a) The main stages of human development and associated characteristics, from birth to old

age.

1. Prenatal (conception to birth):

At conception, the sperm and egg cells fuse in one of the two fallopian tubes to form a zygote; 24
to 36 hours after conception, the single-celled zygote divides through mitosis to form two cells,
then into four, eight, sixteen and so forth. After 8 cells, differentiation causes cells to take on
certain characteristics that will determine the type of cells they will eventually become. 3 weeks
after conception marks the start of the embryonic period, a time when the mass of cells become
distinct as a human. After completing cell differentiation, the embryo enters the next stage and
becomes known as a foetus. By 9 months, the baby is born (birth).

Infancy (0-1 year)

Babies learn to focus their vision, reach out, explore and learn about the things that are around
them. Develop bonds of love and trust with their parents and others.

Toddlerhood (1-2 years)

In second year, toddlers are more active, aware of themselves and their surroundings, curiosity
to explore new objects and people increases, exhibit greater independence, begin to show defiant
behaviour, recognise themselves in pictures or a mirror, imitate the behavior of others especially
adults and older children, recognise the names of familiar people and objects, form simple
phrases and sentences and follow simple instructions or directions.

2-3 years ("terrible twos stage"): Toddlers follow two or three-step directions, sort objects by
shape and colour, imitate the actions of adults and playmates and express a wide range of
emotions.

Childhood stage - Pre-school (3-5 years):

More independence and greater focus on adults and children outside of the family, children
should be able to ride a bicycle, use safety scissors, notice a difference between girls and boys,
help to dress and undress themselves, play with other children, recall part of a story and sing a
song.
Middle childhood (6-11 years):

Children can dress themselves, catch a ball more easily using only their hands, tie their shoes,
develop confidence in all areas of life, such as through friends, school work and sports. Children
gain a sense of responsibility along with their growing independence also, physical changes of
puberty might be showing by now, especially for girls.

Adolescence/Teens (12-20 years): Growth of facial and pubic hair, voices deepen, breasts
develop (girls), menstrual periods start, peer pressure to have sex, drink alcohol, smoking starts,
eating disorders, depression, making more own choices about friends, sports, studying and
school. Independence increases on own personality and interests, physical maturity by now,
eating disorders are common especially among girls.

Early adulthood (20-40 years) Physical maturation is complete, height and weight may increase
slightly, by 30 the lens of eye starts to stiffen and thicken causing changes in vision. Sensitivity
to sound decreases, hair starts to thin and become gray around the age of 35, although this may
happen earlier for some individuals and later for others. Skin becomes drier and wrinkles start to
appear, immune system starts weakening, reproductive capacity starts to decline e.g., erection in
men and sexual desire in women.

Middle adulthood (40-60 years) Aging process is more apparent, hearing also further declines,
by 60 years eyes lose their ability to adjust to objects at varying distances known as presbyopia.
Skin continues to dry out and is prone to more wrinkling particularly on the sensitive face area.
Age spots and blood vessels become more apparent as the skin continues to dry and get thinner,
muscle-to-fat ratio for both men and women changes with an accumulation of fat in the abdomen
and gradual decline in fertility towards the onset of menopause (women).

Late adulthood (From 60 years) Heart muscles thicken, arteries become less flexible, lung
capacity diminishes, kidneys become less efficient in removing waste from the blood, bladder
loses its ability to store urine, brain cells also lose some functioning but new neurons can also be
produced. The skin becomes thinner, less elastic, lose fat and no longer looks plump and smooth.
Veins and bones can be seen easier and scratches, cuts and bumps can take longer to heal,
become shorter, age-related macular degeneration.
Children's development

The best way to monitor children's development is to track their developmental milestones.
These are the skills most children show at specific ages, for instance taking a first step, smiling
for the first time, waving "bye-bye," among others.

activity

Understanding children's developmental milestones.

Key question: How can you monitor children's development?

in your groups, Use the internet or other sources, to research and discuss children's development.

a) Think of a child under 5 years of age, whom they have previously observed.

Think of how that child plays, learns, speaks, acts and moves.

State ways that child showed milestones reached in each of the developmental areas:

i) Social/emotional (interacting and showing emotion).

ii) Language/communication (expressing need).

iii) Cognitive (learning new things and solving problems).

iv) Movement/ physical development (using the bodies).

b) Explain why it is important to monitor each child's development.

Devtal area Indicator Milestone

Social/emotional devt Sometimes child greets -Copies others, especially

another child just as adults do. adults and older children.

Sometimes child looks right at - Shows defiant behavior.

me and does what I just told
him/her not to.

Language and communication Child can take her cup to the Follows simple instructions
trash and then wash her hands
when I say Knows names of familiar
people and body parts
 She can name her shoulders,
knees and toes

Cognitive thinking (learning When we play pat a cake, Completes sentences and
new things and problem Child says most of the rhyme rhymes in familiar books
solving) with me
Plays simple make believe
I've watched Child hold a toy games.
baby bottle up to her doll's
mouth.

Movement/physical -She kicks the ball outside. Kicks a ball Climbs onto and
devt(using the body) down from furniture without
-Child climbs on the help
playground equipment by
herself

b) Importance of monitoring each child's development.

- To determine whether a child's development is on track.

-To understanding each child's development and behaviour. For example, if a 1 year old cries
when her dad leaves the bedroom in the morning, she is showing a typical 12-month milestone
that signifies healthy development

Reproductive development

Babies are born with all their reproductive organs present but immature. These organs remain
reproductively non-functional, until puberty when secondary sexual characteristics develop. The
primary sexual characteristics or reproductive organs present at birth are mostly useful in urinary
excretion. Adolescence is often described as the period of storm and stress during human
development.

Discussing secondary sexual characteristics during human development

What are secondary sexual characteristics during human development.

(research and discuss puberty and adolescence plus associated changes Record your findings

a) what changes are associated with puberty and adolescence in the following developmental
areas?
1) Psychological/emotional development

Ii)Physiological development (body functioning)

III) Physical development.

Suggest ways of how adolescents can avoid the risks associated with changes at puberty and
adolescence.

Expected responses to activity

1. a) Changes associated with puberty and adolescence in the following developmental areas:

i) Psychological/ emotional changes during adolescence:

 -Strong feelings and intense emotions and moods might seem unpredictable.

 -Getting better at reading and understanding other people's emotions

 -Feeling self-consciousness about their physical appearance including comparing their

body with those of friends and peers.

 -Going through a stage where they seem to act without thinking a lot of the time.

 -wanting to spend more time with friends and peers and less time with family and having
more arguments.

Ii)Physiological development (body functioning) and Physical development

Girls: key physical changes in puberty

Around 10-11 years:

- Breasts start developing.

-A growth spurt occurs. Some parts of the body-like the head, face and hands might grow faster
than limbs and torso.

-The body shape changes. For example, a girl's hips will widen.

-The external genitals (vulva) and pubic hair will start to grow.

Around 12-14 years (about two years after breast development starts)

-Hair will start growing under the arms.

-A clear or white discharge from the vagina starts several months before periods start
 -Menstrual periods usually start within 2 years of breast growth starting, but can take up to 4
years.

Boys: key physical changes in puberty

Around 11-12 years:

-The external genitals (penis, testes and scrotum) will start to grow. It's normal for one testis to
grow faster than the other.

- Pubic hair will start to grow. It will get darker and thicker over time.

Around 12-14 years:

-Growth spurt. Child gets taller and their chest and shoulders become broader.

-Some parts of child's body - like their head, face and hands - might grow faster than their limbs
and torso. This might result in the child looking out of proportion for a while

-It is common for boys to have minor breast development.

Around 13-15 years

-Hair will start growing on other parts of the child's body - under the arms, on the face and on
the rest of the body.

-The hormone testosterone is produced, which stimulates the testes to produce sperms

-The child might start having erections and ejaculating (releasing sperm). During this period,
erections often happen for no reason at all. Ejaculation during sleep is often called a 'wet dream'.

14 years and above

The larynx ('Adam's apple' or voice box) becomes more obvious.

Some boys' voices alternate from high to low and back again, even in one sentence

Child begins to develop improved self-control and skills in planning, problem-solving and
decision-making

Child's organs become bigger and stronger.

Lung performance improves, limbs grow, and bones increase in thickness and volume
Because children grow so fast during puberty, their centres of gravity change and their brains
might take a while to adjust. This might affect the child's balance You might see a bit more
clumsiness for a while and the child might be more likely to be injured

-Muscles increase in strength and size during this period.

-Child gains weight and needs more healthy food.

-Teenagers' stomachs and intestines increase in size and they need more energy, proteins and
minerals.

-Sleep patterns change and many children start to stay awake later at night and sleep until later in
the day.

- A new type of sweat gland in the armpit and genital area develops during puberty. Skin bacteria
feed on the sweat this gland produces, which can lead to body odour.

- Glands in the skin on the face, shoulders and back start to become more active during puberty,
producing more oil.

-Children get their second molars at around 13 years of age. Third molars - 'wisdom teeth - might
appear between 14 and 25 years. These teeth can appear in singles, pairs, as a full set of 4
wisdom teeth - or not at all

Aging

Aging is a natural process which nobody can escape.

The World Health Organisation says that aging is a biological process which starts at conception
and ends with death. In Uganda, 60 years is the retirement age, which is considered the
beginning of old age.

you are tasked to discover body changes during aging processes. using -Computer with internet
or biology textbooks with information on aging in humans,

Key question: What are the indicators of aging process during human development? research
and discuss aging with its associated physiological changes. Record your findings including the
aging changes observed in the following body functioning?

1) Sensing and nervous system

Ii) Cognition.

III) Memory, Iearning and intelligence

iv) Muscle skeleton system

v) Body composition

b) Suggest how they can help the elderly to overcome their various physiological problems.

b)-Chronic health conditions among the elderly and how to overcome them:

Heart disease, stroke, cancer, diabetes and obesity are among the most common.

-Monitoring lifestyle behaviours of the elderly can help reduce obesity and associated chronic
conditions.

Cognitive health conditions among the elderly:

The most common cognitive health issue facing the elderly is dementia, the loss of those
cognitive functions. The most common form of dementia is Alzheimer's disease. While there is
no cure for dementia, physicians can prescribe a treatment plan and medications to manage the
disease.

Mental health:

Encourage a lifestyle of healthy living, such as betterment of living conditions and social
support from family, friends or support groups, so as to treat depression, which is the commonest
mental disorder.

Physical injury: Because aging causes bones to shrink and muscle to lose strength and
flexibility, seniors are more susceptible to losing their balance, bruising and fracturing a bone.
These can be prevented through education, increased physical activity and practical
modifications within the home.

HIV/AIDS and other sexually transmitted diseases

Symptoms of HIV are very similar to those of normal aging, making it more difficult to treat and
prevent damage to the immune system. Therefore, encourage regular checkup.
Malnutrition Encourage the elderly to take a diet involving increased consumption of fruits and
vegetables and decreasing consumption of saturated fat and salt, to help nutrition issues in the
elderly

Sensory impairments, such as vision and hearing:

Help/ encourage the elderly to acquire aids such as lenses or hearing aids.

Oral health

Dental issues could be managed or prevented by advising elderly go for regular dental check-
ups.

Substance abuse/ alcohol/ drug-related:

Substance abuse commonly results from someone suffering mental deficits or taking another
patient's medication due to their inability to pay for their own.

Bladder control and constipation: Help the elderly to maintain a healthy weight, eating a
healthy diet and exercising regularly to avoid these elderly health issues. Avoid leaving elderly
unattended to.