GEOLOGIC

CROSS-SECTIONS

S. O. ISEHUNWA, PhD., Regd Engr.

 Geologic Cross-sections

 A geological cross-section is a graphic representation of the

intersection of the geological bodies in the subsurface with a
vertical plane of a certain orientation.
 It is a section of the terrain where the different types of rocks,
their constitution and internal structure and the geometric
relationship between them are represented.

 It is an approximate model of the real distribution of the rocks in

depth, consistent with the information available on the surface
and the subsurface. It can also represent the extension of the
materials of the structures that have been eroded above the
topographic surface.
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 Geologic Cross-sections

 The cross-sections are an indispensable complement of the

geological maps; maps and cross-sections are fruit of the
interpretation of the arrangement of the rocks using diverse types
of data, normally incomplete and with different degrees of
uncertainty.

 Both are bi-dimensional representations of the geological reality

and jointly allow us to understand the tri-dimensional structure
of the rocky volumes and, in consequence, the geological history
of a zone.

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 Geologic Cross-sections

 The geological cross-sections have a very relevant economic and

social importance. They are the basis for planning engineering
works, fundamentally the lineal works that affect the surface and
the subsurface (roads, tunnels, utilities) and for the exploration
and production of geological resources: water, stones, minerals
and energy.

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 Construction of a geological cross-section

 The construction of a geological cross-section involves the

interpretation of the rocks arrangement, both in depth and on the
topographic surface. This consists of interpolating all the
available data, of surface and subsurface, with the objective of
building a coherent geological model. For this reason, the
construction of the geological cross-sections requires the
application of all the knowledge of the geological characteristics
of the region, interpreted within the framework of the theoretical
knowledge of the moment.

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 Construction of a geological cross-section

 The data on the surface are obtained directly on the field

(direction and dip of the strata or other structures, types of
contact, thickness of the stratigraphical units, lateral relationships
between them, etc.) or they are extracted from an existing
geological map (geological formation or cartographic unit, type of
rock, angle of the intersection with the topographic surface, spot
data).

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 Types of Geological Cross-sections

 There are two major classes of cross sections used in

understanding petroleum reservoirs.

 Structural cross sections, which show the present geometry of an

area

 Stratigraphic cross sections, which show prior geometric

relationships by adjusting the elevation of geological units to
some chosen geological horizon.

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 Types of Geological Cross-sections

 A third type of cross section called a balanced cross section is a

combination of these two.

 This type attempts to portray the form of geological units prior to

some episode of deformation. It can provide important
conclusions about present day geometry and past stratigraphic
relationships.

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 Stratigraphic cross sections

 Stratigraphic cross sections show characteristics of correlatable

stratigraphic units, such as reservoir sandstones or sealing
shales. They may also be vital in understanding the timing of
deformation by showing the drape of sediment over developing
folds or the thickening of the section across growth faults.

 The following elements of cross section design are presented as if

they were a sequence. In practice, however, each choice affects
and is affected by the others.

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 Stratigraphic cross sections

 Choice of datum
 The datum is the level or reference horizon from which elevations
and depths are measured in the cross section.
 By “hanging” all the available vertical information on a
stratigraphic horizon or datum that can be correlated along the
full length of the cross section, the data are transformed to reflect
a different horizontal plane, one that existed at an earlier time.

 An unconformity is commonly used as a datum. In many

circumstances, unconformities represent relatively uniform and
geologically important time horizons and are therefore useful
features on which to hang cross sections
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 Stratigraphic cross sections

 Orientation and layout of the cross section

 The orientation of a cross section must be chosen to balance the need
for a clear representation of the features of interest with the availability
of appropriate information. In development geology, this information
comes largely from well data (geophysical logs, mudlogs, and cores),
but in some places, outcrops and seismic reflection data can be used
to constrain interpretations.
 Stratigraphic sections should be oriented perpendicular to depositional
strike (dip or transverse section) to show facies changes toward or
away from the basin margin. Strike sections parallel to the basin
margin should be drawn to show lateral variations of particular beds or
sequences
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 Stratigraphic cross sections

 Selection of data
 Once the choices of datum and orientation have been made, the next
step is to decide what data must be displayed.
 If the object of the cross section is to show lateral and vertical details
of the stratigraphy, log properties are of utmost importance.
 Typically the SP or gamma ray log and one resistivity log are displayed.
Porosity logs may also be important, and if seismic data are part of the
cross section, the sonic log is a critical tool to demonstrate the velocity
structure, and consistency of conversion of time to depth.
 Lines connecting correlative formation or zone tops between wells will
show the lateral variation in thickness of these units.

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 Stratigraphic cross sections

 Vertical and horizontal scale

 To show significant details of stratigraphic variation, it is usually
necessary to exaggerate the vertical scale with respect to the
horizontal scale on a stratigraphic cross section. It is important to
realize the effect that this distortion has on reservoir geometry and
angular relationships of geological surfaces. The small angular
differences between stratigraphic horizons that account for thickness
variations are strongly exaggerated in such a section.

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 Structural cross sections

 A structural cross section is made to show the shape of a geological

structure so as to evaluate the relationship of fluid contacts and
compartments to that structure.

 Such features as spill points, rollover on faults, and fault geometry give
an indication of the likely limits of field production.

 The form of a structure also provides information about its history and
thus possibly the history of reservoir formation and oil migration.

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 Structural cross sections

 Choice of datum
 For a structure cross section, the datum is sea level, with data plotted
above or below that point according to its present position

 Orientation and layout of a cross section

 Linear cross sections are preferably oriented perpendicular to the
major structural trends (dip or transverse sections). Bends in the
section can be introduced to accommodate variable structural trends or
to show different features. In a straight section, much of the data will
usually be projected into the plane of section. Accomplishing this
projection requires detailed knowledge of the strike direction.

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 Structural cross sections

 Selection of data
 For understanding the geometry of structures (folds and faults), an
undistorted view of the shapes of geological units is important. Logs
can be reduced in size with only the major units represented. Where
well control is dense and computers are available, it may be best to
construct structural cross sections by using gridded and contoured
stratigraphic surfaces and drawing each horizon as one would a
topographic profile.
 If it is important to demonstrate the control of structure on fluid
contacts, it may be vital to show the primary log data from which these
are interpreted. Other data, such as dips from a dipmeter log, can be
schematically represented.
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 Structural cross sections

 Vertical and horizontal scale

 Structural cross sections should be constructed with no or very little
vertical exaggeration so that true dips and geometry of an interval can
be depicted.

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 Computer generation of cross sections

 Cross sections are now routinely and rapidly constructed by

computers. Computers construct cross sections in two ways, each of
which has a pitfall. The more sophisticated method involves the use of
program algorithms to interpolate and extrapolate from the limited
available data to a complete cross section. This process can go wrong
when a well does not have a full set of tops picked such that false
correlations are created.
 The second way computers function is to allow the geologist to enter
and manipulate one's own interpretations. This capability is especially
useful when dealing with discontinuities such as faults that are not
handled well by mathematical algorithms. However, a pitfall here is the
indiscriminate application of personal interpretation or opinion.

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 Construction of cross sections

 Surface data: outcrops, dips, strike, etc.

 Electric well log data
 Seismic data
 Subsurface maps

 Determine the specific objective for the section

 Choose the orientation
 Select the scales of the proposed sections

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Example Structural Cross section
Example Stratigraphic Cross section
Example Stratigraphic Cross section
Example Structural Cross section
Homework: Structural Cross section
Homework: Stratigraphic Cross section