CHAPTER THREE

FLUID MECHANICS
Fluid mechanics is the branch of physics
concerned with the mechanics of:-
• fluids in motion(fluid dynamics) or
• at rest (fluid statics) and the forces on them.
1
 Cont`d
The applications of fluid mechanics are
enormous for:
 breathing,
 blood flow,
 swimming,
 pumps,
 Turbines,
 airplanes, etc
2
 Cont`d
In physics, a fluid is a substance that
continually deforms (flows) under an applied
shear stress, or external force.
 Fluids are a phase of matter and include
liquids and gases.
A solid may be thought of as having a definite
shape and volume, it„s possible to change its
shape and volume by applying external forces.
3
 Properties of Bulk Matter
• Bulk matter consists of large numbers of atoms,
molecules, or ions. Its physical state may be solid,
liquid or gas. A solid is a form of matter that adopts
and maintains a shape that is independent of the
container it occupies
• Properties of bulk matter includes:-Matter in bulk is
described by so-called state variables
These variables include volume V, pressure p, mass M,
mass density ρ, thermal energy 𝐸𝑡𝑕 and temperature T.
If any one state variable is changed then the state of the
system as a whole is changed. The fundamental building
block of all matter is the atom.
4
 Cont`d
• A sufficiently large force will permanently deform
or break an object, but otherwise, when the
.
external forces are removed, the object tends to
return to its original shape and size. This is called
elastic behavior.
• Elastic materials are materials that regain their
original shape and size when the deforming force
is removed.
• Elastic deformation is a reversible deformation by
a force applied within the elastic limit.
5
 Cont`d
• Beyond elastic limit, a force applied on an
object causes permanent and irreversible
deformation is called plastic deformation.
• Plastics materials: do not regain their original
shape and size when the deforming force is
removed.
• The elastic properties of solid materials are
described in terms of stress and strain.
6
 Cont`d
• Stress is the force per unit area that is causing
some deformation on an object. It has SI unit
𝑁 𝑚2 called the Pascal (Pa), the same as the
unit of pressure.
• When the deforming force is applied to an
object. The object deforms. In order to bring
the object back to the original shape and size,
there will be an opposing force generated
inside the object.
7
 Cont`d
• This restoring force will be equal in magnitude
and opposite in direction to the applied
deforming force. The measure of this restoring
force generated per unit area of the material is
called Stress.

𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠= 𝐹∕𝐴
8
 Cont`d
• In short, stress can be visualized as:-

9
 Cont`d
• Strain measures the amount of deformation by
the applied stress.
• Strain is simply the measure of how much an
object is stretched or deformed. Strain occurs
when force is applied to an object. Strain deals
mostly with the change in length of the object.
• Strain is the change in configuration of a body
divided by its initial configuration.
• Strain is unit-less quantity.

𝑐𝑕𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑔𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 =
𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑔𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
10
 Cont`d
• There are three kinds of strains:
a) Tensile Strain:
 𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝐹⊥ 𝐴
 Tensile strain = ∆𝑙 𝑙𝑜
• The fractional change in length of an object under a tensile stress
is called the tensile strain

11
 Cont`d
• What is Stress?
• In mechanics, stress is defined as a force applied per unit
area.
● Stress applied to a material can be of two types. They
are:
● Tensile Stress: It is the force applied per unit area which
results in the increase in length (or area) of a body. Objects
under tensile stress become thinner and longer.
● Compressive Stress: It is the force applied per unit area
which results in the decrease in length (or area) of a body.
The object under compressive stress becomes thicker and
shorter.
12
 Cont`d
• Objects under tensile stress become thinner and longer.
• The object under compressive stress becomes thicker and
shorter.

• Therefore, tensile strain can be express mathematically as

such:-
∆𝑙
𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = , it has no unit for tensile strain
𝑙𝑜
b) Shear Stress and Strain
• Another type of deformation occurs when an
object is subjected to a force parallel to one of its
faces while the opposite face is held fixed by another force
13
 Cont`d
• The stress in this case is called a shear stress.
𝑠𝑕𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = ∆𝐹 𝐴
• The shear strain is defined as the ratio x/h,
where x is the horizontal distance that the
sheared face moves and h is the height of the
object.
• In terms of these quantities, the shear modulus
is
𝑠𝑕𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑕 = tan𝚽
14
Cont`d

15
 Cont`d
c) Volume Stress and Strain
• Volume Stress is a stress which causes volume
deformation on an object.
• Volume Stress is the ratio of the change in the
magnitude of the applied force ΔF to the surface
area A.
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = ∆𝐹 𝐴 = ∆𝑃
Where ∆𝐹 = 𝐴 × ∆𝑃
16
 Cont`d

• Volume strain is the fractional change in

volume that is - the change in volume, ΔV ,
divided by the original volume V0:
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = ∆𝑉 𝑉𝑜

17
 Cont`d
• Elasticity Moduli
The stress will be proportional to the strain if the
stress is sufficiently small. In this regard, the
proportionality constant known as elastic modulus
depends on the material being deformed and on the
nature of the deformation.
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 × 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
This relationship between stress and strain is
analogous to Hooke„s law (𝐹 = −𝑘𝑥 ), relationship
between force and extension of a spring. The elastic
modulus is analogous to a spring constant.
18
 Cont`d
• Corresponding to the three types of strains, there are
three types of elastic module.
a) Young‘s Modulus (Y): is the ratio of the tensile
stress to the tensile strain. It measures the resistance of
a solid to a change in its length and typically used to
characterize a rod or wire
stressed under either tension or compression. Note that
because strain is a dimensionless quantity, Y has units
of force per unit area.
𝐹⊥
𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑌= = ∆𝑙
𝐴
𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑜

19
 Cont`d
b) Shear Modulus (S): with units of Pascal, is
the ratio of shear stress to shear strain. It is the
measure of the resistance to motion of the planes
within a solid parallel to each other.
𝑠𝑕𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝐹// 𝐴
𝑠= = 𝑥 𝑕
𝑠𝑕𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

20
 Cont`d
c) Bulk Modulus (B): its SI unit is Pascal, is the
ratio of the volume stress to the volume strain.
• Bulk modulus measures the resistance of solids or
liquids to changes in their volume. A material
having a large bulk modulus doesn„t compress
easily. Note that a negative sign is included in this
defining equation so that B is always positive. An
increase in pressure (positive ΔP) causes a
decrease in volume negative ΔV) and vice versa.
𝐵 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = −∆𝑃 ∆𝑉
𝑉𝑜

21
 cont`d
• The reciprocal of the bulk modulus is called the
compressibility of the material.
• Both solids and liquids have a bulk modulus.
However, no shear modulus and no Young„s
modulus are given for liquids because a liquid does not
sustain a shearing stress or a tensile stress.
• If a shearing force or a tensile force is applied to a
liquid, the liquid simply flows in response.
• Strain Energy is energy stored in a stretched wire. If
x is the stretch due to applied force F,
1
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑘𝑥 2
2
22
Density and Pressure in Static Fluids
• Density (ρ) is the quantity of mass (m) per unit
volume (V) of a body with SI unit 𝑘𝑔 𝑚3 and given
by: 𝜌= 𝑚 𝑣
• Specific gravity (SG): is the ratio of the density of
the substance to the density of another substance
which is taken as a standard. The density of pure
water at 4℃ is usually taken as the standard and
this has been defined to be exactly
1 × 103 𝑘𝑔 𝑚3 .
• Specific gravity is a dimensionless quantity and the
same in any system of measurement.
23
 Pressure
• is the ratio of the force acting perpendicular to
s surface to the surface area (A) on which the
force acts. SI unit of pressure is 𝑁 𝑚2 , called
Pascal (Pa).
𝑃 = 𝐹⊥ 𝐴
• The pressure produced by the fluid of height h
and density 𝜌 is given by:
𝑃𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 = 𝜌𝑔𝑕
24
 Cont`d
• The density of liquids and solids is considered to
be constant. In reality, the density of a liquid will
increase slightly with increasing depth (Why?).
• Note that:-
 All points at same level in a fluid have same
pressure.
 Fluid pressure increases with increase in the depth
of the fluid.
 Fluid pressure does not depend on the shape of
the container.
25
 Cont`d
• Atmospheric Pressure: is the pressure due to the
weight of the atmosphere exerted on the surface
of the Earth. Atmospheric pressure decreases with
increase in altitude as a result of decrease in the
density of the air.
• Gauge pressure: is the difference in pressure
between a system and the surrounding
atmosphere.
𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒 = 𝑃𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 − 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒
26
 Cont`d
• Absolute Pressure: The total pressure, or absolute
pressure, is thus the sum of gauge pressure and
atmospheric pressure:
𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑒 = 𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒 + 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐

27
Buoyant Force and Archimedes‟ Principles
• Pascal‟s Principle - sates that pressure applied to a
confined fluid in a container is transmitted
equally to all regions of the fluid and to the walls of
the container. An important application of
Pascal„s principle is the hydraulic press
• A downward force 𝐹1 applied to a small piston of
area 𝐴1 causes a pressure of 𝑃1 = 𝐹1 𝐴1 . The
pressure is transmitted throughout the fluid and
reaches the larger piston of area 𝐴2 without any
change.
28
 Cont`d

• A figure above shows a Hydraulic press

 Cont`d
• As the fluid moves it pushes the larger piston
𝐹2
with 𝐹2 and exerts a pressure of 𝑃2 = 𝐴2 .
According to Pascal‘s principle, these two
pressures are equal implying:
𝐹1 𝐹2
=
𝐴1 𝐴2

30
 Archimedes’ principle
• The upward buoyant force that is exerted on a
body immersed in a fluid, whether partially or
fully submerged, is equal to the weight of the
fluid that the body displaces and acts in the
upward direction at the center of mass of the
displaced fluid.
• In simple form, the Archimedes law states that
the buoyant force on an object is equal to the
weight of the fluid displaced by the object.
Mathematically written as:
𝐹𝑏 = ρ𝑔𝑉, where V is the submerged volume
31
Moving Fluids and Bernoulli
Equations (Fluid Dynamics)
• Let us first define what a fluid? and What is flow?
• Fluid is a liquid, gas, and air.
• Flow is the continuous movement of a fluid from one
place to another.
• What is Laminar Flow ?What is Turbulent Flow ?
• In a laminar flow, all the molecules in the fluid move
in the same direction and at the same speed.
• In a turbulent flow, however, the molecules in the
fluid move in different directions and at different
speeds.
32
 laminar flow of fluid
• Factors affecting laminar flow of fluid:-
Density,
Compressibility,
Temperature and
Viscosity

33
 Cont`d
• Assumptions made in the ideal fluid flow to understand
the complex motions of real fluids:
• The fluid is non-viscous, i.e there is no internal friction
between adjacent layers.
• The flow is steady; the velocity of the fluid at each
point remains constant.
• The fluid is incompressible; density of the fluid is
constant.
• The flow is irrotational; the fluid has no angular
momentum about any point.
34
 Equation of Continuity
• Equation of continuity expresses conservation of
mass for an incompressible fluid flowing in a
tube. It says: “the amount (either mass or volume)
of fluid flowing through a cross section of the
tube in a given time interval must be the same for
all cross sections”, or “the product of the area and
the fluid speed at all points along a tube is
constant for an incompressible fluid”
Flow rate = 𝐴𝑣 = 𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝐴2 𝑣2 =constant
35
 Bernoulli’s Equation
• Consider a fluid moving through a pipe. The
pipe„s cross sectional area changes, and the
pipe changes elevation.

36
 cont`d
• At one point the pipe has a cross sectional area of 𝐴1 , a
height of 𝑦1 , a pressure of 𝑃1 , a velocity of 𝑣1 and
moves a distance of ∆𝑥1 in a time of ∆𝑡 . At another
point 𝑃1 along the pipe these quantities are given by 𝐴2 ,
𝑦2 , 𝑃2 , 𝑣2 , and ∆𝑥2 .
• Conservation of energy gives the following equation,
called Bernoulli„s equation,
1
𝑃+ 𝜌𝑣 2
+ 𝜌𝑔𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
2
1 2 1 2
𝑃1 + 𝜌𝑣 1 + 𝜌𝑔𝑦1 = 𝑃2 + 𝜌𝑣 2 + 𝜌𝑔𝑦2
2 2
37
 Cont`d
Practice Questions For Stress
• Q1: What is Stress?
Ans: Stress is the measure of restoring force per unit
area.
• Q2:What is the unit of Stress? Ans: units of stress is
pascal or N/m2.
• Q3: Is stress is a vector quantity? Ans: Yes. Stress
is a vector quantity.
• Q4: What is the effect of deforming force?
Ans: The deforming force can change the shape or
volume or size of the object.
38
 Cont`d
• Q5: What is the direction of the deforming force in the case of
shearing stress?
Ans: The deforming force is parallel to the area of cross-section
• Q6: What is the nature of the restoring force?
• Ans: The restoring force is equal in magnitude and opposite in
direction to deforming force or external force.
• Q7: Name the types of normal stress.
Ans: Longitudinal stress and bulk or volume stress are two types
of normal stress.
• Q8: What is the direction of the deforming force in the case of
longitudinal stress?
• Ans: The deforming force is perpendicular to the area of cross-
section.
39
 Cont`d
• Q9: Name the types of longitudinal stress.
• Ans: Tensile stress and compressive stress are the two types of
longitudinal stress.
• Q10: Define longitudinal stress.
• Ans: Stress experienced by an object along its length due to
the presence of equal and opposite deforming forces
perpendicular to the area of cross section is called longitudinal
stress.
• Q11: What does Bulk stress do to an object?
• Ans: Bulk stress results in a change in the volume of the object
40
 Cont`d
• Q12:What does tangential stress do to an object?
• Ans: Tangential stress results in a change in the shape of the
object.
• Q13: Define tangential or shear stress
Ans: When the direction of the deforming force or external force
is parallel to the cross-sectional area, the stress experienced by
the object is called shearing stress or tangential stress.
• Q14: Give the expression for stress and explain the terms.
Ans: The expression for stress is given by σ=FA
• Where,
• F is the restoring force.
• A is the area of cross-section.
• σ is the stress. 41
 Cont`d
• Q15:A rod is stretched by pulling at both the
ends. Name the type of stress experienced by
the rod.
• Ans: Tensile stress.

42
 Chapter Four
HEAT AND THERMODYNAMICS
• Thermodynamics is a science of the relationship
between heat, work, temperature, and energy
• thermodynamics deals with the transfer of energy
from one system to another and from one form to
another
• thermodynamic system is defined by its temperature,
volume, pressure, and chemical composition.

43
 The concept of Temperature and the
Zeroth law of Thermodynamics
• Heat is defined as the flow of energy from one
object to another
• This flow of energy is caused by a difference
in temperature.
• Heat can flow between objects if they are in
thermal contact.

44
Cont`d

45
 Cont`d
• The zeroth law tells us that if A reads a certain
temperature when in equilibrium with B, and it
is then placed in contact with C, it will not
exchange energy with C; therefore, its
temperature reading will remain the same.
• In other words, if two objects are in thermal
equilibrium, they have the same temperature.

46
 Temperature Scale
• Any physical property that depends
consistently and reproducibly on temperature
can be used as the basis of a thermometer.
• The three most common temperature scales
are Fahrenheit, Celsius, and Kelvin.

47
Cont`d

48
 Thermal Expansion
a) Linear Thermal Expansion
∆𝑙 = 𝛼𝑙𝑜 ∆𝑇, 𝛼 → 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
b) Area Expansion
∆𝐴 = 𝛽𝐴𝑜 ∆𝑇, 𝛽 → 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝛽 = 2𝛼
c) Volume Expansion
∆𝑉 = 𝛾𝑉𝑜 ∆𝑇, 𝛾 → 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝛾 = 3𝛼

49
 The Concept of Heat, Work and
Internal Energy
• Heat, symbol Q and unit Joule (J), is the
spontaneous flow of energy into or out of a
system
• Work, symbol W and unit Joule (J), is a non-
spontaneous energy transfer into or out of a
system due to force acting through a
displacement.
• Heat and work are two possible ways of
transferring energy from one system to another.
50
 Cont`d
• Heat transfer obeys the law of conservation of
energy (if no heat is lost to the surroundings):
𝑸𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒕 𝒃𝒚 𝒉𝒐𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 = 𝑸𝒈𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝒃𝒚 𝒄𝒐𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕

• Internal Energy, symbol U, is defined as the

energy associated with the random, disordered
motion of the microscopic components-atoms and
molecules.
51
 Specific Heat and Latent Heat
• The specific heat is the amount of heat per unit
mass required to raise the temperature by one
degree Celsius.
• Specific heat Capacity is the amount of energy
required to raise the temperature of a substance
per unit of mass.
• The specific heat capacity of a material is a
physical property.
 Cont`d
• The quantity of heat, Q, required to change the
temperature of a body of mass m by is proportional to
both the mass and the change in temperature.
Mathematically,
𝑄 ~𝑚∆𝑇, Q = cm∆𝑇
Where “c” is specific heat capacity.
The amount of heat required to change the temperature of
n moles of a substance, usually for gases, by ∆𝑇 is :
Q = 𝑛𝐶∆𝑇
Where “C” heat capacity
53
 Latent Heats
• Latent heat is the heat required to convert a
solid into a liquid or vapour, without change of
temperature.
• The latent heat 𝑄𝐿 , required to change the
phase of “m” mass of a body at constant
temperature is calculated as,
𝑄𝐿 = ±𝑚𝐿 ,
where L is specific latent heat
54
 Cont`d
• Two common forms of latent heat are:-
a) latent heat of fusion(melting) and
b) latent heat of vaporization(boiling), these
names described the direction of energy flow
when changing from one phase to the next : from
solid to liquid , and liquid to gas.

55
 Cont`d
• Latent Heat of Fusion (Lf): is the heat
absorbed or released when matter melts,
changing phase from solid to liquid form at
constant temperature.
• Latent Heat of Vaporization (LV): is the heat
absorbed or released when matter vaporizes,
changing phase from liquid to gas phase at
constant temperature.
56
 Heat Transfer Mechanisms
• Heat may be transferred from one place to another in
three ways:
a) conduction :- the transfer of energy through the
movement of particles that are in contact with each other.
b) convection:- is the process by which heat is
transferred by movement of heated fluid such as air or
water
c) radiation:- is the transmission of energy in the form
of waves or particles through space or through a material
medium.
57
 Cont`d
• When these energy waves fall on a body, the
energy may be:
a) absorbed
b) transmitted
c) reflected

58
 The First Law of Thermodynamics
• The first law of thermodynamics states that:
“The change in internal energy of a system is
equal to the sum of the heat flow into the
system and the work done on the system.”
• In equation form the first law can be written
as:
∆𝑈 = 𝑄 + 𝑊 , 𝑊 = 𝑃∆𝑉, where ∆𝑉 is
change of volume.
59
The First Law for different
thermodynamic systems
• Isolated system:- is a system which does not
exchange heat with its surrounding and no work is
done on the external environment.
i.e a) Q = 0
b) W = 0
c) U = constant
d) The internal energy of an isolated system is
constant.
60
 Cont`d
• Cyclic Process:-Since the system returns to its
initial state, the change in internal energy in
one complete cycle is zero; that is, ∆𝑈 = 0.
i.e Q = W
• Isochoric process:-
- volume is constant
- ∆𝑈 = Q
61
 Cont`d
• Adiabatic Process:- In an adiabatic process, the system
does not exchange heat with its surroundings
-Q=0
- ∆𝑈 = 𝑊
• Isothermal Process:-
-no change in the temperature of the system.
- no change in the internal energy of the system.
- ∆𝑈 = 0
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 Cont`d
• For an ideal gas in isothermal process the work done is calculated as:-
𝑉𝑓
𝑊 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇 ln( )
𝑉𝑖
• Isobaric process:-
- In an isobaric process the expansion or compression occurs at constant
pressure.
- Any work done by the system will result in an increase in volume.
• For an isobaric process the work done W is calculated as, 𝑊 = 𝑃∆𝑉 =
𝑃(𝑉𝑓 − 𝑉𝑖 ).
so, in this condition,
∆𝑈 = 𝑄 + 𝑊 = 𝑄 − 𝑃∆𝑉 = 𝑄 − 𝑃 𝑉𝑓 − 𝑉𝑖

End of chapter Four

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