Jim was so tall that he hit his head on the ceiling.
- Helen is such a busy person that she never feels bored.
 So much/ many/ few/ little +noun+ that:
- There were so many passengers that we couldn’t find a seat.
 Too+ adjective+ to:
- The table was far too heavy to lift.

LO 1.4 – Talk about professional experiences and ambitions

● Talking about professional experiences
When talking about professional experiences, use past tenses.

 Use of past tenses

 Past Simple
 The main use of past simple is for finished actions in the past. For example:
- I was born in San Francisco.
- I cleaned my room.
- I forgot my key.
 We can use it with a finished time phrase like in the sentences below:
- Yesterday I went to the supermarket.
- Last night we watched the football.
- The phone rang five minutes ago.

Other common time expressions you can use are:

Last month, last week, last summer, in 1987, when I was a child, a long time ago, on Monday, in February
etc.

 Past continuous
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We form it using was/were+ verb+ ing

 A common use of the past continuous is to show that a longer action was interrupted (usually by a
shorter action in the past simple). We often use the time expression when. For example:
- I was swimming in the sea when I saw a shark.
- Henry was sitting at home when the phone rang.
- She was playing the golf when it began to rain.

 When two continuous actions are happening at the same we use the time expression while:
- I was talking to Sarah while she was driving.
- We were playing while dad was cooking dinner.

 We can also use it to show a continuous action happening at a specific time in the past:
- Yesterday morning I was practicing the piano.
- At 6 o’clock I was eating dinner.
- What were you doing at 8pm last night?

 Past perfect

We make the past perfect by using had+ past participle

 We use it when one action happens before another past action. For example:
- The film had started when we arrived. (the film started before we arrived)
- The film started when we arrived. (we arrived at the same time the film started)

 Past Perfect Continuous

We form the past perfect continuous with had+ been+ verb +ing

 We use it to show that an action which started in the past continued up to another point in the
past. For example:
- She had been living in Italy for three years when she lost her job.
- By the time Steve arrived I had been working for nearly eight hours!

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  We can also use it to talk about the cause of something in the past. For example:
- Susan was sweating because she had been running.
- Henry was late because he had been studying.

● Talking about professional ambitions

Use future tenses to talk about professional ambitions. There are several different ways you can talk about
the future.

 Simple Future

The simple future tense is used when an action is promised/ thought to occur in the future.

Structure:

Subject+ shall/ will + verb+ .....

Example:

- We shall move to another city.

- They will make a phone which has artificial intelligence.

Note: The structure of the present progressive tense also can be used when an action is promised/
arranged/ planned to take place in the near future.

Example:

- We are moving to Texas next week.

 Future Continuous Tense

The future continuous tense is used when an action is promised/ thought to be going on at a specific
time/context in the future.

Structure:

Subject+ shall/ will+ verb +ing ....

Examples:

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 - I shall be sleeping at around 6.00 am tomorrow.
- They will be playing at this time tomorrow.
- She will be watching TV when I come home.

 Future Perfect Tense

The future perfect tense is used to demonstrate an action which is promised to be done by a certain time
in the future.

Structure:

Subject + shall/ will + have + verb in the past participle ....

Examples:

- I shall have completed the assignment by Monday.

- She will have cleaned the house before her father comes.
- Alex will have submitted the tender by tomorrow.
- They will have finished making the bridge by January.

 Future Perfect Continuous Tense

The future perfect continuous, also sometimes called the future perfect progressive, is a tense that
describes actions that will continue up until a point in the future.

Structure:

Will + have+ been + verb+ing

Examples:

- In November, I will have been working at my company for three years.

- When I turn thirty, I will have been playing piano for twenty-one years.
- At five o’clock, I will have been waiting for thirty minutes

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Learning Unit 2 – Write short compositions on familiar topics

LO 2.1 – Use the building blocks of sentences and paragraphs

What is a sentence?
A sentence is a group of words which starts with a capital letter and ends with a full stop (.), question
marks (?) or exclamation mark (!). A sentence contains or implies a predicate and a subject.

What is a clause?

A clause is a group of words that includes a subject and a verb. A sentence may contain one clause or
many clauses. A clause can be dependent or independent.

 An independent clause is one that can stand alone as a sentence.

 A dependent clause (or subordinate clause) is one that cannot stand alone as a complete sentence
because it does not express a complete thought.
Here are examples of dependent clauses (shaded) and independent clauses:
- The car that your wife sold me last week has broken.
- I am not tidying the dishes unless Peter helps.
- When it rains, the daffodils bow their heads.

● Types of sentence (according to the structure)

 A simple sentence

A simple sentence consists of one independent clause. (An independent clause contains a subject and
verb and expresses a complete thought.)

Examples:
- I like coffee.
- Mary likes tea.
- The earth goes round the sun.
- Mary did not go to the party.

 A compound sentence

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 A compound sentence is two (or more) independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction or
semi-colon. Each of these clauses could form a sentence alone. They are independent clauses.

Examples:

- I like coffee and Mary likes tea.

- Mary went to work but John went to the party.
- Our car broke down; we came last.

There are seven coordinating conjunctions:

 For, and, nor, but, or, yet, so

To remember these conjunctions, you might want to learn this acronym: FANBOYS

 A complex sentence

A complex sentence consists of an independent clause plus a dependent clause. (A dependent clause
starts with a subordinating conjunction or a relative pronoun, and contains a subject and verb, but
does not express a complete thought.)

Examples:

- We missed our plane because we were late.

- Our dog barks when she hears a noise.
- He left in a hurry after he got a phone call.
- Do you know the man who is talking to Mary?

Here are some common subordinating conjunctions:

 After, although, as, because, before, even if, even tough, if, provide, rather than, since, so that,
than, thought, unless, until, whether, while

Here are some relative pronouns:

 That, which, who, whom, whose, why, when, what, where, how

The relative pronouns above are the simple relative pronouns. You can also have compound ones. A
compound relative pronoun is formed by adding either ever or soever to a simple pronoun:
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 - Whoever, whosoever, whosesoever, …

 A compound-complex sentence

A compound-complex sentence consists of at least two independent clauses and one or more
dependent clauses. It is a combination of a compound and a complex sentence.

Examples:

- John didn’t come because he was ill so Mary was not happy.
- He left in a hurry after he got a phone call but he came back five minutes later.
- After Prince Charming put the glass slipper on her foot, Cinderella went to the palace and lived
happily ever after.
- Birds fly, and they migrate towards the south when it is wintertime.

● The building blocks of a simple sentence/clause

There are several sentence patterns in English. Only the simplest are explained below.

An English sentence must have at least two parts: a subject and a predicate.

 Subject

The subject is what the sentence is about. It is usually the name of a person or thing. It is almost always a
noun or a pronoun.

Examples are:

- I am a student.
- Peter is writing letters.
- Tom went to school yesterday.
- India is a large country.
- They bought a new house.
 Predicate

The complete predicate usually tells what the subject is or does. The complete predicate consists of the
verb, its modifiers, and any other words that complete the meaning. The verb can tell what action the
subject performs, or it can link the subject to another word in the predicate. The verb itself is called the
simple predicate.
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Examples:

- River flows. (simple predicate)

- The gray-green river flows slowly through the city. (simple predicate with modifiers)
- Jane is our new English teacher.
- They are playing football.
 Verb

Verbs are words that show an action (sing), occurrence (develop), or state of being (exist).

Examples:

- I am a teacher.
- She did a stupid thing.
- I have finished my homework.
- She is wonderful.

 Objects

There are direct objects and indirect objects. The direct object (DO) of a verb is the noun or pronoun that
receives its action. The verb with a direct object is transitive. Sometimes a verb has an indirect object (IO)
in addition to its direct object. It tells to whom the action is done.

Examples:

- John bought a book. (DO)

- Leo told Gwen a joke. (IO)
 Subject complements

A subject complement is a noun, pronoun, or adjective that follows a linking verb and identifies or
describes the subject.

Examples:

- Kendra is a shepherd in the play.

- The staff is hers.
 Prepositional phrase

A prepositional phrase is a group of words that begins with a preposition. A prepositional phrase can be an
adjective prepositional phrase or an adverb prepositional phrase.

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A prepositional phrase that describes a noun or pronoun is called an adjective prepositional phrase, or an
adjective phrase.

Examples:

- The parrot with colourful feathers ate sunflower seeds.

- The colourful parrot drank some water.

A prepositional phrase that describes a verb is called an adverb prepositional phrase, or an adverb phrase.

Examples:

- The macaw paced in its cage.

- It screeched in a harsh voice.
- It scolded us through the day.

● Types of paragraphs
There are many different types of paragraphs. Each type has a different purpose, and writers make use of
different means in achieving each purpose. The following is a list of some of the paragraph types we will be
using.

 A descriptive paragraph

The purpose of a descriptive paragraph is to allow the reader to experience the item, phenomenon or
event being described as vividly as possible without physically sensing it. That is, the reader cannot see it,
but knows what it looks like; cannot taste it, but knows whether it is salty or sweet; cannot touch it, but
knows its texture. Descriptive paragraphs typically include modifiers (ex., adjectives, adverbs, prepositional
phrases) and figurative language (ex., metaphors, personification, similes) to help enrich the ‘experience’
for the reader.

Example:

Hanging on my bedroom wall is a picture of train. Sometimes, when I’m lying on my bed, I take a
closer look. The front of the train has a number of flags, but they don’t look like today’s American
flag. Instead, these flags have stripes and a circle of stars. The train is at a station, and the
conductor is walking toward the tracks in front of the train. Is he preparing to speak to all of the
hat-wearing men and children behind him, or is he checking out the tracks? I can’t decide. The clock
on the post outside the station says it is about six fifteen, and I’m guessing that it’s evening and not
morning since it doesn’t look dark. I can just imagine the smell of coal and hear the sound of the

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 train as it snorts and breathes, chomping at the bit to get moving. The picture always makes me
think about life in the past.

 A narrative paragraph

Narrative paragraphs tell stories. They differ from short stories or novels in length as well as in the amount
of detail provided; they sometimes are a little more than brief vignettes. True narrative paragraphs,
however, are similar to short stories.

Example:

One of the oddest coincidences in my life happened when I left America to visit Seoul, South Korea.
A friend and I wanted to visit a castle in Seoul, so we found some locals who agreed to take us to
see it. As we were walking, up some steps from one part of the grounds to another, I saw some
people watching us from the top of the steps. When I got to the top, someone I had never seen
before mentioned my sister’s name and asked if I was her sister. I almost couldn’t talk! How could
these people know my sister, who lived in Australia? They explained that they were my sister’s
neighbours in Australia and that I looked just like her. It was the strangest experience in my life!

 An expository paragraph

An expository paragraph explains something; its purpose is to help the reader understand. Exposition often
includes techniques such as the use of examples or illustrations to support a point or the use some kind of
ordering (chronological, numerical, for example) to help a reader follow a process. Exposition needs to be
clear; language is often quite direct although sometimes a writer may use language devices to help
illustrate a point.

Example:

To be healthy, teens can exercise, eat nutritious foods, and keep themselves safe. First,
participating in various kinds of fitness can keep them in shape. This can include walking, riding
their bikes, and playing sports. Next, maintaining a nutrient-rich diet can help teens stay well. Three
balanced meals and two wholesome snacks a day can keep their health on track. Finally, staying out
of dangerous situations can keep teens healthy. Avoiding strangers, wearing seatbelts in cars, and
checking smoke detectors are all great ways to accomplish this task. Teens who follow these tips
will keep their bodies unharmed and in good physical shape.

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  A persuasive paragraph

The purpose of a persuasive paragraph is to convince the reader of something, such as the writer’s position
on a controversial topic or proposal for a new project. The structure is often similar to that of an expository
piece, as it is usually helpful to explain a little bit about the subject, but rhetorical devices are often
employed to help sway the reader’s opinion.

Example:

All students should be required to learn how to use the internet. First, because the web gives
students access to a tremendous amount of research from the comfort of school or home, they can
save time doing research if they learn to use this resource. For example, if students want to write
about poodles, they can easily go to a search engine and find all of the resources they could
possibly want or need on the topic. Next, the internet allows instant communication with access to
everything from email to Skype. Students who have access to the web can communicate with
parents and friends during breaks, resolving issues or letting parents know about a schedule
change, finally, learning to use the internet will help students compete in highly-competitive and
technologically-savvy world. Many jobs today require employees to use the internet, and if
students don’t know how to do this, they will be stuck in lower-paying jobs. Clearly, the internet is a
necessity in today’s world, so all students should learn how to use it.

● The building blocks of a paragraph

A paragraph is a group of sentences about one topic or one main idea. A paragraph is a series of sentences
that are organised and coherent, and are all related to a single topic. Almost every piece of writing you do
that is longer than a few sentences should be organised into paragraphs. This is because paragraphs show
a reader where the subdivisions of an essay begin and end, and thus helps the reader see the organisation
of the essay and grasps its main points.

Paragraphs can contain many different kinds of information. A paragraph could contain a series of brief
examples or a single long illustration of a general point. It might describe a place, character, or process;
narrate series of events; compare or contrast two or more things; classify items into categories; or describe
causes and effects. Regardless of the kind of information they contain, all paragraphs share certain
characteristics. One of the most important of these is a topic sentence. A paragraph, therefore, contains a
topic sentence, supporting details and sometimes a concluding sentence. The sentences follow one
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another from the beginning to the end of the paragraph. A paragraph is usually part of a longer piece of
writing, such as a letter or essay.

 The topic sentence

The topic sentence is usually the first sentence of the paragraph. It states the main idea of the paragraph
and states the point the writer wishes to make about that subject. A good topic sentence tells the reader
exactly what the rest of the paragraph will be about.

 The supporting sentences

The supporting sentences are the middle sentences of the paragraph. They provide details such as
explanations or examples that expand on or support the topic sentence. Supporting sentences are
sometimes connected by transition words or phrases.

 The concluding sentence

A concluding sentence is sometimes used in longer paragraphs to sum up the ideas presented. It expresses
the same idea as the topic sentence but in different words. It can start with a transition such as clearly or in
conclusion.

Example of a paragraph:

Terry Fox was a Canadian who suffered from bone cancer and raised awareness for cancer research by
trying to run across Canada. He attracted a lot of attention by running the distance of a marathon daily on
one prosthetic leg. He also challenged each Canadian citizen to contribute one dollar for cancer research.
Unfortunately, Fox was forced to end this run near Thunder Bay because of health complications. The CTV
network organized a nation-wide run to continue Fox’s fundraising efforts. Clearly, Terry Fox had an impact
on both cancer research and the millions of Canadians who participate in the Terry Fox Run every year.

LO 2.2 – Use punctuation marks

● Identification and use of different punctuation marks
Punctuation marks are symbols that are used to aid the clarity and comprehension of written language.

The commonly used punctuation marks are the following:

 Full stop or Period (.)

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The period or full stop is used for ending a declarative statement, believed to be complete. It is also used in
abbreviations.

Examples:

- My children walked to school.

- Their father, Mr. Gerald Smith, took charge of the hostel on Feb. 2019.

 Comma (,)

We use a comma:

 To separate words in a list

 to separate phrases and clauses
 before and after a clause or phrase that gives additional, but not essential, information
 to separate main clauses especially long ones, linked by a conjunction such as but, and, or, as, for
 to separate introductory word or phrase, or an adverb or adverbial phrase that applies to the whole
sentence, from the rest of the sentence
 to separate a tag question from the rest of the sentence

Examples:

- We have tea, coffee, milk and hot chocolate.

- If you keep calm, take your time, concentrate and think ahead, then you are likely to pass your
test.
- The Pennine Hills, which are very popular with walkers, are situated between Lancashire and
Yorkshire.
- We had been looking forward to our holiday all year, but unfortunately it rained every day.
- As it happens, however, I never saw her again.
- It’s quite expensive, isn’t it?
 Question mark (?)

We use a question at the end of a direct question:

- Where’s the car?

- Who are you talking to?

 Exclamation mark (!)

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It is used at the end of a sentence expressing surprise, joy, anger, shock or another strong emotion:

- That’s marvellous!
- “Never!” she cried.

 Colon (:)

We use colon:

 To introduce a list of items

 In informal writing, before a clause or phrase that gives more information about the main clause.
(You can use a semicolon or a full stop instead of a colon here.)

Examples

- These are our options: we go by train and leave before the end of the show; or we take the car
and see it all.
- The garden had been neglected for a long time: it was overgrown and full of weeds.

 Semicolon (;)

We use semicolon:

 Instead of a comma to separate parts of a sentence that already contain commas

 In informal writing, to separate two main clauses, especially those not joined by a conjunction

Examples:

- She is determined to succeed whatever the cost; she would achieve her aim, whoever might
suffer on the way.
- The sun was already low in the sky; it would soon be dark.

 Quotation marks/ speech marks (‘’) (“”)

We use quotation marks:

 To enclose words and punctuation in direct speech

 To draw attention to a word that is unusual for the context
 Around the titles of articles, books, poems, plays, etc.
 In American English, double quotation marks are used

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 Examples:

- ‘What’s your name?’ he asked.

- Thousands were imprisoned in the name of ‘national security’.
- I was watching ‘Math of the Day’.
- “Help! I’m drowning!”

 Apostrophe (’)

We use apostrophe:

 With s to indicate that a thing or person belongs to somebody

 In short forms, to indicate that letters or figures have been omitted
 Sometimes, with s to form the plural of letters or an abbreviation

Examples:

- My friend’s brother
- The students’ books
- I’m (I am)
- They’d (They had/ they would)
- Roll your r’s
- During the 1990’s
 Hyphen (-)

It is used:

 To form a compound from two or more other words

 To form a compound from a prefix and a proper name
 When writing compound numbers between 21 and 99 in words
 Sometimes, in British English, to separate a prefix ending in a vowel from a word beginning with the
same vowel
 After the first section of a word that is divided between one line and the next

Examples:

Hard-headed
Mother-to-be
Pro-European
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 Seventy-three
Thirty-one
Co-operate
Decide what to do in order to avoid mis-
takes of this kind in the future.
 Dash (—)

It is used:

 In informal English, instead of a colon or semicolon, to indicate that what follows is a summary or
conclusion of what has gone before

Examples:

- Men were shouting, women were screaming, children were crying –it was chaos.
- You’ve admitted that you lied to me –how can I trust you again?

 Round brackets/ parentheses ()

They are used:

 To separate extra information or a comment from the rest of the sentence

 To enclose cross-references
 Around numbers or letters in the text

Examples:

- Mount Robson (12972 feet) is the highest mountain in the Canadian Rockies.
- He thinks that modern music (i.e. anything written after 1900) is rubbish.
- This moral ambiguity is a feature of Shakespeare’s later works (see Chapter Eight).
- Our objectives are (1) to increase output, (2) to improve quality and (3) to maximize profits.
 Ellipsis (...)

We use ellipsis to indicate that words have been omitted, especially from a quotation or at the end of a
conversation:

- ...challenging the view that Britain... had not changed all that fundamentally.

 Slash (/)
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It is used:

 to separate alternative words or phrases

 in internet and email addresses to separate the different elements

Examples:

- single/ married/ widowed/ divorced

- http://www.oup.com/elt/

LO 2.3 – Identify types of compositions

In literary sense, a composition (from the Latin “to put together”) is the way a writer assembles words and
sentences to create a coherent and meaningful work. Composition can also mean the activity of writing,
the nature of the subject of a piece of writing, the piece of writing itself, and the name of a college course
assigned to a student.

● Different types of composition

There are different types of composition including the following:
- Essay
- Letter
- Short story/ narrative
- Email
- Review
- Article
- Report

 An essay is, generally, a piece of writing that gives the author’s own argument –but the definition is
vague, overlapping with those of paper, an article, a pamphlet, and a short story.
 A letter is a written message conveyed from one person (or group of people) to another through a
medium. The term excludes written material intended to be read in its original form by large
numbers of people, such as newspapers and placards; however even these may include material in
the form of an “open letter”. Letters can be formal or informal.
 A short story (narrative) is a piece of prose fiction that typically can be read in one sitting and
focuses on a self-contained incident or series of linked incidents, with the intent of evoking a single
effect or mood.

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  Electronic mail (email or e-mail) is a method of exchanging messages (“mail”) between people
using electronic devices.
 Review is a report in the media in which someone gives their opinion of something such as a new
book or film.
 An article is a written composition in prose, usually nonfiction, on a specific topic, forming an
independent part of a book or other publication, as a newspaper or magazine.
 A report is a document that presents information in an organised format for a specific audience and
purpose. Although summaries of reports may be delivered orally, complete reports are almost
always in the form of written documents.

LO 2.4 – Develop any topic of interest into a composition (essay)

● Identification of Parts of a composition (essay)
An essay is a piece of writing that is written to convince someone of something or to simply inform the
reader about a particular topic. The main parts (or sections) to an essay are:

- Introduction
- Body
- Conclusion

In a standard short essay, five paragraphs can provide the reader with enough information in a short
amount of space. For a research paper or dissertation, however, it is essential that more than five
paragraphs are present in order not to overwhelm the reader with too much information in one paragraph.

● Contents of each part of a composition

 Introduction

An essay begins with a brief introduction, which prepares the audience to read the essay. An effective
introduction should:

- Catch the reader’s attention, which can be done, for example, by using a direct announcement,
a quotation, a question, a definition, an unusual comparison, or a controversial position
- Introduce the topic of the essay, (in other words, inform the reader of and provide a context for
the topic being discussed)
- Introduce the main idea (otherwise known as the thesis or claim) of the essay
- Introduce the purpose of the essay (will it inform, argue, persuade, describe, narrate, classify,
etc.)
 Body
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An essay includes body paragraphs, which develop the main idea (thesis or claim) of the essay. An effective
body paragraph should:

- Explain, illustrate, discuss or provide evidence to support the main idea

- Discuss only one aspect of the main idea (whenever you move on to a new supporting point,
start a new body paragraph)
- Work together with other body paragraphs to support your essay’s main idea
- Work together with other body paragraphs to create a clear, cohesive paper, (clarity and
coherence can be achieved through the use of transitions)
 Conclusion

An essay ends with a brief conclusion, which brings the essay to a logical end. An effective conclusion
should:

- Provide closure for the reader by reviewing main points (make sure that this review is brief –
after all, these points have already been fully developed in the body paragraphs), linking the
main idea of the essay to a larger issue, predicting an outcome related to the main idea, giving
an opinion, or using a quotation that helps sum up an essential aspect of your main point
- Remind readers of primary focus of the essay, which can be done by restating the main idea in
different words
- Avoid introducing new ideas
- Avoid apologies

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Learning Unit 3 – Read and interpret messages from simple texts and social
letters

LO 3.1 – Extract specific information from text read

We can define text as the written words in a book, magazine, etc., not pictures.

● Brief introduction to deep reading

Deep reading is the active process of thoughtful and deliberate reading carried out to enhance one’s
comprehension and enjoyment of a text. Contrast with skimming or superficial reading. It is also called
slow reading.

● Application of deep reading according to procedures

 Silent procedure

Silent reading is a reading skill which allows one to read without voicing the words. This may involve
subvocalization or silent speech; it is defined as internal speech made when reading a word, thus allowing
the reader to imagine the sound of the word as it is read. This is a natural process when reading and helps
to reduce cognitive load, and it helps mind to access meanings to enable it to comprehend and remember
what is read. Although some people associate subvocalization with moving one’s lips, the actual term
refers primarily to the movement of muscles associated with speaking, not the literal moving of lips. Most
subvocalization is undetectable (without the aid of machines) even by the person doing the
subvocalization.

 Loud procedure

Reading aloud is one of the most important things parents and teachers can do with children. Reading
aloud builds many important fundamental skills, introduces vocabulary, provides a model of fluent,
expressive reading, and helps children recognise what reading for pleasure is all about.

 Close procedure

In literary criticism, close reading is the careful, sustained interpretation of a brief passage of a text. A
close reading emphasises the single and the particular over the general, effected by close attention to
individual words, the syntax, the order in which the sentences unfold ideas, as well as formal structures. A
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truly attentive close reading of a two-hundred-word poem might be thousands of words long without
exhausting the possibilities for observation and insight.

Exercise: Read the following text and do the comprehension questions

Text: Computer Addiction

Computer addiction can be defined as the excessive or compulsive use of the computer which persists
despite serious negative consequences for personal, social, or occupational function. The addiction
involves online and/ or offline computer usage and consists of at least three subtypes: excessive gaming,
sexual preoccupations, and e-mail/ text messaging.

The concept of computer addiction is broadly divided into two types, namely offline and online computer
addiction. The term offline computer addiction is generally used when speaking about excessive gaming
behaviour, which can be practiced both offline and online. Online computer addiction, also known as
Internet addiction, gets more attention in general from scientific research than offline computer addiction,
mainly because most cases of computer addiction are related to the excessive use of the Internet.

The symptoms of computer addiction include:

 Being drawn by the computer as soon as one wakes up and before one goes to bed.
 Replacing old hobbies with excessive use of the computer and using the computer as one’s primary
source of entertainment and procrastination.
 Lacking physical exercise and/ or outdoor exposure because of constant use of the computer. This
could contribute to many health problems such as obesity.

Researchers link internet/ computer addiction with existing mental health issues, most notably depression.
Studies showed that the majority of those who met the requirements of internet/ computer addiction
suffered from interpersonal difficulties and stress and that those addicted go online games specifically
responded that they hoped to avoid reality.

There are many consequences resulting from computer addiction. For example, excessive computer use
may result in lack of face to face social interaction. It may also lead to Computer Vision Syndrome (CVS), a
condition that results in headaches, blurred vision, neck pain, fatigue, eye strain, dry eyes, irritated eyes,
double vision, vertigo or dizziness.

Source: https://www.myenglishpages.com/site_php_files/reading-computer-addiction.php

Comprehension: Show whether the statements are True of False by circling the letter

1. Computer addiction is related to only internet activities.

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 a) True
b) False
2. The symptoms of computers addiction include insufficient physical activity.
a) True
b) False
3. One of the causes of computer addiction is related to the abnormal urge to stay away from real life.
a) True
b) False
4. Deficient real social interaction is another cause leading to computer addiction.
a) True
b) False

LO 3.2 – Identify the most important ideas in the text

● Distinction of the most important ideas from the detailed information of the text

 Main ideas

The main idea is the author’s message about the topic. It is often expressed directly or it can be implied. It
is easy to identify a main idea that is directly expressed in the text.

Main ideas are often found at the beginning of paragraphs. The first sentence often explains the subject
being discussed in the passage. Main ideas are also found in the concluding sentences of a paragraph. The
main idea can be expressed as a summation of the information in the paragraph as well as a link to the
information in the next paragraph.

The main ideas are not always clearly stated. It is more difficult to identify a main idea when it is inferred
or implied. It can be implied through other words in the paragraph. An implied main idea can be found in
several ways.

 Supporting details

A paragraph contains facts, statements, examples-specifics which guide us all to a full understanding of the
main idea. They clarify, illuminate, explain, describe, expand and illustrate the main idea and are
supporting details.

Determining supporting details:

- Decide which details help to further the story line

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 - Decide which details help you to understand the main idea
- Answer questions raised by the main idea (who, what, when, why or how)

LO 3.3– Identify the lessons conveyed by the text

● Text purposes

A text can have many purposes. There are four main purposes of non-fiction texts:

- To instruct
- To describe or explain
- To persuade
- To inform
 Texts that instruct

Instructions are everywhere. Whether you choose to follow them is another matter entirely. Instructions
can be anything from how to open a box of cereal to step-by-step details of how to put together a flat-pack
piece of furniture.

Instructions contain imperatives (bossy verbs) –commands which tell you what to do or what not to do,
such as ‘shake the packet’ or ‘do not leave the box open’.

The purpose of the texts like these is to tell somebody what to do or how things should be done. You get
instructions if you buy a new piece of equipment like a food processor. Instructions are often in a particular
order and may be numbered in bullet points. They are often arranged under subheadings.

 Texts that describe or explain

Descriptive texts tell you about what has happened or about people and situations. This means that they
don’t try to tell you what you should do or think; they leave you to make up your own mind.

These texts tend to be longer because they are not just giving information, but describing or explaining
something in more detail. Newspapers, magazines, and internet articles are good examples of this.

Descriptive texts often contain describing words to help build up an image in the reader’s mind. They may
draw upon your five sense (seeing, hearing, feeling, smelling and tasting) to help you to imagine what
something is like.

 Texts that persuade

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Persuasive texts are all around, from the company logos on almost everything you buy to the letters from
the bank offering loans, which appear formal and serious but are really just adverts. A major benefit of
being an aware and active reader is understanding the influence and techniques of persuasive texts.

Persuasive texts try to ‘take you into’ doing something. It may be joining a club, sending some money to
charity or buying a new car. They are written to make you agree with a point of view. They usually give you
good reasons to do what they want.

 Texts that inform

These texts give the reader information about something. They contain facts and avoid repetition. They
can be very short, such as a street name sign, or longer, like a news article. The longer a text is, the more
likely it is to describe or explain rather than inform. The difference is not always clear.

LO 3.4 – Identify the main elements of social letters

● Kinds of letters

 Business/ formal letters: a business letter is a formal document sent from one company to another
and from a company to its clients, employees, and stakeholders, for example. Business letters are
used for professional correspondence between individuals as well.
A number of conventions must be adhered to while drafting formal letters. It must be remembered
that there are various formats for formal letters that people follow. The one explained here is the
one most commonly used for formal communication these days.

Elements of formal letters

 Sender’s address

The sender’s address is usually put on the top right-hand corner of the page. The address should be
complete and accurate in case the recipient of the letter wishes to get in touch with the sender for further
communication.

 Date

The sender’s address is followed by the date just below it. This is the date on which the letter is being
written. It is important in formal letters as they are often kept on record.

 Receiver’s address

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After leaving some space we put the receiver’s address on the left side of the page. Whether we write “To”
above the address depends on the writer’s preference. Make sure you write the official
title/name/position etc. of the receiver, as the first line of the address.

 Greeting

This is where you greet the person you are addressing the letter to. Bear in mind that it is a formal letter,
so the greeting must be respectful and not too personal. The general greetings used in formal letters are
“Sir” or “Madam”. If you know the name of the person the salutation may also be “Mr....” or “Ms....”. But
remember you cannot address them only by their first name. It must be the full name or only their last
name.

 Subject

After the salutation/ greeting comes the subject of the letter. Here you sum up the purpose of writing the
letter in one line. This helps the receiver focus on the subject of the letter in one glance.

 Body of the Letter

This is the main content of the letter. It should be divided into three paragraphs. The purpose of the letter
should be made clear in the first paragraph itself. The tone of the content should be formal. Do not use any
flowery language. Another point to keep in mind is that the letter should be concise and to the point. And
always be respectful and considerate in your language, no matter the subject of your letter.

 Closing the letter

At the end of your letter, write a complimentary closing. The words “Yours Faithfully” or “Yours Sincerely”
are printed on the paper. Generally, we use the latter if the writer knows the name of the person.

 Signature

Here finally you sign. And then write your name beneath the signature. This is how the recipient will know
who is sending the letter.

 Social/ informal/ friendly letters: these are letters to friends and family and they are usually
written in a conversational style. A personal letter written on the occasion of a special event is an
example of a social letter.
Informal letters are mainly used for personal communication. So, they do not have to follow any
specific pattern, format or conventions. They can be written as per the writer’s wishes and the

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 requirement of the situation. So the letter is written in a personal fashion in casual unassuming
language.

● Types of social letters

There are many types of social letters. Examples are:

- Friendly/ informal letter

- Invitation note
- Apology letter
- Thank you letter
- Condolence/ sympathy letter
- Acceptance letter
- Regret letter

As we discussed earlier there is no set format when writing an informal letter. But there is a general
pattern, some conventions that people usually follow.

● The main elements of a social letter

 Address

The first thing to write is your address. We usually write the left-hand side of the page at the very top. The
address should be accurate and complete. Even when writing to close friends or relatives the address must
be written, so they can reply back to the letter with ease. If the recipient of the letter is in another country,
do not forget to write your country as well in the address.

 Date

Next just below the address we write the date. This allows the reader to have a reference as to when the
letter was written.

 Greeting

Now since you know the person you are writing to, the greeting can be informal as well. If it is a friend or
someone close to your age you can greet them by their first name, like “Dear Alex”. If you are writing to
your relative like your mother/ father/ aunt/ uncle etc, you may greet them as such, for example, “Dear
Mom”. And if you are writing to an elder person, someone you respect greatly you can address them as Mr
or Mrs.

 Introductory paragraph

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And now we begin writing the actual letter. The introductory paragraph sets the tone for the whole letter.
You might begin by asking the recipient about their well being. Or you may say that you hope the letter
finds them in good health and great spirits. The opening of informal letters should be casual and
comforting. It must not be formal and direct as in business letters.

 Body of the Letter

The letter overall should maintain a friendly tone. But you have to adjust the language and wordings
according to who you are writing to. With a friend, you can afford to be very casual and flippant even. But
if you are writing to an elder relative, you must be respectful and considerate.

One way to determine the tonality of your letter is to remember how you talk to the person in a
conversation. And then apply the same syntax and sentiments to the letter.

 Conclusion

In the conclusive paragraph sum up the reason for writing the letter, i.e. summarize the letter. Say a
meaningful and affectionate goodbye to the reader. Do not forget to invite the reader to write back or
reply to your letter. It shows an intention to keep the conversation going.

 Signature

There is no one way to sign off informal letters. Since they do not follow a strict format, you may sign off as
you please. Some commonly used phrases are

 Lots of Love,
 Best,
 Best Wishes,
 Kind Regards,
 Kindly,

Pick the one that best suit the occasion and the simply sign your name below.

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Examples of social letters

This is a Letter of Congratulation on a Promotion.

From:

Mr. Ramachandran,
EWQ, Lalan Bandar Baru,
82/ABC Pontian,
Tokyo,
Japan.

12th January 2001

To:

Mr. Johnny Kay,

Regional Manager,
Centurion Enterprises Company,
456, Lalan Bandar Baru,
82000 Pontian,
Tokyo,
Japan.

Dear Mr. Kay,

My wife and I would like to congratulate you on your recent promotion to Regional manager. This is indeed
a coveted position and we are sure you will do a good job.

The last five years when you were Area Sales manager, your company enjoyed a good turnover of business
because of your innovative methods of increasing sales. We believe you can be even more effective in your
new position. We look forward to even better years.

Once again, congratulation and best wishes from all of us here.

With love.

Yours Sincerely,

(Signature of Ramachandran)
RAMACHANDRAN

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This is a sample Letter of Love.

Mr. Sunil loves Ms. Sonya. He writes a letter expressing his loves towards Ms. Sonya.

18 Baugh Street,
Katmandu,
Nepal.

18th April 2004.

Dearest Sonya,

You will feel pestered, I am sure, to receive this letter upon letter every week from a suitor. The truth is
that you have become a part of my being with every breath. I must think of your grace, charm and
heavenly beauty.

I remember our last meeting at the Students Reunion at the Gymkhana Club. You flashed a row of pearls as
you smiled and your grace in that azure-colored semi-transparent dress was becoming of goddess. Your
verbal intelligence, your mischievous repartee in combating my light-hearted banter really took my heart
away. You have a gentle chiding manner When you do not approve of something and that has the effect of
setting right a derailed person without bruising him.

As you know and I have briefed you, my family is simple traditional one. It needs a woman who knows how
to maintain a house and the family and who can set everything right. I do not need a make-up doll without
virtue who would soon go sick of all of us. My dear Sonya, you are meant and born for me.

If it is not inconvenient for you, I can approach your parents this Saturday evening and propose my hand in
marriage with you.

I do not and expect a NO from you, Sonya.

With love for marriage.

Ever loving,

Sunil

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LO 3.5 – Provide an appropriate reply to social letters

● Possible replies according to types of social letters

A reply letter should be appropriate to the letter it is replying. Replies to social letters may be positive or
negative.

 A positive reply indicates agreement, approval, or encouragement.

 A negative reply expresses refusal or denial.

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Learning Unit 4 – React to common trade-related oral English

LO 4.1 – Capture and report the main points from a trade-related relatively slow speech/
recording

● Definition of speech

Speech can be defined a communication through talking or a talk given to an audience. It is the act of
speaking; expression or communication of thoughts and feelings by spoken words.

● Kinds of speech according to purpose

 Informative speech

An informative speech should educate the audience about its topic. These speeches are not argumentative
–they describe, announce, or explain their subject without making a case or taking sides.

 Persuasive speech

A persuasive speech aims to persuade or convince people to change the way they think or do something,
or to start doing something that they are not currently doing.

 Entertaining speech

A speech to entertain aims to engage interest, amuse, or please the listeners. This is presented in
situations where it is necessary to build light-hearted mood such as when making a speech at an after-
dinner party, leading a toast at a friend’s wedding, or making remarks at a birthday party for a colleague.

 Other types of speeches

Other types of speeches are mixes or variations of the basic types discussed above but deal with a smaller,
more specific number of situations.

● Components of a speech

 Introduction

The introduction should get the audience’s attention, describe the topic, state the thesis or purpose, and
give an overview of the speech and its main points. Open with a detailed map of your speech –giving good
directions in the beginning will save your audience from getting lost along the way.

 Body

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Next, the body of the speech discusses the details of the speech’s main points. It also includes the
transitions to help the reader follow you. A transition is a change or shift from one topic to another. For
example, you might say, “Now that we have discussed the reasons to not drive fast, let’s turn our attention
to ways to decrease speed.” The points you make during the body of your speech should be short and
concise.

 Conclusion

Finally, the conclusion restates your main points and includes the clincher, which encourages the listener
to think about the topic more deeply and take action on it. For instance, “Today we have discussed the
hazards of driving too fast and ways to prevent it. Now, please reflect on your own driving habits to see if
you can save someone’s life by slowing down.”

● Use of active listening

You have to be an active listener and be able to:

- Separate the main points from the supporting details/ commentary

- Report the main points of a speech/ recording

The way to improve your listening skills is to practice “active listening.” This is where you make a conscious
effort to hear not only the words that another person is saying, but more importantly, the complete
message being communicated.

You cannot allow yourself to be distracted by whatever else may be going around you, or by forming
counter arguments while the other person is still speaking. Nor can you allow yourself to get bored, and
lose focus on what the other person is saying.

Give the speaker your undivided attention, and acknowledge the message. Recognise that non-verbal
communication also “speaks loudly.”

Effective/ active listening strategies and skills

 Use appropriate body language to show you are listening (eye contact, sit upright, nod head, etc.)
 Listen to the speaker without interrupting
 Repeat what the speaker has said to make sure you have understood correctly
 Ask questions for clarification when you do not understand something
 Avoid being distracted by noises, mobile phones (turn it off!), what other people are doing, etc.
 Avoid being distracted by the mannerisms, speaking style, clothing of the person speaking
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  Truly listen without thinking about how you are going to respond until the person has finished
speaking
 Be aware of your own attitude and avoid being judgmental

LO 4.2 – Express own opinions/ views on the recording listened to

● Expressing one’s own views using a variety of expressions

These are examples of expressions that can be used while expressing one’s own views:

- In my opinion ...
- In my own view ...
- Personally ...
- To be honest ...
- To tell the truth ...
- According to ...
- As far as I’m concerned ...
- From my point of view ...
- I agree/ disagree ...
- I think that ...
- I would like to ...
- As for me/ As to me ...
- I hold the view that ...
- I would say that ...
- From my point of view ...
Etc.

LO 4.3 – Discuss ideas and opinions raised in simple trade-related recordings/ speeches

● The sides/ positions of a discussion

While discussing, you can take either side. You may support or refute (rebut) the idea that has been raised
in a speech or recording listened to.

● Using linkers/ connectors to defend one’s side

When defending one’s side, the following expressions can be used:

- First of all
- Last but not least
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 - On one hand, on the other hand
- On the contrary
- While/ Whereas
- Apart from
- For instance/ for example
- Finally
- As a result
- In addition to ...

LO 4.4 – Answer specific questions on trade-related audio material

● Use of active listening to understand an audio

In order to answer questions on a trade-related audio, you should be able to understand the main points,
supporting details, and report the main points.

Listening is one of the most important skills you can have. How well you listen has a major impact on your
job effectiveness, and on the quality of your relationship with others.

Clearly, listening is a skill that we can all benefit from improving. By becoming a better listener, you can
improve your productivity, as well as your ability to influence, persuade and negotiate. What’s more, you’ll
avoid conflict and misunderstanding. All of these are necessary for workplace success.

 The main points

There are some keys to identifying main ideas in presentations. First, a speaker may signal a main idea
through discourse markers; that is, speakers often use certain phrases to mark or emphasise their main
ideas. Here are some examples:

- The main point is ...

- What I’m trying to show is ...
- The purpose of my remarks is ...
- The important thing here is ...
- What I’m going to talk about today is ...
- The point I want to make/cover here is ...
- This afternoon I’d like to explain/ focus on ...

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Similarly, speakers often use rhetorical questions to signal main ideas, topics, and themes. These are
questions that the speaker asks out loud, and that the speaker plans to answer in his/ her presentation.

Another key to identifying main ideas is repetition, or how many times a word or phrase is repeated. If
something is repeated several times, it suggests importance.

The third key to identifying main or important ideas is pace. Pace is the speed of speech. Unimportant
points or small details are usually spoken about more quickly. Important points, such as main ideas, are
usually spoken about more slowly and clearly. Therefore, you should make an effort to increase listening
intensity during more slowly spoken segments; alternatively, you should try not to get anxious or panicked
if you miss a line which is spoken very quickly.

 Supporting details

Active listening requires you to comprehend many different types of details in several different contexts.
Consequently, this listening strategy is presented in three parts, each discussing a different aspect of
understanding details.

Aural skimming: listening for a particular detail

Our goals in listening often involve understanding or “catching” one crucial detail; this typically requires
pulling one particular detail out of a larger set of details. For instance, while listening to someone talk at a
business meeting, you might have a special interest in a particular budget figure or a date for a certain
event, but have little interest in other details. Other common examples include listening for particular
pieces of information in weather reports or in airport announcements.

Understanding and Recalling Details

Just as we enter some listening situations with goal of comprehending one crucial detail, we also come out
of listening situations with the need to remember or process pieces of information we have heard. Here
are two strategies to help you understand more details while you listen as well as to help you remember
more details after you have listened.

 Maintain your focus. It is easy to become distracted while listening, especially when the
language is not one you natively speak. One way to maintain your focus is to continue to
actively predict what may come next.
 Take detailed notes. Not only does note taking help you stay focused, but it will also provide
your best reference to what has been said. In academic and other listening situations which

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 require the understanding and recall of large numbers of details, it is absolutely necessary to
take the best notes you can.
Making inferences

Some questions you here in Interactive Listening section are inference questions. An inference is an
assumption made from information that we have. That is, in the case of listening comprehension, an
inference is an interpretation or a conclusion based on the information that we hear. Making inferences is
a critical skill because not all important information is clearly or explicitly stated; therefore, even if we
understand all the words in a listening segment, we still may not have complete comprehension.

 Reporting the main points

One of the most important post-listening skills you will need is the ability to report what you have heard.
This skill is essential in order to both reflect back details with precision and summarise the points or
attitudes of the speaker.

To report speech effectively, you need three basic ingredients:

- An accurate understanding of the original or “direct:” speech

- An awareness of the grammatical context of reported speech
- The ability to select an appropriate reporting verb.

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References:

Ronald, L., et al (1984). Language Structure and Use (2nd ed.). Illinois: Scott, Foresman and
Company.
Turnbull, J., et al (2010). Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (8th ed.). Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
https://www.lamission.edu/learningcenter/docs/asc/worksheets/Grammar/Sentence%20Ty
pes.pdf
https://www.englishclub.com/grammar/sentence/sentence-structure.htm
https://www.englishgrammar.org/building-blocks-sentence/
https://wp.ucla.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/UWC_handouts_sentence-building-
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https://www.futurelearn.com/courses/english-for-study-intermediate/0/steps/35224
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https://smallbusiness.chron.com/essential-business-letter-elements-include-24152.html
https://www.theclassroom.com/the-correct-way-to-use-suites-in-addresses-12083310.html
http://www.franglish.fr/methodo/opinion
https://www.myenglishpages.com/site_php_files/communication-lesson-useful-
expressions-for-debating.php
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https://www.time4writing.com/free-writing-resources

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