Module -1 WAVE OPTICS 1. Interference Syllabus: Introduction - Interference in thin films (reflected light) - Newton’s rings ~ Determination of wavelength. Introduction: * Light is a form of energy that stimulates our vision * according to Huygens's theory, Light is considered to prepagate in the orm of waves. * Maxwell showed that light isan electromagnetic wave, * Refractive index (1) of an optical medium is defined as the ratio of the velocity of light in a vacuum to the velocity of light in the medium, + A light source emitting a single color / wavelength is called a monochromatic source. * Two light waves which are having the same wavelength, amplitude, and constant phase difference are said to be ‘coherent sources. * Phase: The relative displacement between waves having the same frequeney. * Phase difference (4) botween the two waves is 3 (path difference) * Intensity i ditett propetional tothe square ofthe ample * Principle of superposition of waves: ‘When two or more waves travel simultaneously ina medium the resultant displacement at any point is the vector sum of the individual displacement ofthe waves, Let y, and ys be displacements of particle, then the resultant displacement due to wo waves is Y= ys + Ya. (Max. displacement) Ifo displacements are in opposite directions, the instantaneous displacement du tothe two waves is Y= ys ~ ya. (Min, displacement) = aes > |\ a (Waves are in phase) Y= Ys + Yo (Waves are in out of phase) Y= Yi - V2 Interference: ‘The physical effect of the superposition of waves fiom two coherent sources is called interference of light Interference is clasifid into two types: Division of wavelfont and division of amplitude Division of wavefront: The wavefront originating from a common source is divided into 6wo parts by using a ‘mirror (or) prism and the two new wavefronts tavel a long distance and are brought together to produce snterference. Ex Young’s double-sit experiment, Frestel biprism, Loyd’s single mirrr, ete Division of Amplitude: The light ray’s incident on slm/glass the amplitude of the incident beam is divided into {ovo oF more parts either by partial reflection or refraction, these rays exibit a coherent nature, These rays teavel different paths and are finally combined together and produce interference, Ex Newton’s ring methods, Wedge methods, Interference in thin films, ete** Interference: The physical effect of the superposition of waves from two coherent sources is called interference of light. Interference is classified into two types: constructive interference and destructive interference. The crests of one wave meet the crests of another wave, and the resultant amplitude is maximum, and is said to be constructive interference. (Bright tings were obtained) In destructive interference, the crest of one wave meets the trough of another wave, the resultant ve T s t Destructive interference Constructive interference ** Interference in thin films / Interference due to reflected i 1 Oblique incidence of a plane wave on a thin film / Cosine Law equation: Let XY and X'Y! be the two surfaces (1op & bottom surfaces) of a transparent thin film, Let ‘t” be the uniform thickness and ‘p’ refractive index of the film, Suppose a light ray AB (of ‘monochromatic light is incident on the upper surface of the film. This ray is partly reflected along with BC (into the ax) and partly refracted along with BD. At point ‘D" once again the light undergoes, reflection (DE) as well as refraction (oblique downwards). At ‘E? the light ray undergoes reflection (oblique downwards) as well as refraction (EF). The ray EF emerges into the air. The rays BC is parallel to EF. These two rays exhibit a coherent nature, Qur aim is to find the path difference between the rays BC and EF. For this purpose, let's draw normal PE on BC. ‘The optical path difference (A) between the two reflected light rays (BC and EF) is ‘A= Path (BD + DE) in film— Path BP in air A= jtsim (BD + DE) — ptaicBP A= (BD + DE)-BP DQ t Fr ABQD, — > — rom ABQD, cosr= > =) Dr. YBKK, MBU 2From ABPE, sini BE sini BP = (BQ + QE) sini From ABQD, tanr= BQ = ap = BQ=QDtanr BO=ttanr=QE Substituting Eq. (4) in Eq.) BP=2ttanr sini Bp=2t =" sini cost We know that y= S24 > sin =nsinr Sint ENE ae -BP=2 sine cost Substinuting Eq. (2) & Eg. (5) in Eq.) cit sin’ a=uf(+—). oye “(as wi) we cos A= 2#t out Dr. YBKK, MBUA=2pt Cos r ‘This optical path difference is usually called dhe Cusine law. When a ray is reflected at the boundary ofa rarer to denser medium then the abrupt phase change is m, which is equivalent to a path difference of :. The effective path difference is 2ut Cos r+ % ) ‘We know that maxima occur when the effective path difference is n”. A=2pt Cos re %= mh 2ut Cos r= n+ 1)% If the reflected rays satisfy this condition, we will get bright fringes. Case:(2) ‘We know that minima occur when the effective path difference is (2n 1) % A=2pt Cos ¥%=(2n+ 1) % 2nt Cos Ifthe reflected rays satisfy this condition, we will get dark fringes. mh Note: Colors of thin films: When a thin film is exposed to sunlight (or) white light then beautiful colors are observed. For example (i) White light is exposed to a soap bubble of thickness ‘. At different points, the reflected light rays satisfied the equation 2ut Cos r - (2n + 1)}4 and we will observe different colors from the soap bubble. (In a soap bubble ‘y and i are variables) Gi) When white light is exposed to a thin layer of oil film floating on water, then also we will get the different colors from the films. At different points on the oil film, the reflected rays satisfy the equation 2ut Cas r= Qn * 1%, and produce different colors. Here ‘Is constant and the thickness of the film ‘t’ may not be constant throughout the film (‘t’ is constant at the center region while at the edges it reduces). 4** Newton’s Rings: Let's take a plano-convex lens (P) and its convex surface is placed on a plane glass plate (P1) as a result air film is formed between the lower surface of the lens and the upper surface of the lass plate (shown in Fig.1). At the point of contact (0) where the lens touches the glass plate the thickness of the air film is zero. The thickness of sir film increases along its radial direction. Let ‘S” be the monochromatic source (sodium lamp), the light coming from the source (S) is incident on the lens (L) and we will get a fine parallel beam of light. This parallel beam of light is incident on a glass plate “G’ held at an angle of 45". A part of the light beam is retlected from glass plate G and incident on the air film enclosed between the plano-convex lens (P) and glass plate (P:). These light rays are reflected from the bottom surfice of the lens (P) and the top surface of the glass plate (P;) (i.e. top and bottom surface of air film). These reflected rays exhibit a coherent nature. These rays combine together and produce an interference pattern. This can be seen with a microscope (M). The experimental setup is shown in Fig. /~Werxape oy Formation of Newton’s rings: AB is a monochromatic light ray incident on a plano-convex lens. This ray is partly reflected at C and comes out in the form of ray 1. The other partis refracted along CD (into te air), at ‘D” it’s again reflected and comes out in the form of ray 2 (with a phase change x). The reflected rays 1 & 2 exhibits a coherence nature and these rays combine and produce interference fringes. It is shown in Fig. 2 & 3. Between P & Pi, air film is circularly hence Newton's rings are appearing circularly. As the rings are observed in the reflected light, then the path difference is 2ut Cos r + 14 For the air film and form normal incidence r= 0° then the path difference is 2+ % Dr. YBKK, MBU eCalculation of diameter of rings: Let LOL; be the plano-convex lens placed on a glass plate (Pi). The curved surface LOL: is he patt of the spherical surface (in Fig4 - shown in dotted points) with center C, Let *R? be the radius of curvature and ‘r’ be the radius of Newton's ring corresponding to the thickness of the constant film“ We have the condition for the bright ring is 2t+ 34 = 21=(2n-1)% wheren= 1, 2,3,.. m We have the condition for the dark ring is 21+ % = (2n+1)% 2=nk where n= 1,2,3, (2) From the property of the circle From Fig.4 APNC PC =NP +NC. NP xNQ=NOxND (OR) Rae + (Ry FromFig4 —rxr =t@R+t) R= PER EERE P=2Rt- (Ce tis very small then @ can be neglected) P=2Rt (Co tis very small, then f can be neglected) t="/p (3) Substituting Eq. (3) in Eq.(1) > Thus, for a bright ring 2r a SZ =@n-Ie aR NYS 2 2on-yeR r =(n-1). > Replacing ‘r” by * 94" (isthe radius of the ring, Dis the diameter of the ring) an—-A8 D=J@2R) J@n-1) DaJ@n-N) Thus, the diameters of the bright rings are proportional to the square roots of odd numbers. Similarly for the dark ring (substituting Eg. 3 in Eq 2) = 1 > Replacing r by (ris theradius ofthe ring, Dis the diameter of the rng) then DAR > p=2WaxR -(a) Davn Thus, the diameters of the dark rings are proportional to the square roots of natural numbers. Dr. YBKK, MU. 6Determination of wavelength of sodium light: Let ‘R’ be the radius of curvature of the plano-convex lens (P1), “A be the wavelength of light used, Dm and Ds be the diameter of m® and n'® dark rings respectively. We know that the diameters of the dark rings are proportional to the square roots of natural numbers. From Eq.(4) we have (Da)?=4m2R (5) (Ds = 402K —@O Eq.(5)—Eq.(6) > Da)’ -(D. =4mkR-402R (Da)? = (Da)? = 44 R(m =n) D;,-D? 4(m-n)R Note: 1. _Raglus of curvature ofthe Tens (P.) ean be determined using Boy's method. ji, _‘Theradius ofthe plano-convex Tens also can be determined using a spherometer ‘Where ‘I’ the distance between the legs ofthe spherometcr, “his the difference in the reading of the spherometer when iti placed on the lens as well as when placed on the plane surfice. Dr. ¥.8. Kishore Kumar ‘Associate Professor of Physics (MB University, Trupat!Module-1 : Wave Optics 2. Diffraction Syllabus: Introduction - Fraunhofer diffraction - Single slit diffraction (qualitative) - Double slit diffraction (qualitative). * When light falls on obstacles / small apertures whose size is comparable with the wavelength of light, then the light bends around the comers of the obstacles. This bending of light waves is called diffraction * Diffraction pattem that produces bright and dark fringes ae known as diffraction ffinges. 4 in diffraction Sings, the otra postion ofthe eersen ie kaowm ae the cmnteal snaccmon (it ie alunye bright) Difference between interference and Diffraction: Interference Diffraction | Superposition is due to two separate | The bending of light waves is called ‘wavefronts originating from two diffraction, (ot) Supcspmiton ind to secondary coherent sources. ‘wavelets originating from different pars of the same ‘wavefront ii, | Fringes have a uniform width. : Fringes have a non-uniform width. ii, | The region of minimum intensities is ‘The region of minimum intensities is not fectly dark. eS perfectly dark. iv. | All bright bands are of the same intensity All bright bands are not of the same intensity. The diffraction phenomenon is classified into two types. Fr ae Fraunhofer Diffraction i] The source and screen are placed at a__| The source and screen are placed at an finite distance from the aperture. infinite distance from the aperture. Ti, | No lenses are used to focus the rays, ‘A converging lens is used to focus parallel rays. iii, | The incident wavefronts are either spherical or eylindrical The incident wavefront must be plane. ** Fraunhofer Diffraction at single s! Fraunhofer diffraction by a single slit is shown in Fig. Let ‘S” be the monochromatic source of wavelength 4 and Li is a collimating lens. Let a plane wavefront WW! be incident normally on the slit (AB) of width ‘e”, Let the diffracted light be focused using a convex lens (L2) on a screen placed in the focal plane of the lens. According to Huygens-Fresnel at the slit, every point on the wavefront will act asa source of secondary wavelets, which spread out to the right in all directions, The secondary wavelets traveling normally to the slit (ie along direction CO) are brought to focus at O by the lens. The path difference between the rays AO & BO is zero hence the intensity at O is maximum and is called central maximum.‘The secondary wavelets traveling at an angle “0” with the normal are focused at a point P on the screen. The intensity at point P may be maximum or minimum depending upon the path difference between the secondary waves originating from the corresponding points of the wavefront (ACB). Screen ! sur In order to find intensity at P, lets us draw a perpendicular AN on BR. After AFN all the waves travel the same distance to reach P. «+ The path difference between secondary wavelets from ACB in direction ‘0” is BN. = BN/ap BN =AB Sin 0 From ANB, Sin Path difference (BN) = e Sin} Phase difference = (path difference) == e Sin Let’s consider that the width of the slit is divided into ‘n’ equal parts and the amplitude of the wave from each partis ‘a’. The phase difference between any two consecutive waves from these parts 28 6 5) (2 esing) = sn From the vector addition of amplitude, the resultant amplitude (R) = @ Si Substituting Eq.(1) in Eq.(2) is + (otal Phase) = (say) —-—-(1) in (Tesind sa) (a e sinf) sin (E52 R- aS where a —=2s@ __(ay R= ay ** @/n) is very small, hence Sin (“/n) = (*/n) Rear Dr. YBKK, MBU“Thus, the resultant auplide is R= ASE (4) ‘We know that intensity is the square of the amplitude 2 1-R’-a(#4) (5) ina? sy 6 Principal maximum: Expression for resultant amplitude R can be written in ascending powers of « as , then R will be maximum, Eq.7.> R=A, _ By definition Intensity (1) is proportional to A? (From FG) « 0 FSine=0 (oF) 0-0 (Le. no dfraction)} When 0 = 0, the intensity at °O" is maximum and is called principal maximum (or) central maximum. Minimum intensity positions: Intensity will be minimum when Sin «= 0 iea=+n,+2n,43n, =imn Eg@) o=2S"*= sme Sin = mh where m= 1,23, This is the condition for the minimum intensity on either side of the principal maximum, (m= 018 admissible, since 0 0 corresponds o principal maximum) Conditions for Maxim n addition to a principal maximum at a = 0, there are weak secondary 3x 50 78 maxima were obtained when a =0, #23, «5%, «7%, Substituting ‘a’ in Eq.(5) x (SB)<£ cst sion am O ox ot h= «() © (2% subsidiary Maximum) — The variation of intensity distribution with a is shown in Fig.2 Fig.2 The subsidiary maxima are decreasing intensity obtained on either side of the central maxima St 7 (ie ata= 355 28% 47% _), between these maxima, there are minima at a=, + 2m, 3n,** Fraunhofer Diffraction at a double Let S be the monochromatic source. Let Si and S2 be the two slits of width ‘e* and separated by an opaque length ‘d’, The distance between the middle points of the two slits is (e+d) and is called grating element. Let a monochromatic light of wavelength 2. be incident normally on two slits. The light, is diffracted from these slits and is brought to focus at P. on the screen using a converging lens L. The distance traveled by these rays is the same, hence the intensity at Po is maximum and is called central ‘maximum. Lens eT] Double Sit Scroe ‘When the plane wavefront is incident normally on both slits, all the points within the slits become the source of secondary wavelets which travels in all directions. The secondary waves traveling in a direction are inclined at an angle “0” and these waves come to focus at P1. The intensity at Pi will be dark or bright depending on the path difference between the secondary waves. The diffraction at two lis is the combination of diffraction as well as interference. The pattern on the screen is the diffraction pattern due to a single slit on which a system of interference fringes is superposed. In order to find intensity at Pi, lets us draw a perpendicular SiK on S2R. After SiK all the waves travel the same distance to reach Py. «The path difference between the wavelets from S; & Sin direction “0” is Sak. From aSiKS) Sino = SK. S2K = $18: Sind Path difference (Sak) = (etd) Sin 8 Where ‘e" be the width of each slit, “d" be the width of opaque part, (¢ +d) is called grating element Phase difference ($) = 3 (path difference) 6 = (ea) sin =28 (say) a We know that the resultant amplitude due to a single slit is R= A 2" Let Ri & Ro be resultant amplitude due to each slit Dr. YBKK, MBU "lThe resultant intensity (R) due to two slits ean be calculated using the parallelogram law of vectors. R=RZ + RZ + IR;RzCosh Ro aR R @ (Eq. 19 6 =28) — =| 2 ae 2 S Intensity I = R? ae (2s) Cos*(p) @ 2 The above equation A(*2*) represents intensity due to the diffraction pattern of a single slit and Cos°B represents the interference pattern due to wavelets from double slits. The resultant intensity is due to diffraction and interference. Diffraction Effect: ‘We get principal maximum at a= 0 (or) 0= 0 The position of secondary maxima occurs for when a= 24, «84, 42% Between these maxima, there are minima at a = x, + 2m, + 3m, Let's check if Cos*f is due to the interference effect or not: ‘The interference term Cos’ gives the equidistant bright and dark fringes. ‘The maxima will occur for Cos When i=-:nx Where n= 1, 2,3, x(e+d) Sind — J = Ene (etd) Sin = mh, ie. Path difference between two rays =n Eq) > This represents the condition for constructive interference (maxima). Dr YBKK, BUThe minima will occur for Cos'B = 0, when B= (2n# Iz Wheren=0, 1,2, ..... Bq) > SOS ane nf (era) sino— @n+ Ht ive, Path difference between two rays = (2n+ 18 ‘This represents the condition for destructive interference (minima). Intensity distribution: a) Diffraction effect b) Interference effect c) Resultant Intensity Dr. YBKK, MBUModule I: Wave Optics 3. Polarization Syllabus: Introduction - Polarization by reflection and double refraction - Nicol’s prism - Half wave and Quarter wave plate - Engineering applications of interference - diffraction and polarization. Introduction: Interference and diffraction say that light exhibits a wave nature. But these phenomena didn't reveal the character of wave motion. i.e, Whether it is longitudinal or transverse in nature, The phenomenon of polarization concludes that light exhibits a tansverse nature, Light is male up of electromagnetic rays, it has electric and magnetic fields. These fields are perpendicular to each other. Eleotical vibrations are responsible for vision. The light coming from conventional light sources such as electric bulbs, burning candles, sodium lamps, mercury lights, ete. are Uunpolared (equally distibuted mv all directions). When unpolarized light passes through tourmaline (or) calcite erystals, then the transmitted light travels only {in one direction, this phenomenon is called polarization. Let an unpolarized light be passing through a tourmaline erystal (P), the transmitted light contains electric vectors in a direction parallel to the axis of the crystal, as a rest, we will get polarized light. This polarized light passes through another tourmaline erystal (A) [called analyzer] which is kept parallel to the polarizer (P), as a result, the polarized light passes through A also (Shown in Fig. a). on Ierystal is rotated about the axis of an incident ray (shown in Fig. b), the emergent beam from A varies. When the erystal axes of P and A are parallel, then the intensity ofthe emergent ray is maximum, if P & A are perpendicular then the intensity is minimum (ne light). Note: A orystal ssed t0 produce polarized light is called a polarizer (P) ad ‘he ervstal used to analyze the polarized light is called an analyzer (A). Representation of various types of light: Unpolarized lights sh ex wont CT ee fH Linearly polarized lights shown in Fig. b & c. In Fig. b the direction of electric field vectors lies in the plane of the paper. Fig. cit is perpendicular 10 the plane of the paper in Fig. dis unpolarized light (01) ordinary ight. The light beam which has to vibrate in a number of plains is called unpolarized light The light beam which has vibrated in only one plain is called polarized light** Polarization by reflection: In 1809, Malus discovered when unpolarized light is incident on a transparent medium (like glass or water), reflected light is partially or completely polarized. Brewster studied the polarization of light by reflection on different transparent surfaces. He observed that for a particular angle of incidence {0}, the reflected light is completely plane- polarized while the refracted / transmitted light is partially plane-polarized. This angle of incidence is known as Breuster’s angle ot angle of polarization [0p Brewster's Law: The tangent of the angle of polatication [0] is numerically equal to the reftactive index of the medium. ie. y.=tan (05) (1) When an unpolarized light incident on the glass, at O part of the light, undergoes reflection (OA) and the part undergoes refraction (OB), Now by changing the incidence angle, at a particular angle of incidence, the reflected light is polarized that incidence angle is called the angle of polarization [0p]. Note: For glass 0 ~ 57.5" and water 0, = 53° Frou Suell’s law, uy sin 0; — m2 sin 8; ‘ny Sin Oy = m sin « Where ni is the refractive index of air (m1 = 1), mais the refractive index of the glass plate, 0; is the angle of incidence = angle of reflection (0,), 0, is the angle of refraction =n ate Hema = ae, (2) Comparing Eq. (1) and (2) Dr. YBKK, MBUsin (90° - 9p) = sin 0 10° = Op= be p+ 0-= 90° Brewster's proved that the reflected and refracted rays are perpendicular to each other. ** Double refraction / Birefringence: ‘When an unpolarized light beam incidents on anisotropic crystals such as quartz or calcite, the reffacted beam is split into two rays, this phenomenon is known as double reffaction. Double reffaction in calcite crystal is shown in Fig. The refracted beams are plane-polarized. One beam is polarized along the direction of the optic axis and is known as an extraordinary ray (e-ray), while the other refracted beam is polarized along the direction perpendicular to the optic axis and is known as an ordinary ray (o-ray). At the splitting position, the angle between e-ray & o-ray is 6.2°. The emergent rays (e-ray & o-ray) are parallel to each other. tit ' e-ray o-ray Optic axis The refractive indices of o-ray and e-ray are sini sini Sint; Ue = Sint Me For calcite crystal, jlo> ple (1 < 1) «Inside the crystal, the velocity of the o-ray is less than the velocity of the e-ray. Ifthe velocity of the e-ray is less than the o-ray, such a type of crystal is called a positive erystal Bx, Quartz If the velocity of the e-ray is greater than the o-ray, such a type of crystal is called a negative crystal. Ex. Caleite Dr. YBKK, MBU 16Note: Difference between O-ray and e-ray ‘Ordinary ray Extraordinary The ray which obeys Snell's law and laws of reffaction is called an ordinary ray. It is denoted by O-ray. The ray which does not obey the laws of reffaction is called an extraordinary ray. It is denoted by ray. Tr passes un-deviated through the erystal Tt deviates aller refraction Taside the eryetal, the epeed of the O-ray ie less than the ray, Tnside the eryetal, the epeed of the E-ray ie more than O-ray The speed is constant in the medium, The speed is constant in the medium Tt gives a spherical wavelront Tt gives ellipsoidal wavefront Note: Along the optic axis, the refractive indices jte ~ to. So, the wavefronts of e-ray and o-ray will coincide. The velocities of o-ray and e-ray are the same along the optic axis. It is shown in Fig. In quartz, crystal fc > fi in all other directions, and it is very large in the direction perpendicular to the optic axis. In calcite crystal, 4c < floin all directions except the optic axis. So, the speed of the e-ray ts larger than that of the o-ray. Fig, Wavetront ina quartz erstal_(b) wavetronts inca crystal Note: ‘tropic erytal: Physical & mechanical properties of refraction ‘oropic medium ae the sme in all direction, {fot 8 called an guistropl era An imoginary line passing from peak to peak is known as the optic axis. {Ya ysl contains only one opt ais i known as an wieaialerystal. Ex. Quart, Clete {a erystal contains two opti ae is nove ata Bias erat. Ex. Mica Any plane that contains the opie axis ants perpendixlar 1 wo opposite faces ts called a principal setion, Dr. YBKK, MBU** Nicol’s prism: Nicol’s prism is an optical device used to produce and analyze plane-polarized light. This was invented by W. Nicol in the year 1828. Nicol’s prism is made from a double-refracting calcite crystal. Construction: A calcite crystal whose length is three times its width is taken. The end faces of this crystal are grounded in such a way that the angles in the principal section become 68° and 112° instead of 71° and 109°, The eryotal is cut into two pieoes by a plane perpendicular to the principal section (long with the diagonal AC). The two cut surfaces are grounded, polished optically flat, and then cemented together by the Canada balsam layer (long with AC). (jt of Canada balsam is 1.55). This polished prism is called the Nicol prism, Action: A beam of unpolarized light incident on Nicol prism (doubly refracted erystal: calcite), the reffacted beam is split into two rays. One ray is called an e-ray and the other is an o-ray. The e-ray moves in the direction of the optic axis and the o-ray moves perpendicular to the optic axis, In calcite crystal, the refractive indices of the ordinary ray are 1.658 and the extraordinary ray is 1.486. From the refractive indices’ values, the Canada balsam acts as a rarer medium for the o-ray and it acts as a denser medium for the e-ray. When the angle of incidence for an ordinary ray is greater than the critical angle then total internal reflection takes place (ie. O-ray is reflecting from Canada balsam), while the extraordinary ray gets transmitted through the calcite-balsam surface (Since light ray passes from rarer to denser medium). Ory Nicol’s prism can be used as an analyzer. Two Nicol prisms are placed adjacently as shown in Fig.(a). When an unpolarized light passes through a polarizer, we get polarized light. This Dr. YBKK, MBU 18polarized light passes through another prism (analyzer). When the second prism (analyzer) is slowly rotated, the intensity of the e-ray gradually decreases. When two prisms are perpendicular to each other, the intensity of light is minimum. Because the e-ray that comes out fiom the first prism will enter the second prism and act as an o-ray. So, this light is reflected in the second prism (Fig. b) Hence Nicol prism can be used as both a polarizer and an analyzer. poayet Limitations: To obtain plane-polarized light, the incident beam should be confined with an angle of 14”. In prism, the angle at B must be 68° since the critical angle is 69° (for o-ray at the calcite-balsam surface). ** Quarter-wave plate: A quarter-wave plate is a thin double-refracting calcite / quartz crystal. Let’s take the crystal in the form of a plate with its optic axis along the surface. When unpolarized light of wavelength } falls normally on the crystal surface, o-wave and e-wave move along the propagating direction with different velocities. The path difference between the two polarized light waves is + (phase difference is), Let ‘t’ be the thickness of plate calcite crystal, the optic axis is parallel to the surface. The optical path covered by the rays in the crystal of thickness ‘t” is pot and pit Path difference (A) = ptot ~ pet A=t (lo ~ He) @ As the crystal is a quarter-wave plate, then the path difference between o-ray and e-ray is =4 = 4 @ From Eq. (1) & (2) > Dr. YBKK, MBU 19Fig. Waveplates in a) Negative Crystal b) Positive crystal Nove: The eras ke quartz, where > the ticknes ofthe quarter-wave plated = => ** Half-wave plat. A half-wave plate is a thin double-refracting calcite / quartz crystal. Let’s take the crystal in the form of a plate with its optic axis along the surface, When unpolarized light of wavelength 2 falls normally on the crystal surface, o-wave and e-wave move along the propagating direction with different velocities. The path difference between the two polarized light waves is 4 (phase difference is x), Let ‘t’ be the thickness of plate calcite crystal, the optic axis is parallel to the surface. The optical path covered by the rays in the crystal of thickness ‘t’ is plot and jist. The path difference (A) = pot - not A=t (We ~ He) oO As the crystal is a half-wave plate, then the path difference between o-ray and e-ray is Ne Fig. Waveplates in 2) Negative Crystal b) Positive crystal a Te Note: The etl ike quar, where i> the tikes ofthe qurer-nave late d= 20 Dr. YBKK, MBU