PHILOSOPHICAL PERSPECTIVES

Socrates (470-399BC)
• Nosce te ipsum (know thyself)
• "I Know that I know nothing"
• "An unexamined life is not worth living"
• The ultimate goal of life is to be happy.
• "The goal of life is to know thyself and to improve our soul through virtuous living."
• Every human possesses an immortal soul that survives the death of the physical body
• Virtue and knowledge are intrinsic to the human person and can be accessed through self-examination.
• Socratic method of inquiry - the dialogue between the soul and itself. In between a student and his
teacher (role of a questioner) - to discover the truths.

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Plato (428-347 BC)
• “The self is an immortal soul.”
• All knowledge is recollection.
• The soul is an entity distinct from the body.
• Beauty goes beyond the body or the world of material things.
• The highest goal of self in education is the Form of the Good.
• The concept of two worlds: the world of Forms (non-physical ideas) and the world of Senses (reality)
• Justice in the human person can only be attained if the three parts of the soul are working harmoniously
with one another.
• Theory of the soul as being tripartite, consisting of three distinct elements:
o reason (logos),
o spirit (thumos), and
o appetite (epithumia)

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Aristotle (384-322 BC)
• “Man is a rational animal.”
• “The soul is the essence of the self.”
• The concept of hylomorphism. “Hyle” means matter, and “morphe” means form.
• Three levels of soul: (1) vegetative soul, (2) sensitive soul, and (3) rational soul.
• The self is created for a purpose.
• Eudaimonia (Human Flourishing)
• The self is inherently social and finds its fullest expression within a community or society.
• Happiness is the final pursuit (chief end) of human aspirations and desires.

St. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274)

• Theory of Self-knowledge states that one’s knowledge about himself is dependent on his experience of
the world around him.
• The problem of self-opacity occurs when an individual experiences difficulty when trying to fully
understand himself.
• Human beings possess both natural reason and divine revelation. Reason is a unique and defining
characteristic of the human self.
• Rational thinking and the study of nature enable the self to attain a deeper understanding of God and
achieve salvation.
• Three theological virtues – faith, hope, and charity
• Four cardinal virtues – prudence, temperance, justice, and fortitude. The goal of self-existence is union
and eternal fellowship with God.

St. Augustine (354-430 BC)

• The body is united with the soul, so man may be entire and complete.
• Two realms according to St. Augustine: (1) the intelligible realm and (2) the sensible realm
• Humankind is created in the likeness and image of God.
• Existence of free will
• Human beings are inherently sinful due to the original sin of Adam and Eve.
• The self is known only through knowing God.
• “I am doubting, therefore I am.”
• The self exists in time, which is subjected to change and mortality.
• The tripartite nature of the self: Memory, Intellect, and Will
Francis Bacon (1561-1626)
• Knowledge is power.
• Two independent elements of knowledge: experience and reason
• To arrive at knowledge, the self must study natures with the intention of grasping their forces.
• Human mind is a crooked mirror.
• The human mind must be free from all prejudices (idols) and pre-conceived attitudes.
• Idols of the Mind
o Idols of the Tribe (Idola Tribus) – common to all individuals
o Idols of the Cave (Idola Specus) – individual prejudices
o Idols of the Marketplace (Idola Fori) – language-based misunderstandings
o Idols of the Theater (Idola Theatri) – errors resulting from dogmatic beliefs
• The human mind is fitted for knowledge of nature and must derive it from observation, not from abstract
reasoning.
• The pursuit of knowledge should be guided by ethical principles and aimed at practical applications.

Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)

• Human beings are inherently selfish and driven by a desire for power.
• Two absolute postulates of human nature:
o (1) postulate of greed, and
o (2) postulate of natural reason
• The desire to preserve one’s own life and seek personal pleasure while avoiding pain.
• Man’s life in the state of nature is solitary, poor nasty, brutish, and short.
• Human judgment is unreliable and needs to be guided by science.
• Human beings are needy and vulnerable.
• Human beings are mechanical objects, programmed to pursue their self-interest and materialistic
desires.
• Men form peaceful societies by entering into a social contract.

Rene Descartes (1596-1650)

• “If you would be a real seeker after truth, it is necessary that at least once in your life you doubt, as far
as possible, all things.”
• “Cogito ergo sum” (I think, therefore I exist)
• Self-awareness as the foundation of knowledge.
• Self identity is mutually dependent on self-consciousness.
• Mind-Body Dualism – The self is a combination of two distinct entities:
(a) Cognito or the mind, and
(b) Extenze or extension of the mind
• The physical body is secondary to personal identity.
• The thinking self connects with the physical self through the pineal gland.
• Hyperbolical or metaphysical doubt (methodological skepticism)

John Locke (1632-1704)

• Tabula Rasa – the mind is a blank slate at birth
• Knowledge comes from direct sense experience.
• The self is a thinking, conscious being.
• Consciousness is necessary for a unified self-identity in different times and places.
• Personal identity is closely tied to memory.
• Concept of accountability
• The essence of self is its conscious awareness of itself.
• Every aspect of the physical body (substance) is integrated with one’s personal identity.
• Society and culture play a crucial role in shaping an individual's self-concept and moral beliefs.
David Hume (1711-1774)
• Supported Locke’s empiricist belief that knowledge is gained through direct sense experience.
• Bundle Theory – the self is a bundle or collection of fleeting perceptions and experiences.
• There are only two distinct entities: (1) impressions – basic sensations of the experience, and (2) ideas
– copies of impressions.
• There is no self. “All ideas are ultimately derived from impression. Hence, the idea of persisting self is
ultimately derived from impression but, no impression is a persisting thing. Therefore, there cannot be
any persisting idea of self.”
• Death is a person’s final destination.

Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)

• The view of the self is a response to Hume
• The self is transcendental.
• Knowledge connects the self and the material things together.
• Apperception
• Two kinds of consciousness:
(c) consciousness of oneself and one’s psychological states in inner sense, and
(d) consciousness of oneself and one’s states via performing acts of apperception
• Three types of synthesis are required to organize information:
1. Apprehending in intuition
2. Recognizing in concepts
3. Reproducing in the imagination

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)

• The self is multitiered, divided among conscious, subconscious, and unconscious.
• Great emphasis on the unconscious aspect of the self
• Concept of defense mechanism
• Psychoanalytic Theory is based on the notion that the unconscious self influences the conscious and
rational thought.
o TOPOGRAPHICAL THEORY OF THE HUMAN MIND
• Conscious – all the mental processes an individual is aware of
• Pre-conscious or Subconscious – thoughts and feelings that an individual is not aware of,
but can easily be brought into consciousness
• Unconscious – a repository of primitive wishes and impulses
 • STRUCTURE OF THE HUMAN PSYCHE
• Id – It operates on the pleasure principle. It is the impulsive (unconscious) part of the mind that
responds directly and immediately to basic urges, needs, and desires.
• Ego – It operates according to the reality principle, working out realistic ways of satisfying the id’s
demands, often compromising or postponing satisfaction to avoid negative consequences of society.
• Superego – It incorporates the values and morals of society. It is the voice of conscience and the
source of self-criticism.

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Gilbert Ryle (1900-1976)

• The self is defined by a person’s behavior and actions.
• He rejected the idea of Cartesian Dualism.
• He viewed the distinction between the soul and the physical body as a “categorical mistake”.
• The concept of “the ghost in the machine”

Patricia Churchland (1943)

• The self is the brain.
• Consciousness and decision-making are just functions of the brain.
• Science plays a significant role in understanding how the brain and the self have evolved over time.
• Science allows people to know.
• It is the free will that works when a person makes decisions.

Paul Churchland
• The sense of “self” originated from the brain and is a product of electrochemical signals produced by
the brain.
• Eliminative Materialism – people’s common-sense understanding of mental states and concepts may
be fundamentally flawed and should be eliminated in favor of a more neuroscientific and materialistic
account.
• Neuroscience is the key to understanding the nature of the self.

Maurice Merleau-Ponty (1908-1961)

• Embodied nature of the self (Embodied Subjectivity)
• The body acts what the mind perceives as a unified one.
• The idea of “perceptual intentionality,” which states that perception is a fundamental aspect of self-
experience.
• The self is not isolated but is defined by its social and relational context.
 SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES
“Not only is the self entwined in society; it owes society its existence in the most literal sense.”
– Theodor Adorno

What is Sociology?
• It comes from the Latin word ‘socius’ meaning ‘companion’, and the Greek word ‘logos’ meaning ‘the study of
something’.
• In a general sense, sociology is the study of society.
• Sociology is a branch of social science that systematically studies social behavior and human groups. It focuses
primarily on the influence of social relationships on people’s attitudes and behavior and on how societies are
established and changed.

The Self as a Product of Modern Society

Modernization refers to the transitional process of moving from primitive (traditional) communities to modern
(industrial) societies. It significantly changed not only societies but also affected how individuals build and develop their
self-identities.

Giddens (1991) identified the key characteristics of modernity:

• Industrialism – the social relations implied in the extensive use of material power and machinery in all processes
of production;
• Capitalism – a production system involving both competitive product markets and commodification (putting a
price tag) of labor power;
• Institutions of Surveillance – the massive increase of power and reach by institutions, especially in government;
and,
• Dynamism – characterized as having vigorous activity and progress (rapid changes).

INDIVIDUALISM COLLECTIVISM
• A society where people from
• A society where the ties between individuals are loose: birth onwards are integrated into
everyone is expected to look after himself or herself and strong, cohesive ingroups, which
his or her immediate family throughout people’s lifetime continue to protect them in
exchange for unquestioning loyalty
• Emphasizes the ‘I’ consciousness
• Emphasizes the ‘we’ consciousness

George Simmel

• Social Group – having two or more people interacting with one another, sharing similar characteristics, and
whose members identify themselves as part of the group
• Social Network – the ties or connections that link a person to his or her social group
Social Group
Organic Group Rational Group
• Naturally occurring, and highly influenced by family • Occur in modern societies
• Formed in traditional societies • Formed based on a matter of shared self-interest
• Organic motivation (rootedness) • Rational motivation (free will)
• Less freedom and greater conformity • Greater freedom
 SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM

What is Symbolic Interactionism?

• It focuses on the role of symbols and social interactions in shaping
human behavior and society.
• It assumes that people respond to elements of their environments
according to the subjective meanings they attach to those elements.
• According to Carter and Fuller (2015), it is a theoretical framework in
sociology that describes how societies are created and maintained
through the repeated actions of individuals.

George Herbert Mead

• Theory of Social Self – The self is a product of social interactions and internalizing external views and personal
views about oneself.
• He proposed the different stages of self-development –
(1) imitation,
(2) play, and
(3) game.
• He highlighted the importance of language in self-development.

Stages of Self-Development
Stage 1: Imitation
• copy behaviors of others without a full understanding of their meanings
Stage 2: Play
• play a role or assume the perspective of others
• allow them to understand social roles and expectations
Stage 3: Game
• consider multiple roles simultaneously
• not only internalize other people’s perspectives but also take into account societal rules and adhere to it

Two Facets of the Self: “I” and “Me”

“Me” “I”
• socialized aspect of the self • spontaneous, creative, and individualistic aspect of the
• shaped by societal norms, values, and the expectations self
of others • the individual’s response to the community’s attitude
• learned behaviors, attitudes, and expectations toward the person
• exercises social control over the self • does not blindly follow rules

Herbert Blumer
• He coined the term ‘Symbolic Interactionism’.
• He emphasizes how the self can emerge from the interactive process of joining action.
• There are three core principles in symbolic interaction: meaning, language, and thinking.

Three Propositions of Symbolic Interaction

1. Individuals behave in accordance with the personal significance they attribute to objects.
2. Meanings originate from interactions with other individuals and with society.
3. The meanings an individual has are formed and changed through a process of interpretation during
interactions with others.
Charles Horton Cooley
• Individuals create their own identities based on how they perceive themselves through the eyes of others.
• Looking-Glass Self –
“…describe the process in which individuals use others as mirrors and base their conceptions of themselves on
what is reflected back to them during social interaction” (Thompson et al., 2019, p. 91).

Components of the Looking-Glass Self

1. People imagine how they appear to other people;
2. People imagine how others are, thus judging them based on appearance and how they present themselves; and,
3. People imagine how others feel about them based on the judgments they make.

STRUCTURAL- FUNCTIONAL THEORY

What is Structural-Functional Theory?

• Structural-functional theory, also known as Functionalism, emphasizes that each aspect of society is
interdependent and contributes to society's functioning as a whole.

Emile Durkheim
• The society shapes an individual.
• Social Facts – external, objective, and measurable phenomena that shape an individual’s behavior and society as
a whole
• Anomie – a sense of uncertainty and confusion about their place in the world, not knowing what they should be
doing
• Two types of social solidarity: organic solidarity and mechanical solidarity
• He emphasized the importance of religion as a social institution that contributes to the stability and functioning
of society.
Two Types of Social Solidarity
Organic Solidarity Mechanical Solidarity
• modern, industrial societies
• traditional or preindustrial societies
• based on an acceptance of economic and social
• maintained by the collective consciousness of a culture
differences
• based on similarities and shared values among
• based on the interdependence of individuals who
members
perform diverse and specialized roles

CONFLICT THEORY
What is Conflict Theory?
• It views society as ongoing conflicts and
inequalities, particularly in the distribution of resources and power.
• It assumes that all societies have structural power divisions and resource inequalities that lead to groups having
conflicting interests (Wells, 1979).

Karl Marx
• He examined the society through the lens of class struggle and social conflict.
• Society is divided into different social classes, primarily the bourgeoisie (capitalist class) and the proletariat
(working class).
• Self-estrangement – the alienation of man’s essence, man’s loss of objectivity, and his loss of realness as self-
discovery, manifestation of his nature, objectification, and realization
 Anthropological Perspective of the Self

What is Anthropology?
• It is derived from the Greek words ‘anthropo’ meaning ‘human beings’ or
‘humankind’, and ‘logia’ translated as ‘knowledge of’ or ‘study of’.
• In a general sense, anthropology is the study of humankind – past and present.
• It is a branch of social science focusing on the study of origin, behavior, physical,
social, and cultural development of humans.

Self and the Person in Contemporary Anthropology

KATHERINE PRATT EWING

• The self is a physical organism, possessing psychological functioning and social
attributes.
• The self is illusory. People construct a series of self-representations that are based
on selected cultural concepts of person and selected chains of personal memories.

JOSEPH LEDOUX
• The self is the sum of the brain’s individual subsystems, each with its own form of
memory, together with the complex interactions among the subsystems.
• He conceptualized the implicit and explicit aspects of the self.
• He introduced the Theory of Threat Response and the concept of two pathways.
• The self is not static; it is added to and subtracted from by genetic maturation,
learning, forgetting, stress, ageing, and disease.
TWO ASPECTS OF THE SELF
IMPLICIT ASPECT EXPLICIT ASPECT
• subconscious and automatic • conscious, self-reflective, and often
processes that shape an individual's involve introspection and self-
emotional responses and awareness
perceptions of the world
• not immediately available to the
consciousness
The Self Embedded in Culture
“Cultural traditions and social practices regulate, express, and transform the
human psyche, resulting less in psychic unity for humankind than in ethnic
divergences in mind, self, and emotion.”

WHAT IS CULTURE?
Culture is a complex and multifaceted concept that encompasses the shared
beliefs, values, customs, traditions, language, symbols, norms, and practices of a
particular group of people. It represents the way of life, identity, and social
organization of a community or society

TWO WAYS OF HOW SELF IS CONSTRUCTED

INDIVIDUALISTIC CULTURE CONSTRUAL OR COLLECTIVIST CULTURE
• emphasizes personal autonomy, • how individuals perceive and
self-expression, and the construct their self-identity through
development of a unique and the lens of social and cultural
independent identity influences
• prioritize individual goals and • the self is shaped by external
personal fulfillment factors, including social roles,
relationships, and cultural norms

The Self Embedded in Culture

CATHERINE RAEFF
She believed that culture can influence how a person views: relationships, personality
traits, achievements, and expressing emotions.

• Relationships – how one enters into and maintains relationships

• Personality traits – how a person values traits and how he/she perceives hardship,
or how he/she feels about relying on others
• Achievement – how a person defines success
• Expressing emotions – what will affect a person emotionally
 Psychological Perspective of the Self

What is Psychology?
• The term psychology comes from the Greek word ‘psyche’ meaning soul or mind,
and ‘logos’ meaning ‘study of.’
• In a general sense, it is the study of mind and behavior.
• It is a multifaceted discipline within the field of social sciences that encompasses
the systematic study of human behavior, cognitive processes, and the underlying
mental phenomena.

Jean Piaget
• Theory of Cognitive Development – It is a comprehensive theory about the
development of human intelligence. It deals with the nature of knowledge, and
how humans gradually come to acquire, construct, and use it.
• Stages of Cognitive Development:
o (1) sensorimotor,
o (2) preoperational,
o (3) concrete operations, and
o (4) formal operations

Important components of Piaget’s cognitive theory:

• Schemas/schemes – The building blocks of knowledge. These are mental

organizations that individuals use to understand their environments and designate
actions.
• Adaptation – The child’s learning processes to meet situational demands
1. Assimilation – The child incorporates new information or experiences into
his/her existing mental frameworks or schemas.
2. Accommodation – It is the process of modifying existing schemas or creating
new ones to accommodate new information or experiences that do not fit
within the current mental framework.
3. Equilibration – It is the process of achieving cognitive balance or equilibrium
between assimilation and accommodation.
 Stages of Cognitive Develop
STAGE AGE CHARACTERISTICS
Sensorimotor 0-2 • Learning by doing through their senses and motor
actions (looking, touching, sucking)
• Primitive understanding of cause-and-effect
relationships
• Goal: Object permanence

Preoperational 2-7 • Use of language and symbols (letters and numbers)

• Egocentrism
• Goal: Conservation

Concrete Operations 7-11 • Demonstrate conservation, reversibility, serial

ordering, and mature understanding of cause-and-
effect relationship
• Goal: Logical thought

Formal Operations 12+ • Demonstrate abstract and hypothetical thinking

• Can reason about complex, theoretical concepts and
engage in deductive reasoning
• Goal: Scientific reasoning

Dr. Susan Harter

• She asserted that there are broad developmental changes that can be observed
early childhood, later childhood, and adolescence which could be interpreted
through the Piagetian framework.
• She elaborated the stages or development of self-concept:
o (1) early childhood,
o (2) middle to later childhood,
o (3) adolescence, and
o (4) emerging adults.
 Stages of Self-Concept
STAGE CHARACTERISTICS
The Undifferentiated Self • have a limited understanding of themselves
(Infancy to Early Childhood) as distinct individuals
The Categorical Self (Preschool • categorize themselves and others based on
Years) concrete, observable characteristics
The Real Self (Middle Childhood) • develop a more nuanced and realistic self-
concept
• incorporate internal characteristics and
abilities (personality traits, skills, and
preference)
The Ideal Self (Adolescence) • emergence of more abstract self-concept
(inner thoughts, emotions, attitudes, and
motives) • creating an image of the person
they aspire to be
The Feared Self (Adolescence • become aware of the aspects of themselves
and Beyond) that they fear becoming or being seen as
The False Self (Adulthood) • adaptation of one's self-presentation to meet
the expectations and approval of others

William James
• He is commonly known as “the father of American psychology”.
• The right to believe – “a fact cannot come at all unless a preliminary faith exists in
its coming” (James, 1896)
• The self has two elements: the I-self and the Me-self

THE I-SELF
• known as ‘pure ego’
• represents the subjective and immediate awareness of oneself as the thinker,
the doer, and the experiencer of one's own actions and thoughts
• Four features of the I-self:
1. A sense of being the agent or initiator of behavior
2. A sense of being unique
3. A sense of continuity
4. A sense of awareness about being aware
 THE ME-SELF
• the self as the object
• also known as the ‘empirical self’
• can be described based on physical characteristics, personalities, social roles and
relationships, thoughts, and feelings
• Three dimensions of the Me-self:
1. Material – physical appearance and extensions of it
2. Social – social skills and significant interpersonal relationships
3. Spiritual – personality, character, and defining values

Carl Ransom Rogers

• He stressed that a person is an active, creative, experiencing being who lives in
the present and who thinks, feels, and responds to his or her environment.
• He coined the term ‘actualizing tendency’.
• He established the Theory of Personality Development

IDEAL SELF REAL SELF

• the self-concept that an individual aspires • the individual's current self-concept
to become • represents how a person sees
• represents the person's idealized version of himself or herself as he or she is
himself or herself now, without idealization or
• could include: distortion
1) notions influenced by the parents,
2) what a person admires in others,
3) what the society sees as applicable, and
4) what a person thinks is in his or her best
interest

Importance of Aligning the Ideal Self and Real Self

CONGRUENCE
• when an individual’s self-concept aligns with their actual experiences and
feelings • leads to a more authentic and genuine sense of self
INCONGRUENCE
• when there is a significant gap between one's self-concept and their actual
experiences
• can lead to inner conflicts, anxiety, and a lack of self-acceptance
Gordon Allport
• He proposed the Personality Trait Theory asserting that every person possesses
traits.
• Traits – a stable characteristic that remains the same regardless of the situation

Three Classes of Traits

Cardinal Traits
• the dominant and defining traits that shape an individual's entire personality
Central Traits
• the core traits that make up an individual's personality
Secondary Traits
• less prominent and specific traits that may emerge in particular situations or
contexts

Eric Berne
• He developed the Transactional Analysis Model as a basis for understanding
behavior.
• The Transactional Analysis Model is anchored on two notions:
1) Every person has three ego states in his or her personality.
2) People communicate with one another assuming roles of any of these three
ego states.

Three Ego States

Parent Ego
• represents the internalized voice of authority figures from an individual's past

Adult Ego
• the rational and objective part of the individual that processes information,
makes decisions based on facts, and engages in critical thinking
Child Ego
• represents the emotional and instinctual part of the individual
o Natural child (loves to play but is sensitive and vulnerable);
o Little professor (curious child who wants to try everything); and,
o Adaptive child (one who reacts to the world)
Gregg Henriques
• He proposed that the self has three related, but separable domains.
1) Experiential self – the theater of consciousness; closely tied to memory
2) Private self-conscious – the narrator or interpreter; narrates the unfolding
events and tries to makes sense of the experience
3) Public self or persona – image a person projects to the public; interacts with
others and will influence how others sees a person

Donald Woods Winnicott

• According to him, the self is simple “the person who is me”.
• He introduced the concepts of the ‘true self’ and the ‘false self’ as part of his
psychoanalytic theory.
TRUE SELF FALSE SELF
• an individual's authentic and innate • a protective, adaptive persona that
sense of self individuals develop in response to
• the core of one's being and external expectations, pressures, and
encompasses genuine emotions, social norms
desires, and a sense of personal • designed to gain acceptance, avoid
identity rejection, or meet the demands of
• spontaneity, creativity, and a sense of others
vitality
 The Self in Western and Oriental or Eastern Thought
WESTERN CONCEPT OF THE SELF
Four categories on how the term ‘self’ is used in contemporary Western
discussion (Johnson, 1985):
• Analytical – It emphasizes a cognitive and introspective approach to
self-examination. It involves dissecting one's thoughts, emotions, and
experiences in a systematic manner
• Monotheistic – It is deeply rooted in religious and spiritual traditions,
particularly within monotheistic religions such as Christianity, Judaism,
and Islam.
• Individualistic – It emphasizes personal autonomy and uniqueness.
• Materialistic or Rationalistic – It focuses on the tangible and
empirical aspects of the self. It often aligns with scientific and
philosophical worldviews that prioritize reason, logic, and empirical
evidence.
INDIVIDUALISTIC VS. COLLECTIVIST SELF
INDIVIDUALISTIC COLLECTIVIST
• “I am the master of my fate; I am the • Emphasizes interdependence and
captain of my soul.” harmonious relatedness with one another
• Oriented around the individual • Of utmost important to be part of and
• Highly value independence and self- maintain social networks, maintain good
reliance relationships, and fulfill obligations
• Emphasis on personal achievements
According to Baumeister (1986), self-concept could be
organized in three aspects:
1. Private – the mental processes that perceive one’s own traits or
behaviors
2. Public – the generalized view of the self
3. Collective – the view of self in a collective concept
EASTERN CONCEPT OF THE SELF
Hinduism
• Vedas – These are the earliest religious writings in the East that formed the
Hindu philosophy and dharma (the principle of cosmic order). These illustrate
the eastern mindset of a completely unified universe with the creator, with no
distinction.
• Brahman – It is the true nature of humans which is the divine universal
consciousness encompassing the universe. It is considered as the self that is
within everyone
• Composed of the teachings of Buddha
• The self is interdependent and ever changing.
• Annata (‘no-self’ or ‘no-soul’) – There is no permanent, unchanging, or
inherent self (also known as atman) within individuals. Instead, the self is
considered a transient and ever-changing collection of components.
• Nirvana (liberation) – The realization of the nature of the self is seen as a
path to liberation, through which individuals can achieve a state of freedom
from suffering and the cycle of birth and death or samsara
Confucianism
• It is rooted in the teachings of Confucius.
• The self is formed through upbringing and the environment.
• Every person is born with four beginnings.
➢ Jen (heart of compassion) – It involves treating others with respect and
kindness, showing concern for their well-being, and striving to create
harmonious relationships in society.
➢ Yi (heart of righteousness) – It involves upholding moral principles,
acting with integrity, and seeking fairness and justice in one's interactions
with others.
➢ Li (heart of propriety) – It emphasizes the importance of proper conduct,
etiquette, and decorum in various social situations.
➢ Chih (heart of wisdom) – It represents the quality of sound judgment,
critical thinking, and the ability to make informed decisions.
Taoism
• The self is one of the countless manifestations of the Tao (an extension of the
cosmos or the universe).
• Selfhood entails conscious self-transformation leading to the attributes of a
balanced life in harmony with both nature and society.

Islam
• Nafs (self) – It is the psyche (the totality of the conscious and unconscious
human mind) or the soul).
• The self has to be nurtured and self-regulated, so that it can progress into
becoming ‘good’ or ‘evil’ through its thoughts and actions.