As per VTU (CBCS) syllabus with effect from 2021-22

BASIC ELECTRONICS
AND
COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
(21ELN14/24)

For First / Second Semester B.E. Degree

EASWARA M
 CONTENTS

VTU syllabus iv

Chapter Particulars Page

1 1.1 1.1.1 DC Power Supplies 3

1.1.3 Rectifiers 3
1.1.4 Reservoir and smoothing circuits 4
1.1.5 Full-wave rectifiers 5
1.1.6 Voltage regulators 8
1.1.7 Output resistance and voltage regulation 9
Voltage multipliers 9
1.2 1.2.1 Amplifiers 11
1.2.2 Types of amplifiers 11
1.2.3 Amplifier Parameters 12
1.2.4 Negative feedback 14
Multi-stage amplifiers 14
1.3 1.3.1 Operational amplifiers 16
1.3.2 Operational amplifier parameters 16
1.3.3 Operational amplifier characteristics 17
1.3.4 Operational amplifier configurations 18
Operational amplifier circuits 19
1.4 1.4.1 Oscillators 22
1.4.2 Positive feedback 22
1.4.3 Conditions for oscillation 22
1.4.4 RC Ladder network oscillator 23
1.4.5 Wein bridge oscillator 23
1.4.6 Multivibrators 24
1.4.7 Single-stage Astable oscillator 24
Crystal controlled oscillators 26
Review Questions 26
2 2.1 Logic gates 31
2.2 Combinational logic gates 32
2.3 Bistables (RS, D-type and JK) 33
2.4 Data representation ,Data types and Data 35
2.5 storage 37
2.6 Realization using basic gates and truth table 38
2.7 Microcontroller system 39
2.7.1 Adder circuits 39
2.7.2 Half Adder 40
2.8 Full Adder 41
2.9 Multiplexer 43
2.10 Decoder 44
2.11 Shift registers 47
Counters and asynchronous counters 48
Review Questions 48
3 3.1 Embedded Systems
3.1.1 Embedded systems vs general computing systems 53
3.1.2 Classification of Embedded Systems 53
3.1.3 Major application areas of Embedded Systems 55
3.1.4 Core of the Embedded System 56
3.1.5 Microprocessor vs Microcontroller, RISC vs 56
3.1.6 CISC Harvard vs Von-Neumann architectures 57
3.2 Sensors and Interfacing 58
3.2.1 Instrumentation and control systems 58
3.2.2 Transducers - Sensors and Actuators 59
3.2.3 LED and 7-Segment LED Display 61
3.2.4 Stepper Motor 62
3.2.5 Relay 64
3.2.6 Piezo Buzzer 65
3.2.7 Push Button Switch 65
3.2.8 Keyboard 66
3.3 Communication Interface 67
3.3.1 UART 68
3.3.2 Parallel Interface 69
3.3.3 USB 69
3.3.4 Wi-Fi 71
3.3.5 GPRS 72
Review Questions 74

4 4.1 Analog and Digital Communication

4.1.1 Modern communication system scheme 78
4.1.2 Types of communication systems 83
4.1.3 Multiplexing and types 84
4.1.4 Types of modulation: AM, FM and PM 85
4.1.5 Pulse Modulation and types: PAM, PWM and 87
4.1.6 PPM 89
4.1.7 Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) 90
4.2 Sampling theorem and Nyquist rate 90
4.3 Concept of Radio wave propagation 92
4.4 Digital Modulation Schemes – ASK, FSK, PSK 93
4.5 Radio signal transmission 95
4.6 Multiple access techniques 96
4.7 Multipath and fading 97
4.8 Error Management 99
Antenna and Types of antennas 101
Review Questions

5 5.1 Cellular Wireless Networks 105

5.1.1 Cellular concept and frequency reuse 105
5.1.2 Basic operation of cellular network (Transmitting
and Receiving) 107
5.1.3 Mobility Management 108
5.2 Wireless Network Topologies 109
 5.3 First Generation (1G) Technology 110
5.4 Second Generation (2G) Technology 111
5.4.1 GSM Communications, GSM System architecture 112
5.5 Third Generation (3G) Technology 112
5.5.1 CDMA Technology 113
5.5.2 High-level architecture of LTE 113
5.6 Fourth Generation (4G) Technology 115
5.6.1 LTE-A system Architecture 115
5.7 Wireless LAN 116
5.8 Bluetooth, Bluetooth Architecture 117
5.9 Satellite Communication 118
5.9.1 Elements of Satellite Communication 119
5.9.2 Types of satellites – GEO, LEO, MEO 120
5.10 Optical Fiber Communication 121
5.11 Microwave Communication 123
5.11.1 Frequency modulated microwave communication 124
system
Review Questions 127

Basic Electronics Laboratory Manual

Experiments
1. 5V power supply unit using Bridge rectifier, capacitor filter, and
IC 7805. 131
2. To switch on/off an led using a diode in forward and / reverse
bias using a battery cell. 131
3. Transistor switch circuit to operate a relay that switched off/on
an LED. 132
4. Construct and verify truth table of Half Adder circuit using
EXOR and AND gate ICs. 133
5. IC 741 Integrator circuit/ Differentiator circuit. 134
6. IC 741 Inverting / Non-inverting Amplifier circuit. 135
7. Construct and verify working principle of photodiode. 136
8. Construct and verify working principle of Astable multivibrator
using IC 741. 137
9. To operate a small loudspeaker by generating oscillations using
IC NE-555 138
VTU Model Question Papers 140

iii
JBOS 18.10.2021 / EC 30.10.2021

I/II Semester

BASIC ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION

ENGINEERING
Course Code 21ELN14/24 CIE Marks 50
Teaching Hours / Week (L: T:P:S) 2:2:0 SEE Marks 50
Total Hours of Pedagogy 40 Total Marks 100
Credits 03 Exam Hours 3
Course Objectives:
1. Preparation: To prepare students with fundamental knowledge/ overview in the field of
Electronics and Communication Engineering.
2. Core Competence: To equip students with a basic foundation in electronic engineering
fundamentals required for comprehending the operation and application of electronic
circuits, logic design, embedded systems, and communication systems.
3. Professionalism & Learning Environment: To inculcate in first-year engineering students an
ethical and professional attitude by providing an academic environment inclusive of
effective communication, teamwork, ability to relate engineering issues to a broader social
context, and life-long learning needed for a successful professional career.
Teaching-Learning Process (General Instructions)
These are sample Strategies; which teachers can use to accelerate the attainment of the various
course outcomes.
1. Lecturer method (L) does not mean only the traditional lecture method, but a different type of
teaching method may be adopted to develop the outcomes.
2. Arrange visits to nearby PSUs such as BHEL, BEL, ISRO, etc., and small-scale hardware
industries to give brief information about the electronics manufacturing industry.
3. Show Video/animation films to explain the functioning of various analog and digital circuits.
4. Encourage collaborative (Group) Learning in the class
5. Ask at least three HOTS (Higher-order Thinking) questions in the class, which promotes critical
thinking
6. Adopt Problem Based Learning (PBL), which fosters students’ Analytical skills, develop
thinking skills such as the ability to evaluate, generalize, and analyze information rather than
simply recall it.
7. Topics will be introduced in multiple representations.
8. Show the different ways to solve the same problem and encourage the students to come up
with their own creative ways to solve them.
9. Discuss how every concept can be applied to the real world - and when that's possible, it helps
improve the students' understanding.
Module I
Electronic Circuits:
Power Supplies – Block diagram, Rectifiers, Reservoir and smoothing circuits, Full-wave
rectifiers, Bi-phase rectifier circuits, Bridge rectifier circuits, Voltage regulators, Output resistance
and voltage regulation, Voltage multipliers.
Amplifiers – Types of amplifiers, Gain, Input and output resistance, Frequency response,
Bandwidth, Phase shift, Negative feedback, Multi-stage amplifiers.
JBOS 18.10.2021 / EC 30.10.2021

Operational amplifiers - Operational amplifier parameters, Operational amplifier characteristics,

Operational amplifier configurations, Operational amplifier circuits.
Oscillators – Positive feedback, Conditions for oscillation, Ladder network oscillator, Wein bridge
oscillator, Multivibrators, Single-stage astable oscillator, Crystal controlled oscillators.
(Only Concepts, working, and waveforms. No mathematical derivations)
Text 1: Chapters 6, 7, 8 and 9
Teaching- Chalk and talk method, PowerPoint Presentation, YouTube videos, Animation of
Learning input and output waveforms of the op-amp circuits.
Process Practical Topics: Problems on voltage regulators, op-amp parameters,
oscillators.
Self-study topics: BJT amplifier types, comparison of BJT & FET.
Module II
Logic Circuits – Logic gates, Bistables, R-S Bistables, D-type Bistables, J-K Bistables. Text 1:
Chapter 10
Data representation, Data types, Data storage, A microcontroller system. Text 1: Chapter 11
Realization using basic gates and truth table the Half Adder (Text 4: Fig.11.11) and Full Adder
(Text 4: Table 11.5 & Fig. 11.13), Multiplexer (Text 4: 10.5.3) and decoder (Text 4: 10.5.4).
Shift registers, Register type – operation and truth table (Text 4: 13.2, 13.3), Counters and
asynchronous counters (Text 4: 13.5, 13.6)
Text 4: Fig. 11.11, Fig. 11.13, 10.5.3, 10.5.4, 13.2, 13.3, 13.5, 13.6
(No simplification of Boolean algebra, no K-maps. Only logic circuit, working and truth table)
Teaching- Chalk and talk method, PowerPoint Presentation, YouTube videos, Animation of
Learning truth table and timing waveforms of the logic circuits especially flip flops, adders,
Process shift registers, and counters.
Practical Topics: Problems on data representation and types.
Self-study topics: Waveforms of counters, shift registers.
Module III
Embedded Systems – Definition, Embedded systems vs general computing systems, Classification
of Embedded Systems, Major application areas of Embedded Systems, Elements of an Embedded
System, Core of the Embedded System, Microprocessor vs Microcontroller, RISC vs CISC, Harvard
vs Von-Neumann. Text 2: 1.1, 1.2, 1.4, 1.5, Fig. 2.1, 2.1, 2.1.1.4, 2.1.1.6, 2.1.1.7.
Sensors and Interfacing – Instrumentation and control systems, Transducers, Sensors. Text 1:
Chapter 15
Actuators, LED, 7-Segment LED Display, Stepper Motor, Relay, Piezo Buzzer, Push Button Switch,
Keyboard. Text 2: 2.3.2, 2.3.3.1 to 2.3.3.8 except 2.3.3.3
Communication Interface, UART, Parallel Interface, USB, Wi-Fi, GPRS. Text 2: 2.4, 2.4.1.3,
2.4.1.5, 2.4.2.2, 2.4.2.6, 2.4.2.8.

Teaching- Chalk and talk method, Power Point Presentation, YouTube videos
Learning Pictures of sensors, actuators, microcontrollers (with manufacturer names)
Process
Self-study topics: Block diagrams of the architectures of RISC, CISC, Harvard and
Von-Neumann, Actuator types, LCD, Touch screen displays
JBOS 18.10.2021 / EC 30.10.2021

Module IV
Analog and Digital Communication – Modern communication system scheme, Information source, and
input transducer, Transmitter, Channel or Medium – Hardwired and Softwired, Noise, Receiver,
Multiplexing, Types of communication systems.
Text 3: 1.2, 1.2.1, 1.3, 1.4 – 1.4.1, 1.4.2, 1.5, 1.5.2, 1.6, 1.14, 1.15

From Summary portion of Chapter 1 of Text 3:

Types of modulation (only concepts) – AM (only 2.2, no 2.2.1 and rest), FM, Phase Modulation, Pulse
Modulation, PAM (Fig. 6.5b), PWM (Fig. 6.8), PPM, PCM.
Concept of Radio wave propagation (Ground, space, sky with Fig. 1.28)

From Summary portion of Chapter 6 – Digital Communication of Text 3:

Concepts of Sampling theorem, Nyquist rate, Digital Modulation Schemes (also see 6.12) – ASK, FSK,
PSK
Radio signal transmission – Text 3: 6A.1.1, Fig. 6A.1, Fig. 6A.3
Multiple access techniques – Text 3: 6A.1.4, 6A.1.5
Multipath and fading – Text 3: 6A.2.1
Error Management – Text 3: 6A.3.1, 6A.3.2
Antenna, Types of antennas – Text 3: 13.1, 13.3 (only definition and antenna model, exclude radiation
patterns).
Teaching- Chalk and talk method, PowerPoint Presentation, YouTube videos
Learning
Self-study topics: Multiplexing techniques – TDM, FDM, CDM, WDM, OFDM
Process
Module V
Cellular Wireless Networks - Introduction, cellular telephone system, cellular concept and frequency
reuse. Text 3: 8.1, 8.2, 8.3
Wireless Network Topologies - First Generation (1G) Technology, Second Generation (2G) Technology,
GSM Communications, GSM System architecture, Third Generation (3G) Technology, CDMA
Technology, High-level architecture of LTE, Fourth Generation (4G) Technology, Wireless LAN,
Bluetooth, Bluetooth Architecture. Text 3: 8.4, 8.5, 8.6, 8.7, 8.7.2, 8.9, 8.10, 8.12, 8.15, 8.16, 8.17, 8.17.1
Satellite Communication – Elements of Satellite Communication, Types of satellites – GEO, LEO, MEO.
Text 3: 9.1, 9.4, 9.12 - 9.12.1, 9.12.2, 9.12.3
Optical Fiber Communication - A fiber optic Communication system. Text 3: 10.15 – 10.15.1 to 10.15.9
Microwave Communication – Introduction, Frequency modulated microwave communication system.
Text 3: 11.1, 11.7.1
Teaching- Chalk and talk method, PowerPoint Presentation, YouTube videos
Learning
Self-study topics: 5G
Process
JBOS 18.10.2021 / EC 30.10.2021

Course outcomes (Course Skill Set):

At the end of the course the student will be able to:
1. Describe the concepts of electronic circuits encompassing power supplies, amplifiers and
oscillators.
2. Present the basics of digital logic engineering including data representation, circuits and the
microcontroller system with associated sensors and actuators.
3. Discuss the characteristics and technological advances of embedded systems.
4. Relate to the fundamentals of communication engineering spanning from the frequency spectrum
to the various circuits involved including antennas.
5. Explain the different modes of communications from wired to wireless and the computing
involved.
Assessment Details (both CIE and SEE)
The weightage of Continuous Internal Evaluation (CIE) is 50% and for Semester End Exam (SEE) is 50%.
The minimum passing mark for the CIE is 40% of the maximum marks (20 marks). A student shall be
deemed to have satisfied the academic requirements and earned the credits allotted to each
subject/ course if the student secures not less than 35% ( 18 Marks out of 50)in the semester-end
examination(SEE), and a minimum of 40% (40 marks out of 100) in the sum total of the CIE
(Continuous Internal Evaluation) and SEE (Semester End Examination) taken together
Continuous Internal Evaluation (CIE):
Proposed Activities to be carried out for 10 marks of CIE:
Students should construct and make the demo of the following circuits in a group of 3/4 students:
1. +5V power supply unit using Bridge rectifier, capacitor filter, and IC 7805.
2. To switch on/off an LED using a diode in forwarding / reverse bias using a battery cell.
3. Transistor switch circuit to operate a relay that switched off/on an LED.
4. IC 741 Integrator circuit / comparator circuit.
5. To operate a small loudspeaker by generating oscillations using IC 555.
Note: Following experiments to be executed using Multisim/Pspice/EDA/Proteus or any suitable
Software
Using suitable simulation software, demonstrate the operation of the following circuits:
1. Half / full-wave rectifier using diodes
2. Voltage multipliers
3. Op-amp circuits – inverting, non-inverting amplifiers, summers, differentiators, oscillators.
4. Flip-flops – all types
5. Shift registers and counters
6. AM and FM modulation and demodulation
The CIE marks awarded in the case of Laboratory shall be based on the weekly evaluation of laboratory
journals/ reports after the conduction of every experiment and one/ two practical test(s).
JBOS 18.10.2021 / EC 30.10.2021

Semester End Examination:

Theory SEE will be conducted by University as per the scheduled timetable, with common question
papers for the subject (duration 03 hours)
1. The question paper will have ten questions. Each question is set for 20 marks.
2. There will be 2 questions from each module. Each of the two questions under a module
(with a maximum of 3 sub-questions), should have a mix of topics under that
module.

The students have to answer 5 full questions, selecting one full question from each module

Suggested Learning Resources:

Text Books:
1. Mike Tooley, ‘Electronic Circuits, Fundamentals & Applications’, 4th Edition, Elsevier, 2015.
DOI https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315737980. eBook ISBN9781315737980
2. K V Shibu, ‘Introduction to Embedded Systems’, 2nd Edition, McGraw Hill Education (India),
Private Limited, 2016.
3. S L Kakani and Priyanka Punglia, ‘Communication Systems’, New Age International
Publisher, 2017. https://elib4u.ipublishcentral.com/pdfreader/communication-systems
4. D P Kothari, I J Nagrath, ‘Basic Electronics’, 2nd edition, McGraw Hill Education (India),
Private Limited, 2018.
Note: E-book versions are available at ‘https://www.knimbus.com/’ of the VTU consortium. Remote
login available through respective college IDs.

Activity-Based Learning (Suggested Activities in Class)/ Practical Based learning

Developing electronic applications using Raspberry Pi – Text 1: Chapter 18

Google Drive Link

https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/1aTCPv2Bf5M-k40IAYfE0cgZwBjcpAZcR?usp=sharing
 MODULE 1
Electronic Circuits
Power Supplies
Block diagram
Rectifiers
Reservoir and smoothing circuits
Full-wave rectifiers
Bi-phase rectifier circuits
Bridge rectifier circuits
Voltage regulators
Output resistance and voltage regulation
Voltage multipliers

Amplifiers
Types of amplifiers
Gain
Input and output resistance
Frequency response
Bandwidth
Phase shift
Negative feedback
Multi-stage amplifiers

Operational amplifiers
Operational amplifier parameters
Operational amplifier characteristics
Operational amplifier configurations
Operational amplifier circuits

Oscillators
Positive feedback
Conditions for oscillation
Ladder network oscillator
Wein bridge oscillator
Multivibrators
Single-stage astable oscillator
Crystal controlled oscillators

1 Basic Electronics and Communication Engineering (21ELN14/24)

2 Basic Electronics and Communication Engineering (21ELN14/24)
1.1 DC Power Supplies
Most of the electronic devices and circuits are operated by DC power supplies. It consist of main four
stages explained below.
Step down transformer: It is a device that has two coil windings: primary and secondary used to convert a
high AC voltage (230V/ 50Hz) to a required low AC voltage.
Rectifier: It is a device has one or more diodes, converts secondary AC voltage to pulsating DC.
Smoothening Filter: It is a circuit used to remove fluctuations (ripple or ac) present in rectifier output.
Example: Capacitor filters, LC filters, π- filters, etc..
Voltage Regulator: Voltage regulator is a circuit which provides constant DC output voltage irrespective of
changes in load current or changes in input voltage.

Fig.1. Block diagram of a DC power supply

Fig. 2, shows important electronic components that are used in the block diagram in fig. 1. Step-down
transformer is made of iron core, feeds a rectifier. Rectifier output is applied to a high value capacitor to
minimize ripples. Capacitor filter charges as the rectifier output voltage increases until its peak value. When
the voltage value reduces, it discharges gradually through the regulator. Finally, a series transistor regulator
and zener diode provides a constant output DC voltage.

Step-down Transformer Rectifier C Filter Voltage regulator

Fig.2. Block diagram of a DC power supply showing principal components used in each stage

1.1.1 Rectifiers
Semiconductor diodes are commonly used as rectifiers. It converts AC voltage into rippled DC
voltage. There are two types: Half-wave and full wave rectifiers.

Fig. 3 shows half-wave rectifier that allows one half of an AC waveform to pass through to the load.
AC voltage (240V r.m.s) is applied to the primary of step-down transformer (T1). The secondary of T1,

3 Basic Electronics and Communication Engineering (21ELN14/24)

reduces to 12V r.m.s. (Taking turns ratio: 240: 12 = 20:1). Diode D1 will allow current only in positive half
cycle being forward biased and operates as a closed switch, see fig. 3(b). For negative half cycle, current will
not allow passing through D1, because it is reverse biased and act like an open switch, see fig. 3(c).

Fig.3. (a) Half wave rectifier circuit (b) For + ve half cycle (closed switch) (c) For - ve half cycle (open switch)

The switching action of D1 results in pulsating output voltage available at load resistor (RL). During positive
half cycle, silicon diode will drop 0.6V to 0.7V as forward threshold voltage. During negative half cycle, D1
is reverse biased, hence secondary of T1 peak voltage will be dropped across it.

Analysis During +ve half cycle:

Secondary of T1 = 12V r.m.s voltage
Peak voltage across secondary windings:
Vpeak = 1.414 x Vrms
= 1.414 x 12 = 16.968V ~ 17V
Silicon diode drop voltage = 0.7V
Actual output voltage across load RL
= 17- 0.7 =16.3V
Fig.4 Illustration of actual output voltage across load RL

1.1.3 Smoothing (Reservoir) circuits

Smoothening circuit is a capacitor filter C1 connected in parallel to the load RL as shown in the fig.5.
It is used to remove fluctuations (ripple or ac) present in rectifier output. When 240V AC voltage is applied
to primary of T1, its secondary reduces to 12V r.m.s value and peak value is 16.3V.

During +ve half cycle of secondary voltage, diode is Vpeak = 16.3V

forward biased, C1 charges as the rectifier output
voltage increases to its peak value (16.3V).

When the rectifier voltage starts to decrease, C1

discharges slowly through the load RL, until the next
+ve half cycle is met.

Charging Discharging

Output voltage across RL

Fig. 5. a) Half wave smoothing circuit b) Input and output wave forms

4 Basic Electronics and Communication Engineering (21ELN14/24)

Charging Time of C1 to the peak value = Rseries x C1 Discharging Time of C1 = RL x C1
Rseries = Rsecondary winding + Rdiode + Rwiring and connections Practically, RL is very much larger than Rseries
Hence C1 charges quickly as soon as diode conducts. Hence C1 discharges slowly through RL.

Capacitor as reservoir: C1 stores charge during +ve half cycle of secondary Vpeak and releases it during –ve
half cycle, maintaining reasonably constant output voltage across RL. This causes to a small DC ripples at the
output. The DC ripples can be drastically reduced by choosing a larger C1 value in place of smaller value.
Improved ripple filters
In filers the value of the capacitor plays an important role in determining the output ripples and the average
DC level. If the capacitor value is high, the amount of charge it can store will be high and the amount it
discharges will be less. Thus the ripples will be less and the average dc level will be high.
Limitations of C filter
If the capacitor value is increased to a very high value, the amount of current required to charge the capacitor
will be high. So, diodes are subjected to high surge currents. Thus, there is a limit in increasing the capacitor
value in half-wave rectifiers.
Refinement of C filter (RC filter)
Additional components R1 and C2 are
connected as shown in the fig.6. C1 and C2
offer low reactance to AC components of
ripple. In effect R1 and C2 act like a
voltage divider and amount of ripple is
reduced. But certain amount of DC voltage
will drop across R1. The value of C2 is
selected in such way that it exhibits
negligible reactance at low frequencies Fig.6. Half wave rectifier with R1 and C2
(50Hz – 100Hz).
Amount of ripple reduction is determined by

Where, XC = reactance of C2.

Smoothing Filter
From the fig.7, at the ripple frequency, C1
exhibits low value of capacitive reactance.
Hence it bypasses most of AC components
of ripples. L1 exhibits high value of
inductive reactance, therefore it allows
most of DC components. Further, C1
bypasses remaining AC components
offering low value of capacitive reactance.
Thus the combined effect of L C greatly Fig.7. Half wave rectifier with R1 and LC filter
reduces the ripples.
Advantage: Half wave rectifier is cheap, simple and easy to construct.
Disadvantage:
1. Ripple factor is high at the output.
2. Rectification efficiency is quite low, that means, power is delivered only during one half cycle of
the input alternating voltage.
3. Transformer utilization factor is low.

5 Basic Electronics and Communication Engineering (21ELN14/24)

1.1.4 Full-wave rectifiers

Full-wave rectifier – there are two types:

• Bi-Phase or Center Tapped full wave rectifier - uses two diodes and center tapped power transformer.
• Bridge full wave rectifier - uses four diodes and ordinary power transformer.

Bi-phase Rectifier
The AC mains (240V) is applied to the primary of T1 which has two identical secondary windings each
providing 12V r.m.s, as shown in the fig.8.

Fig.8. Bi-phase rectifier circuit

On +ve half cycles, point A will be +ve with respect On -ve half cycles, point C will be +ve with respect
to point B. similarly, point B will be +ve with respect to point B. similarly, point B will be +ve with respect
to point C. to point A.
D1 will forward bias, acts like a closed switch hence D2 will forward bias, acts like a closed switch hence
conducts. While D2 will reverse bias, acts like an conducts. While, D1 will reverse bias, acts like an
open switch hence do not conduct. It is as shown in open switch hence do not conduct. It is as shown in
the fig. 9(a). the fig. 9(b).
Thus, D1 alone conducts on +ve half cycles. Thus, D2 alone conducts on -ve half cycles.

Fig.9. a) Bi-phase rectifier circuit for +ve half cycles b) Bi-phase rectifier circuit for -ve half cycles

6 Basic Electronics and Communication Engineering (21ELN14/24)

NOTE: i) Vpeak produced by each of secondary windings = 17V – 0.7V = 16.3V
ii) Pulses of voltage developed across RL = 100Hz (if primary is 50Hz)

Bi-phase rectifier with C filter

Two diodes D1 and D2 are used in this circuit. They feed a common load resistor RL, with the help of a center
tapped transformer as shown in the fig.10.

Fig.10. a) Bi-phase rectifier with C1 filter b) Input output wave forms

When diode D1 conduct, C1 charges to the peak value (16.3V) of the +ve half cycle. When diode D2 is in
non-conducting state, C1 discharges slowly through the load RL. Similarly, when diode D2 conduct, C1
charges to the peak value of the -ve half cycle and C1 starts to discharge during diode D1 non-conducting
state. Note that in this case capacitor C1 charge and discharge twice through RL during one full cycle.
Charging Time of C1 to the peak value = Rseries x C1 Discharging Time of C1 = RL x C1
Rseries = Rsecondary winding + Rdiode + Rwiring and connections Practically, RL is very much larger than Rseries
Hence C1 charges quickly as soon as diode conducts. Hence C1 discharges slowly through RL.
Disadvantages of Bi-phase Rectifier:
• It is difficult to construct and locate the center-tap on secondary winding of the transformer.
• The diodes used must have high PIV.

Bridge Rectifier Circuits

Bridge full wave rectifier employs four diodes, but only two diodes will conduct during each half cycle.
The AC mains (240V) is applied to the primary of T1
and secondary windings providing 12V r.m.s, as shown
in the fig.11.

Fig.11. a) Bridge rectifier b) Input output wave forms

7 Basic Electronics and Communication Engineering (21ELN14/24)

During positive half cycle:
Point A will be +ve with respect to point B, then diodes D1D2 are forward biased act like closed switches, and
hence conduct. While, diodes D3D4 are reverse biased act like open switches, hence do not conduct.
During negative half cycle:
Point B will be +ve with respect to point A, then diodes D3D4 are forward biased act like closed switches, and
hence conduct. While, diodes D1D2 are reverse biased act like open switches, hence do not conduct.
In both +ve and –ve half cycles current IL flow through load resistance RL. The complete input-output voltage
waveforms of the bridge full wave rectifier are shown in fig. 11(b).
Bridge rectifier with capacitor filter works very similar to that of bi-phase rectifier circuit.

1.1.5 Voltage Regulators

Voltage regulator is a device by which output voltage VO, is maintained constant regardless of change in the
input voltage Vin or load RL. The circuit diagram of the zener diode as a simple voltage regulator is shown in
the fig.12.

Fig.12. a) Simple block diagram of voltage regulator b) Zener diode shunt voltage regulator

The series resistor, RS is connected in the circuit to limit the current through the zener diode to a safe value
when load RL is disconnected. Also, the voltage drop across it is a part of unregulated input voltage, Vin. When
RL is connected, zener current IZ will reduce as current (I = Iz + IL) is split into load RL.
Output voltage VO, remains constant until regulation fails. Regulation fails at a point at which potential
divider formed by RS and RL produces lower voltage than VZ voltage.

Series Resistor value (ohms) = (Vi – Vz) / (Zener current + load current). Maximum value of RS can be
calculated as,
and

Also,

The zener diode conducts the least current (Iz (min)) when the load current IL is maximum and it conducts the
maximum current when the load current is minimum, I = Iz + IL.

The power dissipation of Zener diode is described as:

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1.1.6 Output resistance and voltage regulation
In a perfect power supply output voltage (VO), remain constant regardless of the current taken by the
load. However practically, VO reduces as load current increases. This is due to internal resistance (ri) of the
power supply. That means, this internal resistance appears at the output of the power supply. It is defined as

The regulation of a power supply is given by

Ideally, the value of the regulation should be very small. Various regulators produce value of regulation as
tabulated below:
Sl.No Type of regulator Regulation in %
1 Zener shunt 5 to 10
2 Sophisticated circuits based on
discrete components 1 to 5
3 Integrated Circuit (IC) Lesser than 1%

1.1.7 Voltage multipliers

Voltage multiplier is a modified capacitor filter circuit that delivers a dc voltage twice or rnore times of the
peak value of the input AC voltage. Such power supplies are used for high-voltage and low-current devices such as
cathode-ray tubes (the picture tubes in TV receivers, oscilloscopes and computer display).

Voltage Doubler
The circuit diagram for a full-wave voltage doubler is given in the fig.13. Assume in the beginning all capacitors
are cleared (stored 0V).
During the +ve half cycle of VIN voltage, diode D1 gets forward biased (conducts) and charging the capacitor C1 to
a peak voltage Vpeak with polarity indicated in the figure, while diode D2 is reverse-biased and does not conduct.
During the -ve half-cycle, diode D2 being forward biased (conducts) and charges the capacitor C2 with polarity
shown in the figure, while diode D1 does not conduct.

Fig.13. Voltage Doubler circuit

With no load connected to the output terminals, the output voltage will be equal to sum of voltages across
capacitors C1 and C2. i.e., VC1 + VC2 = 2 VIN
When the load is connected to the output terminals, the output voltage VL will be less than 2 VIN.
Vout = 2VIN – voltages drop across diodes

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Voltage Tripler
The voltage doubler can be extended to produce 3 times voltages (Tripler) using the cascade
arrangement shown in Fig. 14. Here C1 charges to the positive secondary voltage VIN, while C2 and C3
charge to twice the positive secondary voltage. The result is that the output voltage is the sum of the voltages
across C1 and C3 which is three times the voltage that would be produced by a single diode.

Fig.14. Voltage Tripler circuit

Assume in the beginning all capacitors are cleared (stored 0V).

During the first positive half cycle, diode D1 conducts (forward biased) and capacitor C1 gets charged the V IN
of secondary.
During the negative half cycle, diode D2 is forward biased and diode D1 is reverse biased. D1 does not let
discharge the capacitor C1, so voltage across C1 = VIN. The capacitor C2 gets charged with the combined
voltage of C1 (VIN) and negative peak voltage of secondary voltage, so, C2 gets charged to 2VIN.

During the second positive half cycle, diode D1 and D3 conduct and D2 get reverse biased. So, the capacitor
C2 charges the capacitor C3 up to 2VIN. Now, as we can see that the capacitors C1 and C3 are in series so the
total voltage across these capacitors is VIN + 2VIN = 3VIN. This is how the tripled value of the applied voltage
available at the output. Practically, some of the voltage drops across the diodes.

Vout = 3VIN – voltages drop across diodes

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 Amplifiers
Types of amplifiers
Amplifier is an electronic circuit which increases the amplitude of its input signal without changing other
parameters.
AC coupled amplifiers
In AC coupled amplifiers, stages are coupled together in such a way that DC levels are blocked and only the
AC components of a signal are transferred from stage to stage.

DC coupled amplifiers
In DC (or direct) coupled amplifiers, stages are coupled together in such a way that stages are not isolated to
DC potentials. Both AC and DC signal components are transferred from stage to stage.

Large-signal amplifiers
Large-signal amplifiers are designed to cater for appreciable voltage and/or current levels (typically from 1 V
to 100 V or more).

Small-signal amplifiers
Small-signal amplifiers are designed to cater for low-level signals (normally less than 1 V and often much
smaller). Small-signal amplifiers have to be specially designed to combat the effects of noise.

Audio frequency amplifiers

Audio frequency amplifiers operate in the band of frequencies that is normally associated with audio signals
(e.g. the range of human hearing 20 Hz to 20 kHz).

Wideband amplifiers
Wideband amplifiers are capable of amplifying a very wide range of frequencies, typically from a few tens of
hertz to several megahertz.

Radio frequency amplifiers

Radio frequency amplifiers operate in the band of frequencies that is normally associated with radio signals
(e.g. from 100 kHz to over 1 GHz). Note that it is desirable for amplifiers of this type to be frequency
selective and thus their frequency response may be restricted to a relatively narrow band of frequencies (see
fig.15).

Fig.15. Frequency response and bandwidth (output power plotted against frequency)

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Low-noise amplifiers
Low-noise amplifiers are designed so that they contribute negligible noise (signal disturbance) to the signal
being amplified. These amplifiers are usually designed for use with very small signal levels (usually less than
10 mV or so).
Voltage Amplifier Current amplifier Power amplifier
The purpose of a voltage amplifier The purpose of a current amplifier In a power amplifier, the product
is to make the amplitude of the is to make the amplitude of the of voltage and current (i.e. power
output voltage waveform greater output current waveform greater = voltage x current) at the output is
than that of the input voltage than that of the input current greater than the product of voltage
waveform. waveform. x current at the input.

1.2.2 Amplifier Parameters

Gain: The amount of amplification (or gain) is simply the ratio of output voltage to input voltage, output
current to input current, or output power to input power (see Fig. 7.2). These three ratios give, respectively,
the voltage gain, current gain and power gain.

Power is the product of current and voltage (P = I V ),

Input resistance (Rin): Inputresistance is the ratio of input voltage to input current and it is expressed in Ω.
The input of an amplifier is normally purely resistive (i.e. any reactive component is negligible) in the middle
of its working frequency range (i.e. the mid-band). In some cases, the reactance of the input may become
appreciable (e.g. if a large value of stray capacitance appears in parallel with the input resistance). In such
cases we would refer to input impedance rather than input resistance.

Output resistance (Rout): Output resistance is the ratio of open-circuit output voltage to short-circuit output
current, measured in Ω.
As with input resistance, the output of an amplifier is
normally purely resistive and we can safely ignore
any reactive component. If this is not the case, we
would once again need to refer to output impedance
rather than output resistance.
[Note: This resistance is internal to the amplifier and
should not be confused with the resistance of a load
connected externally]

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Frequency response: It is the graph plotted for gain verses input frequency of an amplifier. The frequency
response of an amplifier is usually specified in terms of the upper (f2) and lower (f1) cut-off frequencies of the
amplifier. These frequencies are those at which the output power has dropped to 50% (otherwise known as the
−3 dB points) or where the voltage gain has dropped to 70.7% of its mid-band value. Fig. 16 show how the
bandwidth can be expressed in terms of either power or voltage.

Fig.16. Frequency response and bandwidth a) output power Vs frequency b) output voltage Vs frequency

Bandwidth: The bandwidth of an amplifier is usually taken as the difference between the upper and lower cut-
off frequencies (i.e. f2 − f1 in Fig.16). The range of frequencies within a band is known as bandwidth.

Example: Audio amplifiers have a flat frequency response (as shown in fig.17) over the audio range of
frequencies from 20 Hz to 20 kHz. This range of frequencies, for an audio amplifier is called its Bandwidth,
(BW).
The bandwidth of an amplifier must be sufficient to accommodate the range of frequencies present within the
signals that it is to be presented with.

Fig.17. Mid-band voltage gain, upper and lower cut-off frequencies of amplifier with frequency response

Phase shift: Phase shift is the phase angle between the input and output signal voltages measured in degrees.
The measurement is usually carried out in the mid-band where, for most amplifiers, the phase shift remains
relatively constant. Note also that conventional single-stage transistor amplifiers provide phase shifts of either
180° or 360°.
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1.2.3 Negative feedback

Many practical amplifiers use negative feedback in order to precisely control the gain, reduce distortion and
improve bandwidth. The gain can be reduced to a manageable value by feeding back a small proportion of the
output. The amount of feedback determines the overall (or closed-loop) gain. The form of feedback has the
effect of reducing the overall gain of the circuit, is known as negative feedback.

An alternative form of feedback, where the output is fed back in such a way as to reinforce the input (rather
than to subtract from it) is known as positive feedback.

A= Vo/Vin
Vo=A Vin, where Vin=VS –Vf
and Vf = βVo
Vo = A(Vs – βVo)
Vo =AVs – A βVo
Vo + A βVo =AVs
AVs =Vo (1+Aβ)
So, the equation of overall gain with
negative feedback is given by

Fig.18. Amplifier with negative feedback applied

Fig.18 shows the block diagram of an amplifier stage with negative feedback applied. In this circuit, the
proportion of the output voltage fed back to the input is given by β and the overall voltage gain will be given
by:

1.2.4 Multi-stage amplifiers

Output of first stage is connected to the input of the second stage through a suitable coupling
device and so on. In order to provide sufficiently large values of gain, it is frequently necessary to use a
number of interconnected stages within an amplifier.

The overall gain of an amplifier with several stages (i.e. a multi-stage amplifier) is simply the product of the
individual voltage gains. Hence:
AV = AV1 × AV2 × AV3, etc.

Note, however, that the bandwidth of a multistage amplifier will be less than the bandwidth of each individual
stage. In other words, an increase in gain can only be achieved at the expense of a reduction in bandwidth.

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Types of coupling

Coupling devices transfer energy from one stage to the other.

(a) In RC coupling
Resistor (R) used as load impedance and capacitor (C) is used as the coupling element. The capacitor (C)
connects the output of one stage to the input of the next stage which allows the AC signal while blocking
the DC voltages. Since the DC resistance of R is high, the efficiency of the amplifier is decreased.

Disadvantage: i) Causes loss for the low frequency signals.

ii) Difficult to match the impedance from stage to stage

(b) In L–C coupling

Inductance (L) as load impedance and capacitance(C) used as coupling elements. The capacitor connects
the output of one stage to the input of the next stage which allows the AC signal while blocking the DC
voltages. The impedance of coupling coil (L) depends on its inductance and signal frequency. Since the
DC resistance of the coil (L) is low, the efficiency of the amplifier is increased.

Disadvantage: only used in RF and high-frequency amplifiers.

(c) In transformer coupling

Transformer is used as the coupling device. The transformer coupling provides two functions: i) to pass
AC signal and blocking DC and ii) permits impedance matching.

Disadvantage: i) Coupling transformer is expensive and bulky

ii) Transformers tend to produce hum noise
iii) It has a poor frequency response

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 Operational amplifiers
The integrated-circuit operational-amplifier is the fundamental building block for many electronic
circuits. An op-amp is a multi-stage, direct coupled, high gain negative feedback amplifier used to amplify
AC and DC input signals.
➢ The main applications of op-amp: Active filters, oscillators, peak detector, comparators, voltage
regulators, precision rectifiers, instrumentation and control systems, pulse generators, square wave
generators etc.

PIN DIAGRAM OF µA 741

Pin 2: Inverting (- ve) terminal

Pin 3: Non-Inverting (+ve)
terminal
Pin 4: - ve power supply (- VEE)
Pin 5: +ve power supply (+VCC)
Pin 6: Output terminal (Vout)
Pins 1& 5: Offset null and
pin 8: not connected (NC)
Fig. 3.1 (a) Basic pin-out of Op-amp (b) circuit symbol (c) pin description

The ‘+’ sign indicates zero phase shift while the ‘-’ sign indicates 180° phase shift. Since 180° phase shift
produces an inverted waveform, the ‘-’ input is often referred to as the inverting input. Similarly, the ‘+’
input is known as the non-inverting input.

1.3.1 Operational amplifier parameters

Open-loop voltage gain, (Aol):

It is the internal voltage gain of the device and represents the ratio of output voltage to input voltage when
there are no external components.
Ideal value: ∞ Practical Value: 2 x 105
The open-loop voltage gain is often expressed in decibels (dB) rather than as a ratio.

Most operational amplifiers have open-loop voltage gains of 90 dB or more.

Closed-loop voltage gain(Acl):
The closed-loop voltage gain of an operational amplifier is defined as the ratio of output voltage to input
voltage measured with a small proportion of the output fed-back to the input (i.e. with feedback applied). The
effect of providing negative feedback is to reduce the loop voltage gain. Value of Acl is very much less than
value of Aol.

Input resistance
The input resistance of an operational amplifier is defined as the ratio of input voltage to input current
expressed in ohms.
Ideal value: ∞ Practical value: 2 MΩ for bipolar operational amplifiers and 1012 Ω for CMOS operational
amplifiers.

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Output resistance
The output resistance of an operational amplifier is defined as the ratio of open-circuit output voltage to short-
circuit output current expressed in ohms.
Ideal value: 0, Practical values range from less than 10 Ω to around 100 Ω.

Input offset voltage

Practically, a small DC voltage will appear at the output of amplifier when no input voltage (or 0V) is applied.
Thus, differential (very small) voltage is required between the inputs to make the output to 0V.
Input offset voltage may be minimized by applying relatively large amounts of negative feedback or by using
the offset null facility provided by a number of operational amplifier devices.
Ideal value: 0 Typical values range from 1 mV to 15 mV.

Full-power bandwidth
It is the range of frequencies at which the maximum undistorted Vpeak swing falls to 0.707 of its low-
frequency (DC) value.
Typical full-power bandwidths range from 10 kHz to over 1 MHz

Slew Rate (SR)

The slew rate of an operational amplifier is the rate of change of output voltage with time in response to a
perfect step-function input. Slew rate describes how fast the output voltage responds to an immediate change
in input voltage. Slew rate is measured in V/s (or V/μs) and typical values range from 0.2 V/µs to over 20
V/µs.

1.3.2 Operational amplifier characteristics

Characteristics for an ‘ideal’ operational amplifier are:
(a) The open-loop voltage gain should be very high (ideally infinite).
(b) The input resistance should be very high (ideally infinite).
(c) The output resistance should be very low (ideally zero).
(d) Full-power bandwidth should be as wide as possible.
(e) Slew rate should be as large as possible.
(f) Input offset should be as small as possible.

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 Comparison of operational amplifier parameters for ‘ideal’ and ‘real’ devices

Some common examples of integrated circuit operational amplifiers

1.3.3 Operational amplifier configurations

1) Inverting operational Amplifier
Input signal Vin is applied to the inverting terminal of the amplifier and output Vout is inverted version
(180o phase shift) of input Vin.

Vout = - Vin

2) Non-inverting operational Amplifier

Input signal Vin is applied to the non-inverting terminal of the amplifier and output Vout is non-inverted
version (0o phase shift) of input Vin.

Vout = - Vin

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 3) Differential amplifiers
Differential amplifiers amplify the difference between two input voltage signals of V1 and V2.

Vout = V2 – V1

Effect of input and feedback capacitors

By selecting appropriate values of capacitor, the frequency response of an inverting operational voltage
amplifier may be very easily modified to suit a particular set of requirements. The lower cut-off frequency is
determined by the value of the input capacitance, CIN, and input resistance, RIN.

The upper cut-off frequency will be determined by the feedback capacitance, CF, and feedback resistance, RF,

Fig.19 Effect of adding capacitors, CIN and CF, to modify the frequency response of an operational amplifier

1.3.4 Operational amplifier circuits

Voltage follower OPAMP

Output voltage Vout follows the input voltage Vin so the circuit is named as op-amp voltage follower. The
output is connected directly back to the (-) inverting input so that the feedback is 100% and Vin is exactly
equal to Vout . It is shown in the fig. If voltage Vin increases, voltage Vout increases. On the other hand, if
voltage Vin decreases, voltage Vout also decreases. It provides an effective isolation of the output from the
signal source that eliminating the loading effect of the second circuit from the first circuit.

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Properties of Voltage follower
➢ Voltage gain = 1 Vout = VIN
➢ Input impedance Rin = ∞
➢ Output impedance Rout = 0
➢ Effective isolation of the output from the signal source.

Differentiator amplifier

Differentiator produces output voltage (Vout) is proportional to the rate of change of the input voltage Vin. An op-amp
differentiator is an inverting amplifier, which uses a capacitor C in series with the input voltage V in and a
feedback resistor R is connected between Vout and inverting (-) input.

If input is a square wave to a differentiator, output is pulses.

Integrator Amplifier

Integrator produces output voltage Vout, is proportional to the integral of the input voltage Vin. An op-amp
integrator is an inverting amplifier, which uses a resistor R in series with the input voltage Vin and a capacitor
C is connected between Vout and inverting (-) input as feedback.

If input is a square wave, output of an integrator is a triangular (inverted) wave.

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Comparator
OPAMP voltage comparator compares the magnitudes of two voltage inputs and determines which is the
larger of the two.

➢ Referring the fig.3.11, assume ( VIN < VREF ).

➢ As the non-inverting (positive) input of the comparator is less than the inverting (negative) input, the
output will be the negative supply voltage, -Vcc resulting in a negative saturation of the output.
➢ When (VIN > VREF) , the output voltage rapidly switches HIGH towards the positive supply
voltage, +Vcc resulting in a positive saturation of the output.

Voltage comparator using OPAMP

➢ Suppose the input voltage VIN, is decreased slightly less than VREF, the op-amp’s output switches back to
its negative saturation voltage acting as a threshold detector.
Then it is seen that the op-amp voltage comparator is a device whose output is dependent on the value of the input
voltages.
Summing Opamp

The inverting summing or adder op-amp circuit for

three inputs is shown in the fig. 3.7.
The output voltage, Vout is proportional to the
algebraic sum of the input voltages, V1, V2. Input
signals V1 and V2 are applied to the inverting input
of the op-amp through input resistors.
Inverting summing op-amp circuit
Vout = - (V1 + V2)

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 Oscillators
Negative feedback can be applied to an amplifier to form the basis of a stage which has a precisely controlled
gain. Similarly, positive feedback can be applied to an oscillator, where the output is fed back in such a way
as to reinforce the input.

1.4.1Positive feedback
Fig. 20, shows the block diagram of an amplifier stage with positive feedback applied. Note that the amplifier
provides a phase shift of 180° and the feedback network provides a further 180°. Thus the overall phase shift
is 0°.
A= Vo/Vin
Vo=A Vin, where Vin=VS +Vf
and Vf = βVo
Vo = A(Vs +βVo)
Vo =AVs + A βVo
Vo - A βVo =AVs → AVs =Vo (1- Aβ)
So, the equation of overall gain with
negative feedback is given by

Fig.20 Amplifier with positive feedback applied

The overall voltage gain, G, is given by:

Now consider what will happen when the loop gain, βAv, approaches just less than 1 (say, 0.99). The
denominator (1 - βAv) will become close to zero. This will have the effect of increasing the overall gain, i.e.
the overall gain with positive feedback applied will be greater than the gain without feedback.

Illustration of effect of negative and positive feedback upon overall voltage gain

Overall voltage gain with negative feedback Overall voltage gain with positive feedback
Amplifier gain
Av = 9
feedback, β = 0.1
Amplifier gain
Av = 10
feedback, β = 0.1

1.4.2 Conditions for oscillation (Barkhausen's criteria for oscillation)

Oscillator is a device that generates continuous and periodic waveforms without taking input signal.
The conditions for oscillation are:
(a) the feedback must be positive
(i.e. the phase shift must be 0o or 360o.);
(b) the overall loop voltage gain must be greater than 1
(i.e. the amplifier’s gain must be sufficient to overcome the losses associated with any frequency selective
feedback network). Hence, to create an oscillator we simply need an amplifier with sufficient gain to
overcome the losses of the network that provide positive feedback.

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1.4.3 RC Ladder oscillator

RC Phase shift oscillator shown in fig.21, consists of a BJT amplifier (TR1) and three RC sections of phase
shift network. At some particular frequency f0, the phase shift in each RC section is 60º so that the total phase-
shift produced by the RC network is 180º. Amplifier produces another 180º phase shift. As a result, the phase
shift around the entire loop is 360º.

Fig.21 Sine wave oscillator based on a three stage C–R ladder network

That means, the loss associated with the ladder network is 29, thus the amplifier must provide a gain of at
least 29 in order for the circuit to oscillate.

1.4.4 Wien bridge oscillator

The output of the OPAMP is fed back to Wien bridge feedback circuit with respect to points A and Bas shown
in fig.22. Points C and D provide – ve and + ve inputs to the OPAMP. A phase shift of 180º is produced by
inverting OPAMP. A further phase shift of 180º is produced by the RC feedback bridge circuit. As a result,
the phase shift around the entire loop is 360º.

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 Fig.22 Sine wave oscillator based on a Wien bridge Oscillator
Particular frequency at which the values of the resistance and the capacitive reactance will become equal,
producing maximum output voltage.

The minimum amplifier gain required to sustain oscillation is given by

In most cases, C1 = C 2 and R1 = R2, hence the minimum amplifier gain will be 3.

1.4.5 Multivibrators

Multivibrators are a family of oscillator circuits that produce output waveforms consisting of one or more
rectangular pulses. The term ‘multivibrator’ simply originates from the fact that this type of waveform is rich
in harmonics (i.e. ‘multiple vibrations’).
Multivibrators use regenerative (i.e. positive) feedback; the active devices present within the oscillator circuit
being operated as switches, being alternately cut-off and driven into saturation.
The main types of multivibrator are:

(a) Astable multivibrators that provide a continuous train of pulses (these are sometimes also referred to as
free-running multivibrators);

(b) Monostable multivibrators that produce a single output pulse (they have one stable state and are thus
sometimes also referred to as ‘one-shot’);

(c) Bistable multivibrators that have two stable states and require a trigger pulse or control signal to change
from one state (T1) to another (T2).

1.4.6 Single-stage astable oscillator

An astable oscillator that produces a square wave output can be built using one operational amplifier, as
shown in Fig. 23. The circuit employs positive feedback with the output fed back to the non-inverting input
via the potential divider formed by R1 and R2.

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 When VO = +VCC , capacitor charges towards VUT When VO = -VCC , capacitor charges towards VLT
Fig. 23 Single-stage astable oscillator using an operational amplifier

When power is turned ON, output VO normally swings either to +Vcc or to -Vcc.
Assume: i) C is initially uncharged
ii) VO = +VCC
The upper threshold voltage (the maximum +ve value at the inverting input) will be given by:

The lower threshold voltage (the maximum -ve value at the inverting input) will be given by:

Capacitor C charges through R and the voltage VC rise exponentially. As voltage across the capacitor is just
greater than VUT, the output voltage will rapidly fall to −VCC.
Capacitor C will then start to discharge through R and the voltage VC, fall exponentially. As voltage across the
capacitor is slightly lesser than VLT, the output voltage will rise rapidly to +VCC.
This cycle will continue indefinitely.

Finally, the time for one complete cycle of the output waveform produced by the astable oscillator is given by:

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1.4.7 Crystal controlled oscillators

To obtain a very high level of oscillator stability a Quartz Crystal is generally used as the frequency
determining device to produce high frequency stability in oscillators. Such oscillators are called as crystal
oscillators.
The quartz crystal (a thin slice of quartz in a hermetically sealed
enclosure, see Fig.) vibrates whenever a potential difference is
applied across its faces (this phenomenon is known as the
piezoelectric effect). The frequency of oscillation is determined
by the crystal’s ‘cut’ and physical size.
Crystals can be manufactured for operation in fundamental
mode over a frequency range extending from 100 kHz to around
20 MHz.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
PART-1: POWER SUPPLIES

1. What is a regulated power supply? With neat block diagram explain the working of DC power supply.
Also mention the principal components used in each block.
2. With neat circuit diagram and waveforms explain half wave rectifier and full wave bridge rectifiers.
3. Define rectifier. Explain a biphase full wave rectifier. Show the appropriate waveforms.
4. Discuss the need of filter circuit. With circuit diagram and waveforms explain the operation of
smoothing C – filter for half wave rectifier.
5. What is voltage regulator? With neat circuit diagram, explain the operation of a voltage regulator
using zener diode.
6. A mains transformer having a turns ratio of 22:1 is connected to a 220 V r.m.s. mains supply. If the
secondary output is applied to a half-wave rectifier, determine i) secondary r.m.s voltage ii) peak
voltage and iii) regulated DC voltage across load.
7. A half wave rectifier uses a silicon diode is fed from a supply of 240 V, 50 Hz with step down
transformer of ratio 3:1. Resistive load connected is 10 KΩ. The diode forward resistance is 75Ω and
transformer secondary is 10 Ω. Calculate i) secondary r.m.s voltage ii) peak voltage and iii) regulated
DC voltage across load.
8. The RC smoothing filter in a 50 Hz mains operated a half-wave rectifier circuit consists of R1 = 150Ω
and C2 = 1,000F. If 1 V of ripple appears at the input of the circuit, determine the amount of ripple
appearing at the output.
9. A 5V zener diode has a maximum rated power dissipation of 500 mW. If the diode is to be used in a
simple regulator circuit to supply a regulated 5V to a load having a resistance of 500 Ω, determine a
suitable value of series resistor for operation in conjunction with a supply of 9V.
10. What is voltage multiplier? With circuit diagram explain the operation of voltage doubler.
PART-2: AMPLFIERS

11. What is an amplifier? Explain the types of amplifiers.

12. Explain the parameters (characteristics) of amplifier.
13. What is the need of coupling? Explain the types of coupling in multi-stage amplifiers.
14. Mention advantages of negative feedback in amplifiers circuits. With relevant equations and diagram
explain the concept of negative feedback.

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15. Write a note on frequency response characteristics of an amplifier circuit, clearly mentioning the half
power frequencies
PART-3: OPERATIONAL AMPLFIERS (OPAMPS)

16. Explain characteristics of OPAMP with practical (real) values.

17. Draw neat circuit diagram, input output waveforms and output voltage expressions of the following
OPAMPs i) inverting amplifier, ii) non-inverting amplifier, iii) differentiator iv) integrator and v)
summing amplifier.
18. Sketch the circuit of each of the following based on the use of operational amplifiers
(a) comparator (b) a differentiator (c) an integrator (d) Inverting Amplifier.
19. With circuit diagram explain OPAMP voltage follower.
20. With circuit diagram and waveform show how operational amplifier can work as a comparator

PART-4: OSCILLATORS
21. What is feedback system? With neat diagrams explain the types of feedback systems
22. Explain the criteria for oscillations.
23. Explain the operation of a three-stage ladder RC network oscillator and Wein bridge oscillator.
24. Determine the frequency of oscillation of a three-stage ladder RC network oscillator in which C =10 ηF
and R = 10 kΩ.
25. The frequency sensitivity arms of the Wein bridge oscillator uses C1 = C2 = 0.01μF and R1=10KΩ
while R2 is kept variable. The frequency is to be varied from 10 KHz to 50 KHz by varying R2. Find
the minimum and maximum values of R2.
26. With suitable diagrams explain single stage astable multi-vibrator using operational amplifier.

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 MODULE 2
Logic Circuits
Logic
gates
Bistables
R-S Bistables
D-type
Bistables J-K
Bistables

Data
representation
Data types
Data storage

Microcontroller system
Realization using basic gates and
truth table Half Adder
Full
Adder
Multiplex
er
Decoder
Shift registers
Register type – operation and
truth table Counters and
asynchronous counters

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2.1 Logic gates
Logic gate is digital basic circuit designed to produce the basic logic functions, AND, OR, etc. The inputs of
any gate are driven by voltage levels 0 V and 5 V representing logic 0 and logic 1, respectively. Logic
Systems consists of Gates and Flip-flops. Flip-flops are memory devices capable of storing logic constants.

Buffers
• Buffers do not affect the logical state of a digital
signal.
• A logic 1 input results in a logic 1 output
whereas a logic 0 input results in a logic 0
output.
• Buffers are used to provide extra current drive at
the output.
• The Boolean expression for the output : Y = X

Inverters
• Inverters are used to complement the logical
state.
• A logic 1 input results in a logic 0 output and
vice versa.
The Boolean expression for the output, Y, of an
Inverter with an input, X, is: Y=

AND gates

• AND gates will only produce a logic 1 if both

inputs are logic 1, Otherwise output is logic 0.
• The Boolean expression for the output,
Y=A∙B

OR gates
• OR gates will produce a logic 0 if both inputs
are LOW, Otherwise output is logic 1
• The Boolean expression for the output, Y, of
an OR gate with inputs A and B is: Y = A + B

NAND gates

• NAND (NOT-AND) gates will only produce a

logic 0 output when all inputs are simultaneously
at logic 1. Otherwise, produce a logic 1 output.
• The circle shown at the output denotes inversion.
• The Boolean expression for the output: Y=

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NOR gates

• NOR (NOT-OR) gates will produce a logic

1 output when all inputs are simultaneously
at logic 0. Otherwise it produces a logic 0
output.
• The Boolean expression for the output,
Y=
Exclusive OR Gates

• Exclusive-OR gates will produce output logic

1, if both inputs are different. Otherwise,
output is logic 0, if both inputs are same.
• The Boolean expression for the output
Y=A + B

2.2 Combinational logic circuits

By using a standard range of logic levels (i.e. voltage levels used to represent the logic 1 and logic 0 states)
logic circuits can be combined in order to solve complex logic functions.

Example 1
A logic circuit is to be constructed that will produce a logic 1 output whenever two or more of its three inputs are at
logic 1.

Example 2
Construct an exclusive or gate using only (AND, OR and NOT) basic gates.

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2.3 Bistables (Flip-Flops)

Bitable is one-bit memory circuit that has two stable states (logic 0 or logic 1) and, it will remain in its latched
state (set or reset) until a signal is applied to it in order to change its state.

R-S bistables

This device has two inputs, SET and RESET, and complementary outputs, Q and . A logic 1 applied to the
SET input will cause the Q output to become logic 1 ( = 0) while a logic 1 applied to the RESET input will
cause the Q output to become (or remain at) logic 0 ( = 1).

When Set = Reset = 0; output of RS FF, Q = 0; so output Q remains as previous output , therefore, FF is in the
hold mode. In the hold mode, the data inputs have no effect on the outputs.
Reset state: When Set = 0, Reset = 1; output of RS FF, Q = 0; which RESETs the flip flop.
Set State: When Set = 1, Reset = 0; output of SR FF, Q = 1; which SETs the flip flop.
Invalid state: When Set = 1, Reset = 1; output of SR FF, Q = = 0, so it is invalid.

D-type bistables

The D-type bistable has two inputs: D (‘data’ or ‘delay’) and CLOCK (CLK). The data input (logic 0 or logic
1) is clocked into the bistable such that the output state only changes when the clock changes the state.
Operation is thus said to be synchronous.

Block diagram of D Type Bistable

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 Truth Table for the D-type Flip Flop

Symbols ↓ and ↑ indicates the direction of the clock pulse.

Whenever the CLK signal is LOW, the input is never going to affect the output state. Any logic state of the
input (D) will appear at output Q only if the rising edge of the clock is applied. Thus, D flip-flop is a
controlled Bi-stable latch where the clock signal is the control signal.

J-K bistables

J-K bistables have two clocked inputs (J and K), two direct inputs (PRESET and CLEAR), a CLOCK (CK)
input, and outputs (Q and Q). PRESET input is used to directly put logic 1 at Q output. CLEAR input is used
to directly logic 0 at Q output on the JK Flip-Flop.

Block diagram of JK Bistable

• When Preset input is 0, the output Q is set to 1, independent of clock pulse.

• When Clear input is 0, the output Q is reset to 0, independent of clock pulse.
• If both preset and clear is 0 at the same time, the output Q of flip flop states becomes X (Don’t Care),
independent of clock pulse.

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 Preset Clear Clock
J K Output comments
(Pr) (Cr) (CK)
0 0 X X X Q Intermediate
0 1 X X X Q=0 Q changes to 0 (reset) regardless of the clock state
1 0 X X X Q=1 Q changes to 1 (set) regardless of the clock state
0 0 Q No change in state of the Q
1 1
1 0 1 Q output changes to 1 (i.e. Q is set)
0 1 0 Q output changes to 0 (i.e. Q is reset)
1 1 Q output changes to the opposite state

• If both preset and clear is 1 at the same time, the output Q of flip flop is controlled by clock and JK
inputs. That means, in order for J and K inputs the clock to be applied, the CLEAR and PRESET
inputs must be at logic 1.
J-K bistables overcome the invalid state of R S bistable and it can be used in binary dividers, shift registers
and latches.

2.4 Data Representation, Data types and Data storage

Data Representation: The decimal number system is used in general communication. Computers use binary
number system; they can store and process data in terms of 0s and 1s only. Binary numbers particularly large
group of bits are not very convenient to handle. To make numbers easier to handle we often convert binary
numbers to hexadecimal (base 16). The details of these number systems are given in the table 1.
Table 1
Number System Radix / base Digits / symbols Example: with power notation
1. Decimal 10 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9 (338.6)10 3x102+3x101+8x100. 6x10-1

2. Binary 2 0,1 (110.10)2 1x22+1x21+0x20. 1x2-1+0x2-2

3. Hexadecimal 16 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F (4AB.2)16 4x162+10x161+11x160. 2x16-1

Nibble: group of four bits (or single hex character) Ex: 1001, 1101
Byte: group of eight bits (Represented by 2 hex characters). Ex: 11101011, 01101100
Word: A group of 16 bits (a word) can be represented by four hex characters, 32 bits (a double word by eight
hex characters, and so on).
The value of a byte expressed in binary can be easily converted to hex by arranging the bits in groups of four
and converting each nibble into hexadecimal as given in table 3.
Data types: A byte of data can be stored at each address within the total memory space of a microprocessor
system.
Table 2. Data types
Data type Bits Range of Values Binary representation

Unsigned byte 8 0 to 255 0000 0000 - 1111 1111

Signed byte 8 -128 to + 127 1000 0000 - 0111 1111

Unsigned word 16 0 to 65,535 0000 0000 0000 0000 - 1111 1111 1111 1111

Signed word 16 - 32,768 to +32,767 1000 0000 0000 0000 - 0111 1111 1111 1111

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Hence one byte can be stored (216 = 65,536) at each of the 65,536 memory locations within a microprocessor
system having a 16-bit address bus. Individual bits within a byte are numbered from 0 (least significant bit) to
7 (most significant bit). In the case of 16-bit words, the bits are numbered from 0 (least significant bit) to 15
(most significant bit). Different data types are listed in table 2.

Table 3
Binary Numbers
Decimal Hexadecimal
2 26 25 24 23 22 21 20
7
numbers Numbers
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
0 0 0000
1 1 0001
2 2 0010
3 3 0011
4 4 0100
5 5 0101
6 6 0110
7 7 0111
8 8 1000
9 9 1001
10 A 1010
11 B 1011
12 C 1100
13 D 1101
14 E 1110
15 F 1111
16 10 0 0 0 10 0 00

Negative (or signed) numbers can be represented using 2’s complement notation where the leading (MSB) bit
indicates the sign of the number (1 = negative, 0 = positive).
For example, the signed 8-bit number “10000001” represents the decimal number “1”.

Number conversion Examples

Example: Binary to Decimal Example: Hexadecimal to Decimal

Steps
(1011.01)2 ⟹ (?)10 ⟹ (11. 25)10 (A2B.1D)16 ⟹ (?)10 ⟹ (2603.11252)10

power 23 22 21 20 . 2-1 2-2 163 162 161 160 . 16-1 16-2

weight 8 4 2 1 0.5 0.25 4096 256 16 1 0.0625 0.0039

number 1 0 1 1 . 0 1 0 10 2 11 . 1 13

(8 + 0 + 2 + 1) . (0 + 0. 25) (0 + 2560 + 32 + 11) . (0.0625 + 0.052)

value
= (11. 25)10 = (2603.11252)10

Data storage: When expressing the amount of data storage provided by a memory device, usually use
Kilobytes (Kbyte = KB). It is important to note that a Kilobyte of memory is actually 1,024 bytes (not 1,000
bytes). The reason for choosing is that 1,024 happen to be the nearest power of 2 (note that 210 = 1,024).

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Computer memory is of two basic types – Primary memory (RAM and ROM) and Secondary memory (hard
drive, CD, etc). The capacity of ROM is usually specified in terms of an address range and the data stored at
each address.
For example, 1 K X 8 bits (capacity 1 KB = 210 = 1024), 1MB = 220
2 K X 8 bits (capacity 2 KB = 211 = 2048), 1GB = 230
4 K X 8 bits (capacity 4 KB = 212 = 4096), and so on.
Difference between RAM and ROM is given in the below table.
Sl.
Utility RAM ROM
No.
1 Definition Random Access Memory Read Only Memory.
Data RAM data is volatile. Data is present till ROM data is permanent. Data remains
2
Retention power supply is present. even after power supply is not present.
RAM data can be read, erased or
3 Data access ROM data is read only.
modified.
RAM is used to store data that CPU needs ROM is used to store data that is needed to
4 Usage
for current instruction processing. bootstrap the computer.
5 Speed Fast. Slower than RAM.
Data to be copied from ROM to RAM so
6 CPU Access CPU can access data stored on RAM.
that CPU can access its data.
ROM is generally small and of low
7 Capacity RAM memory is large and high capacity.
capacity
RAM is used as CPU Cache, Primary ROM is used as firmware by
8 Usage
Memory. microcontrollers (secondary memory).

2.5 Realization of Basic Gates

By using only NAND (also only NOR) gates, we can realize all logic functions of basic gates AND, OR,
NOT. So that NAND and NOR gates are also called as universal logic gates.

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2.6 Microcontroller system
Microcontroller (micro-computer) is a programmable device consists of a central processing unit (CPU),
memory, peripherals, and support circuitry on a single chip. The block diagram of microcontroller system is
shown in fig.1. Peripheral means the hardware modules that help a microcontroller to interact with the
external system.

CPU: CPU is the main component of the processor that contains Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) and Control
Unit (CU). It control and manages all processes that are carried out in the microcontroller unit. CPU is
responsible for fetching the instruction, decodes it, and then executed. It also communicates devices like
memory, input ports, output ports and clock unit.

Control Program: The operation of the microcontroller is controlled by a sequence of software instructions
known as a control program. The control program operates continuously, examining inputs from input devices
and output signals sent to controlled devices.

Input devices
Input ports are mainly used to communicate with various input devices such as switches, sensors and keypads.
Sensors convert physical quantities (temperature, position, etc.) into corresponding electrical signals. The
microcontroller also accepts inputs from the user through keypads and switches.

Fig.1 A microcontroller system with typical inputs and outputs

Some devices may sense analog quantities (such as velocity, temperature), but microcontroller input system
receives digital input signals as, a 0 V = a logic 0 signal and a 5 V = a logic 1 signal. To represent analog
quantities in terms of digital value Analog to Digital Converter (ADC) will be used. Resolution of the ADC
depends on the number of bits used (8, 10 or 12 bits).

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Output devices
Output ports are mainly used to communicate with various output devices such as LED indicators, printers,
speakers, relays, motors, etc. Output devices are used to convey information to the outside world.

When analog quantities are required at the output of the microcontroller rather than simple digital on/off
operation, a digital-to-analog converter (DAC) will be used. It usually used for controlling analog devices like
DC motors, various drives, etc. Resolution of the DAC depends on the number of bits used (8, 10 or 12 bits).

Interface circuits
Interfacing means transferring data between microcontrollers and interfacing peripherals such as sensors,
keypads, ADC, DAC, motors, external memories, printer, display units, etc. Microcontrollers control the real
world by connecting to output interfacing peripherals for example, the motors, heating systems, arms of
robots, etc. Interfacing of peripherals ADC and DAC with microcontroller system is shown in the fig.2.
When input and output signals are not logic compatible or outside the range of signals some interface circuitry
(relays) may be required in order to shift the voltage levels or to provide higher current levels.

Fig.2 Interfacing of peripherals ADC and DAC with microcontroller system

For example, relays are used to operate a high power (AC 240 V) loads like motors, heating systems, arms of
robots, etc, with the help of low control signals (5V) from microcontroller. That means, relays are the link
between the low power digital signal (microcontroller side) and high power devices.

2.7 Adder circuits

In computers and other types of processors, adders are used to calculate addresses, addition and multiplication
operations and table indices in the ALU.
Adders are classified into two types:
(1) Half Adder and
(2) Full Adder

2.7.1 Half Adder

The half adder circuit is a digital circuit capable of adding only two binary bits A and B. It has two inputs: A
and B and adds these two input bits at a time and produce a carry (C) and sum (S). This process follows the
binary addition rules. It can be constructed using one AND and one XOR gate.
Its block diagram, logic circuit and truth table is shown in the fig.3

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 Inputs Outputs

A B Sum(S) Carry(C)

0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0
Fig.3 Block diagram, logic circuit and truth table of an Half Adder 1 1 0 1

Fig.4 Implementation of half adder circuit using basic gates

Truth table gives input-output relationship, from which we observe that,
The output Sum (S) follows XOR operation between A and B inputs, S = A + B
The output Carry (C) follows AND operation between A and B inputs, C = A·B
Hence, half adder circuit is a combination of XOR and AND operations. Implementation of half adder circuit
using basic gates is shown in the fig.4.

Limitation: Half Adder circuit cannot receive an input carry bit.

2.7.2 Full Adder

The full-adder circuit is a digital circuit capable of adding three bit binary numbers (2 bits: A and B and one
bit previous carry in Cin).

This circuit consists of three inputs (A, B and Cin) and two outputs (S and Cout). It adds these three input bits
at a time and produce a carry (C) and sum (S). This process follows the binary addition rules. It can be
constructed using two half adders where it consists 2 ANDs, 2 XORs, and one OR gate.

Block diagram, logic circuit and truth table is shown in the fig.5

Fig.5 (a) Block diagram (b) Circuit diagram of Full Adder using two half adders

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 From the truth table it is observes that,
Inputs Outputs
A B Cin Sum (S) Carry (Cout) (i) Sum (S) output is equal to 1, when only one input is
equal to1 or when all three inputs are equal to1. For
0 0 0 0 0
this Boolean expression can be written as
0 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 1 (ii) Output has a carry1, if two or three inputs are equal
1 0 0 1 0 to1. For this Boolean expression can be written as

1 0 1 0 1 Cout = AB + ACin+ BCin

1 1 0 0 1 For sum and carry out Boolean expressions are given

1 1 1 1 1 above.

Implementation of full adder circuit using basic logic gates (NOT, AND and OR) is given in the following
fig.6.

Fig.6 Implementation of full adder circuit using basic gates

2.8 Multiplexer
It is a combinational logic circuit acts as a digital switch, also called as data selector that has multiple inputs
and a single line output. The data select lines determine which input is connected to the output. A multiplexer
(MUX) has 2N input lines (data lines) and N select lines and a single output.

4 to 1 Multiplexer

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In 4:1 MUX, select lines N = 2 (S0 and S1), then
input lines 22 = 4 (I0, I1, I2, and I3) and single
output, Y. One of the four inputs will be
connected to the output based on the combination
of the inputs at the selection lines as shown in
fig.7.

Fig.7 Logic diagram, truth table and logic circuit of 4:1 Multiplexer

When S0 = S1= 0, then the input line I0 will be selected to pass from 4:1 multiplexer.

Similarly, the data outputs I0 to I3 will be selected through the combinations of S1 and S0. From the truth table,
Boolean expression will be

8 to1 Multiplexer
In 8:1 multiplexer, select lines N = 3 (S0, S1 and S2), then input lines 23 = 8 (I0, I1, I2, I3, I4, I5, I6, and I7) and
single output, Y. One of the eight inputs will be connected to the output based on the combination of the
inputs at the selection lines. Block diagram, truth table and logic circuit of 8:1 multiplexer is shown in fig.8.

Selection Output
Inputs
S2 S1 S0 Y
0 0 0 I0
0 0 1 I1
0 1 0 I2
0 1 1 I3
1 0 0 I4
1 0 1 I5
1 1 0 I6
1 1 1 I7

Fig. 8 Block diagram, truth table and logic circuit of 8:1 multiplexer

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From the truth table for example, if S2 = 0, S1=1 and S0 = 0, then the input line I2 will be selected to pass from
8:1 multiplexer.
i. e, Y =

Similarly, the data outputs I0 to I7 will be selected through the combinations of S2, S1 and S0. From the truth
table, Boolean expression will be

Y=

2.10 Decoder
It is a combinational logic circuit that takes multiple inputs and gives multiple outputs. A decoder circuit takes
binary data of N inputs into 2N unique outputs. In addition to input pins, it has an enable pin. This enable pin
makes the circuit active / inactive. It is shown in the fig.9

2 to 4 decoder
The Decoder has 2 input lines and 4 output lines; hence this type of decoder is called as 2:4 decoders. Thumb
rule with decoders is that, if the number of inputs is N = 2 (A and B), then the number of outputs is equal to
four, 22 = 4 (D3, D2, D1 and D0).

Its block diagram and truth table is shown in the fig.9. One of the four outputs (D 0 –D3) will be logic 1 for
each combination of inputs (A and B).

Fig. 9 Decoder block diagram and truth table

Each output (D0 –D3) is having one product term. We

can implement these four product terms by using four
AND gates each having two inputs (A and B) and two
NOTs. The circuit diagram of 2 to 4 decoder is shown
in the fig.10.

For example, if inputs B = 0 and A = 1 is applied to

logic circuit output D1 = 1 (see truth table). It is
equivalent to = 01= . Similarly, any one of 4
outputs from D0 - D3 can be selected depending on
binary status applied to 2 inputs A and B.

Fig.10 Decoder block diagram and truth table

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3 to 8 decoder
3 to 8 decoder has three inputs (A, B, C) and eight outputs (DO to D7).
Based on the N = 3 inputs one of the eight (23 = 8) outputs is selected.

Each output (D0 –D7) is having one product term. We can implement
these eight product terms by using eight AND gates each having three
inputs (A, B and C) and three NOTs. Its block diagram and truth table
is shown below. One of the eight outputs (D0 –D7) will be logic 1 for
each combination of inputs (A, B and C).

From the truth table, it is seen that only one of eight outputs (DO to
D7) is selected (logic 1) based on the binary combination of the three Block diagram of 3 to 8 Decoder
select inputs (C, B and A).

The circuit diagram of 3 to 8 decoder is shown in the fig.11.

Truth table
Inputs Outputs
C B A D0 D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 D7
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1

For example, if inputs C = 1, B = 0 and A = 1 is applied to

above logic circuit, output D5 =1 (see truth table). It is
equivalent to D5 =101= C A. Similarly, any one of 8 outputs
from DO to D7 can be selected depending on binary status
applied to 3 inputs (C, B and A).
Fig.11 circuit diagram of 3 : 8 decoder

Applications of Decoder: Data multiplexing, Memory address decoding, 7 segment display.

2.11 Shift register

Register: A set of N flip-flops (bi-stable devices) is called register. Each flip-flop stores one bit binary value
(1 or 0).

Two basic functions: data storage and data shift.

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Shift Register:It is a sequential circuit is used to store and transfer of binary data. It receives the data from its
inputs and store, then shifts it to its output for every clock pulse, hence the name shift register. Shift Register
is made of the number of individual Flip Flops. For example, a 4-bit shift register is constructed from four
individual FFs.

Generally, shift registers operate in one of four different modes with the basic movement of data through a
shift register.

Types of shift registers

i) Serial in Serial out (SISO) Shift Register

ii) Serial in parallel out (SIPO) Shift Register
iii) Parallel in Serial out (PISO) Shift Register
iv) Parallel in Parallel out (PIPO) Shift Register

Serial in Serial out (SISO) Shift Register

Preset (Pr) and clear (Cr) are direct set and reset active low inputs. (Pr = 0, Cr =1 sets and Pr = 1, Cr = 0 resets
the flip-flop). All flip-flops are cleared, by making clear (CLR) = 0. During normal operation CLR =1. Also,
make preset Pr = 0, to avoid interference between normal operation of registers. All flip-flops are triggered by
common clock pulse (CK). During each clock pulse, one bit of input data is transmitted from left to right (FF3
to FF0). 4-bit Serial in Serial out (SISO) shift register is shown in the fig. 12.

Fig.12 4-bit Serial in Serial out (SISO) Shift Register

Assume that initially all flip-flops are cleared (Q3 = Q2 = Q1 = Q0 = 0). Let us for example, input data (1010)
has to be shifted through the register from FF3 to FF0. Least significant bit (0) is passed first and most
significant bit (1) is passed last to FF3.
After first clock pulse: Q3 = 0, Q2 = 0, Q1 = 0, Q0 = 0
LSB (0) is entered into FF3 (see function table), hence the output of FF3 is Q3 = 0.
After second clock pulse: Q3 = 1, Q2 = 0, Q1 = 0, Q0 = 0
Data 0 from Q3 is shifted to FF2, and its output Q2 = 0, while 1 from input data is entered into FF3, and its
output Q3 = 1.
After third clock pulse: Q3 = 0, Q2 = 1, Q1 = 0, Q0 = 0
Data 0 from Q2 is shifted to FF1, and its output Q1 = 0 and data 1 from Q3 is shifted to FF2, and its output Q2
= 1, while 0 from input data is entered into FF3, and its output Q3 = 0.
After fourth clock pulse: Q3 = 1, Q2 = 0, Q1 = 1, Q0 = 0
Data 0 from Q1 is shifted to FF0, and its output Q0 = 0, data 1 from Q2 is shifted to FF1, and its output Q1 =
1 and data 0 from Q3 is shifted to FF2, and its output Q2 = 0, while 1 from input data is entered into FF3, and
its output Q3 = 1.

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 Q Q2 Q1 Q0
Cloc Seri
3 (Seri
k al al
Puls In Out)
e
1010 0 0 0 0
101 1 0 0 0
10 0 1 0 0
1 1 0 1 0
0 0 1 0 1
0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0 0
After eight clock pulses input data (1010) is shifted-out from the FF0 is as displayed in the above functional
table.

All fuse type Shift register

A 4-bit shift register which can operate as all-fuse type as shown in the fig. Serial in Serial out (SISO) shift
register is illustrated in the above fig.

Serial in Parallel out (SIPO) shift register:

Upon each clock pulse, input data is entered serially (at first LSB is
entered into FF3), directly output is collected from Q3-Q0 of flip-flops FF3-FF0, respectively as shown in the
fig. 13.

Parallel in Serial out (PISO) and Parallel in Parallel out (PIPO) Shift Register :
All flip-flops are cleared, by
making clear (CLR) = 0. During normal operation CLR =1. Also, make preset Pr = 0, to avoid interference
between normal operation of registers. Preset or clear are asynchronous inputs.
All flip-flops are triggered by common clock pulse (CK). Parallel-in line is enabled as input. This results in
all NAND gates to act as inverters.

Fig.13 4-bit shift register

Any Di input causes:

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Case-1: Di = 0, Pr = 1 and Qi = 0 (When PRESET = 1, all outputs = 0; regardless of the inputs)
For example D3 =1, D2 = 0, D1 =1, D0 = 0 and if Pr = 1, Q3 = 0, Q2 = 0, Q1 = 0, Q0 = 0

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Case-2: Di = 1, Pr = 0 and Qi = 1 (When PRESET = 0, all outputs =1; regardless of the inputs)
For example D3 =1, D2 = 0, D1 =1, D0 = 0 and if Pr = 0, Q3 = 1, Q2 = 1, Q1 = 1, Q0 = 1
For PIPO data is entered through preset inputs, into flip-flops by enabling Preset (= 1). In this case, the effect
of outputs is independent of clock transition. That means, PIPO shift register requires zero clock pulses in
order to produce the valid output. So, we will get the parallel outputs at Qis from each flip-flop.

For example, apply the input data 0110 in parallel through preset inputs. Since the preset inputs are applied
before clock pulse, the initial status of the all flip-flops from left to right will be Q3Q2Q1Q0 = 0110.

Shifting of Data to Left

Input data can be shifted from left (FF0) to right (FF3) by one bit on the occurrence of clock pulse by feeding
output of FF0 (Q0) to input of FF1 (D1), and FF1 to FF2, FF2 to FF3. This logic is shown in the fig.14.

Fig.14 4-bit shift register (left to right)

2.12 Counters
A counter is a sequential circuit that counts the number of occurrences of input, constituted of flip-flops.
Counters are used in a lot of applications such as frequency counters, digital clocks, ADC, frequency divider
circuits and timers. A counter counting in terms of N bits has 2N different states.

Types of counters
i) Asynchronous and
ii) Synchronous Counters
Asynchronous (ripple) counters (all the flip flops are not clocked simultaneously)
Only the first flip-flop is externally clocked using clock pulse while the remaining FFs are clocked by output
of previous flip-flops.

Operation of 3-bit asynchronous counter: It consists of three JK flip-flops with preset (Pr) and clear (Cr). All
the flip flops are initially cleared. Logic 1 is provided to all J K input terminals of the flip-flops to achieve
toggling at the negative transition (NGT pulse transition from 1 to 0) of the applied clock input.

The output of FF0 (Q0) is applied as clock input for FF1. So, Q1 toggles for every NGT of Q0. Similarly, the
output of FF1 (Q1) is applied as clock input for FF2. So, Q2 toggles for every NGT of Q1. Thus the counter
counts from 0 to 7, (i.e, in binary 000 to 111). 3-bit asynchronous counter is depicted in the fig.15.

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 Fig. 15 3-bit asynchronous counter
Observation:
• The clock transits (NGT) 8 times, Q0 transits 4 times, Q1 transits 2 times and Q2 transits 1 time.
• The wave frequency reduces by a factor of 2 at each stage.
Input
Q2 Q1 Q0
Clock
0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1
2 0 1 0
3 0 1 1
4 1 0 0
5 1 0 1
6 1 1 0
7 1 1 1
Timing diagram of 3-bit asynchronous counter 8 0 0 0

Down counter: QS are connected to the next flip-flop. As Q toggles from 1 to 0, the corresponding Q toggles
1 to 0, which is count down.
Up-down counter: CK is connected to Q for up-down and Q through AND-OR logic.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

LOGIC GATES/CIRCUITS

1. What is a logic gate? Explain the following logic gates: i) NAND gate ii) NOR gate iii) EXOR gate
2. Construct an exclusive-OR gate using only (AND, OR and NOT) basic gates.
3. Design a logic circuit using basic logic gates with three inputs ABC and output Y that goes logic 1
only in two cases: i) A = 1, and B = 0 and C = 1 and ii) A = 0, and B = 1 and C = 0.
4. Construct a logic circuit that will produce a Logic 1 output whenever two or more of its inputs are at
Logic 1.
5. Realize basic logic gates from NOR and NAND gates.

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 BISTABLES

6. Define a bi-stable circuit. Using truth table and logic circuit, explain the RS bi-stables.
7. With the help of a timing diagram explain how D-type bistable circuit works.
8. Explain Input and output states for a J-K bistable using clocked operation

DATA TYPE, DATA REPRESENTATION AND MICROCONTROLLER SYSTEMS

9. Convert the following:

i) (101101)2 to base 10
ii) (0.375)10 into binary number
iii) (1101)16 to base 2 and base 10
i) (1010110101)2 to base 16
10. Write the equivalent decimal numbers by representing the following signed 8-bit and unsigned 8-bit
binary numbers:
i) (10001101)2
ii) (01010101)2
iii) (10110101)2
iv) (10101100)2.
11. Distinguish between RAM and ROM memory systems.
12. Write a note on different data types mentioning the bit size and range of values supported.
13. With a neat block diagram explain the microcontroller system with typical inputs and outputs.

ADDERS, MULTIPLEXER, DECODER, SHIFT REGISTER, COUNTER

14. Explain half adder circuit using truth table and basic logic circuit.
15. Explain full adder circuit and construct its logic circuit using two half adders and one OR gate.
16. What is multiplexer? With truth table and logic circuit explain 8 to1 multiplexer.
17. What is a decoder? Design a 3-to-8 Decoder and show its implementation using basic gates.
18. What is a shift register? With a neat logic circuit explain how 4-bit serial in data shifted out using four
shift registers. (OR) Design a 4-stage shift register using J-K bi-stables.
19. Explain the working of 4-bit parallel in parallel out shift register using a neat logic circuit.
20. What is counter? Using appropriate diagrams explain the operation of 3-bit asynchronous up-counter.

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51 Basic Electronics and Communication Engineering (21ELN14/24)
 MODULE 3
Embedded Systems
Embedded Systems
Definition
Embedded systems vs general computing systems
Classification of Embedded Systems
Major application areas of Embedded Systems
Elements of an Embedded System
Core of the Embedded System
Microprocessor vs Microcontroller
RISC vs CISC
Harvard vs Von-Neumann

Sensors and Interfacing

Instrumentation and control systems
Transducers
Sensors
Actuators
LED and 7-Segment LED Display
Stepper Motor
Relay
Piezo Buzzer
Push Button Switch
Keyboard

Communication Interface
UART
Parallel Interface
USB
Wi-Fi
GPRS

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53 Basic Electronics and Communication Engineering (21ELN14/24)
 Embedded System
Definition: An embedded system is a microcontroller or microprocessor based system which is
designed to perform a specific task in combination of both hardware and software.
E.g. Electronic Toys, Mobile Handsets, Washing Machines, Air Conditioners, Automotive Control Units, Set
Top Box, DVD Player etc…
For example, a fire alarm; it will sense only smoke.
Laser printers; it only prints
Firmware: programming instructions, referred to as firmware, are stored in read-only memory (ROM).

3.1.1 Embedded Systems Vs General Computing Systems

General Computing System Embedded Systems

It is microprocessor based system It is microcontroller based system
A computer needs human interaction to perform Embedded device does not need human interaction to
tasks. perform tasks.
Architecture examples: Architecture examples:
Analog / Digital computer, Hybrid computer, Small Scale Embedded System,
Harvard /Von Neumann architecture, Medium Scale Embedded Systems,
Reduced instruction set computer Sophisticated or Complex Embedded Systems
It has 2 parts: Hardware and Software. It has 3 parts: Hardware, Firmware and Software.
It can perform many tasks. It performs specific tasks
(End user programmable) can be reprogrammed (Not end user programmable) only for a specific set of
to for a new purpose. purposes.
Computers are usually bigger in size with larger Embedded Devices are smaller in size than Computers,
hardware and input output devices attached to it. with limited hardware.
Power consumption is high Power consumption is less

3.1.2 Classification of Embedded Systems

❑ Based on Generation
❑ Based on Complexity & Performance Requirements
❑ Based on deterministic behavior
❑ Based on Triggering

Based on Generation
First Generation
The earlier first-generation embedded systems were built around 8-bit microprocessors and 4-bit
microcontrollers. Such embedded system possesses simple hardware and firmware developed using assembly
code.
Ex: Digital telephone keypads, stepper motor control units.
Second Generation
After the evolution of the second generation embedded systems, the 8-bit processor and 4-bit controllers are
replaced by 16-bit microprocessors and 8-bit microcontrollers. They are more powerful and complex
compared to previous generation processors.

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Ex: Data acquisition systems, SCADA systems.
Third Generation
Embedded Systems built around high performance 32-bit microprocessors and 16-bit microcontrollers. Hence,
its operation has become much more powerful and complex than the second generation.
During this period, domain-specific processors/controllers like Digital Signal Processors (DSP), Application-
Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs) and the concept of instruction pipelining, embedded real-time operating
system evolved into the embedded system industry.
Ex: Robotics, industrial process control, embedded networking.
Fourth Generation
Embedded Systems built around System on Chips (SoCs), Re-configurable processors and multi-core
processors, coprocessors also emerged into the embedded market to add more powerful performance
These systems also make use of the high-performance real-time operating system for their operation.
Ex: Smart devices, digital cameras, etc.

Based on Complexity and Performance Requirements

Small Scale Embedded Systems

Small Scale Embedded Systems are built with a single 8 or 16-bit microprocessor or controller. The main
programming tools used are an editor, assembler, cross assembler and integrated development environment
(IDE). The hardware and software complexities in small-scale embedded system are very low. It may or may
not contain an operating system for its functioning. An electronic toy is an example for a small-scale
embedded system.
Medium Scale Embedded Systems
The Embedded system with medium performance 16-bit or 32-bit microprocessor or controller, ASICs or
DSPs fall under the medium scale embedded systems. They have both hardware and software complexities.

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The main programming tools used are C, C++, JAVA, Visual C++, RTOS, debugger, source code engineering
tool, simulator and IDE.
Large scale Embedded Systems
The embedded systems have highly complex hardware and software, built around 32-bit or 64-bit
processors/controllers, RISC processors, SoC, scalable and configurable processors. They are also called
sophisticated embedded systems.
They are used for cutting-edge applications that need hardware and software co-design, where components
have to be assembled into the final system. They also contain a high-performance real-time operating system
for task scheduling, prioritization and management.

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3.1.3 Major Application Areas of Embedded Systems

❑ Consumer Electronics: Cam-corders, Digital Cameras, Laptop, CCTV etc.

❑ Household Appliances: Television, DVD players, Washing machine, Fridge, Microwave Oven etc.
❑ Home Automation and Security Systems: Air conditioners, sprinklers, Intruder detection alarms, Closed
Circuit Television Cameras, Fire alarms etc.
❑ Automotive Industry: Anti-lock breaking systems (ABS), Engine Control, Ignition Systems, Automatic
Navigation Systems etc.
❑ Telecom: Cellular Telephones, Telephone switches, Handset Multimedia Applications etc.
❑ Computer Peripherals: Printers, Scanners, Fax machines etc.
❑ Computer Networking Systems: Network Routers, Switches, Hubs, Firewalls etc.
❑ Health Care: X-ray, Scanners, EEG, ECG, BP monitor, pulse monitor etc.
❑ Measurement & Instrumentation: Digital multi meters, Digital CROs, Logic Analyzers PLC systems etc.
❑ Banking & Retail: Automatic Teller Machines (ATM) and Currency counters,
❑ Card Readers: Barcode, Smart Card Readers, Hand held Devices etc.

3.1.4 The Core of the Embedded Systems

The core of the embedded system falls into any one of the following categories.
❑ General Purpose and Domain Specific Processors
➢ Microprocessors
➢ Microcontrollers
➢ Digital Signal Processors (DSP)

❑ Programmable Logic Devices (PLDs)

❑ Application Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs)
❑ Commercial off the shelf Components (COTS)

3.1.5 Microprocessor Vs Microcontroller, RISC vs CISC

Microprocessor Microcontroller
Consists of a CPU, performs Arithmetic and Highly integrated chip contains CPU, RAM, on
Logical operations chip ROM/flash memory, I/O ports
Ex: Intel 8086 microprocessor Ex: Intel 8051 microcontroller

It is mainly used in Personal Computers It is mainly used in an embedded system

Complex and expensive, with a large number of Simple and inexpensive with less number of
instructions to process. instructions to process.
Dependent Unit Self contained unit
Consumes more power Consumes less power
Limited power saving options Includes lot of power saving features
Architecture is based on Von Neumann model Architecture is based on Harvard architecture
Uses an external bus to interface to RAM, ROM, Uses an internal controlling bus.
and other peripherals

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 RISC CISC
Reduced Instruction Set Computer. Complex Instruction Set Computer.
Software centric design. Hardware centric design.
Low power consumption. High power consumption.
Requires more RAM Requires a minimum amount of RAM
Simple decoding of instruction. Complex decoding of instruction.
Processors are highly pipelined. Processors are not pipelined or less pipelined.
Execution time is very less Execution time is very high
Uses multiple registers. Uses a single register.

It does not require external memory for calculations It requires external memory for calculations
Compound addressing mode. Limited addressing mode.
RISC architecture can be used with high-end CISC architecture can be used with low-end
applications like telecommunication, image processing, applications like home automation, security system,
video processing, etc. consumer goods etc.
Small Code Size. Large Code Size.
Fixed Instruction format (32-bit) Varying formats (16 to 64 bits for each instruction).
Examples: ARM, PIC, Power Architecture, Alpha, Examples: VAX, Motorola 68000 family,
AVR, ARC and the SPARC. System/360, AMD and the Intel x86 CPUs.

3.1.6 Microcontroller Architectures (Von-Neumann vs Harvard Architectures)

The terms Harvard and Von-Neumann refers to the processor architecture design is depicted as shown below.

It is ancient computer architecture based model. It is modern computer architecture based model.
CPU is connected data memory (RAM) and program CPU is connected data memory (RAM) and program
memory (ROM) by a single memory. memory (ROM), separately.
CPU cannot access instructions and data at the same CPU can access instructions and data at the same
time. time.
Same physical memory address is used for Separate physical memory address is used for
instructions and data. instructions and data.
Common bus is used for data and instruction Separate buses are used for data and instruction
transfer. transfer.
The speed of execution is slower. It is because it is The overall speed of execution is faster. It is because
not capable of fetching the instructions and data both the processor is capable of fetching both instructions
at the same time. and data at the very same time.
It is cheaper in cost. It is costly.
Requires less hardware, but low performance. Requires more hardware, but high performance.
It is used in personal computers and small It is used in microcontrollers and digital signal
computers. processing.
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 Sensors and Interfacing

Instrumentation and control systems

Instrumentation: Technology of measurement
An instrument is a device that measures or manipulates process physical variables such as flow,
temperature, level, or pressure etc.

Fig. 1 Instrumentation system

Fig.1 shows the arrangement of an instrumentation system. The physical quantity to be measured (e.g.
temperature) acts upon a sensor that produces an electrical output signal.
This signal is an electrical analogue of the physical input but there may not be a linear relationship between
the physical quantity and its electrical equivalent.
Also, the output produced by the sensor may be small or may suffer from the presence of noise (i.e. unwanted
signals). Therefore, further signal conditioning will be required before the signal will be at an acceptable level
and in an acceptable form for signal processing, display and recording. The signal processing may use digital
rather than analog signals for this purpose ADC may be required.
Control systems

Fig.2 shows the arrangement of a control system

As seen from the fig.2, it uses negative feedback in order to regulate and stabilize the output. It thus becomes
possible to set the input or demand (i.e. what we desire the output to be) and leave the system to regulate itself
by comparing it with a signal derived from the output (via a sensor and appropriate signal conditioning).
A comparator is used to sense the difference in these two signals and where any changes detected, then input
to the power amplifier is adjusted accordingly. This signal is referred to as an error signal (it should be zero
when the output exactly matches the demand).
The input (demand) is often derived from a simple potentiometer connected across a stable DC voltage source
while the controlled device can take many forms (Ex: a DC motor, linear actuator, heater, etc.).

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3.2.2 Transducers
Transducers are devices that convert energy in the form (sound, light, heat, etc.,) into an equivalent electrical
signal, or vice versa.

➢ Examples:
➢ A microphone is a transducer converting sound pressure variations into voltage or current.
➢ A loudspeaker is a transducer that converts low frequency electric current into audible sounds.
Difference between Sensor and Actuator
SENSOR ACTUATOR

It converts physical quantity into electrical signals. It converts electrical signals into physical quantity.
It takes input from environment. It takes input from the electric or electronic system.
Sensor generated electrical signals. Actuator generates heat, motion, vibration,etc.
It is placed at input port of the system. It is placed at output port of the system.
It is used to measure the physical quantity. It is used to measure the continuous and discrete
process parameters.
It gives information to the system about It accepts command from the system to perform a
environment. function.
Example: Photo-voltaic cell which converts light Example: Stepper motor where electrical energy
energy into electrical energy. drives the motor.

Sensor
A sensor is a transducer which converts energy from physical form to electrical form for any measurement or
control purpose. Sensors act as input device.

Example 1:

Physical quantity: sound

Input transducer: Microphone

Diaphragm attached to a coil is suspended in a

magnetic field. Movement of the diaphragm causes
current to be induced in the coil.

Sensors can be categorized as either active or passive.

An active sensor generates a current or voltage output.
A passive sensor requires a source of current or voltage and it modifies this by virtue of a change in the
sensor’s resistance. The result may still be a voltage or current but it is not generated by the sensor on its own.
Sensors can also be classified as either digital or analog.

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The output of a digital sensor can exist in only two discrete states, either ‘ON’ or ‘OFF’, ‘LOW’ or ‘HIGH’,
‘logic 1’ or ‘logic 0’, etc. The output of an analogue sensor can take of voltage or current levels. It is thus said
to be continuously variable.
Example 2:
Physical quantity: Temperature
Input transducer: Thermocouple

Small e.m.f (mV) generated at the junction between

two dissimilar metals (e.g. copper & constantan).
Requires reference junction (cold) and compensated
cables for accurate measurement.

Example 3:

Physical quantity: Angular position

Input transducer: Rotary potentiometer

Fine wire resistive element is wound around a circular

frame. Slider (wiper) attached to the control shaft makes
contact with the resistive element.
A stable DC voltage source is connected across the ends
of the potentiometer. Voltage appearing at the slider will
then be proportional to angular position.

Transducers are also known as Input-Output subsystems. The I/O subsystem facilitates the interaction of the
embedded system with external world. The interaction happens through the sensors and actuators connected to
the input and output ports of the embedded system. The sensors may not be directly interfaced to the input
ports, instead they may be interfaced through signal conditioning and translating systems like ADC, Opto-
couplers etc.

Actuators
Actuator is a transducer which converts electrical signals to corresponding physical action (motion). Actuator
acts as an output device.
Example :1

Physical Quantity: Sound (pressure change)

Output transducer: Loudspeaker

Diaphragm attached to a coil is suspended in a magnetic

field. Current in the coil causes movement of the diaphragm
which alternately compresses and rarefies the air mass in
front of it.

Examples: electric motors, stepper motors, jackscrews, electric muscular stimulators in robots,
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3.2.3 Light Emitting Diode (LED) and 7-Segment LED Display

Light Emitting Diode (LED): is an output device for visual indication in any embedded system. It can be used as
an indicator for the status of various signals or situations. Typical examples are indicating the presence of
power conditions like device ON, battery low or charging of battery etc.
LED is a p-n junction diode and it contains an anode (+)
and a cathode (-). For proper functioning of the LED,
the anode is connected to +ve terminal and cathode to
the –ve terminal of supply voltage (forward bias
condition). The current flowing through the LED must
limited to a value below the maximum current that it can
conduct. A resister is used in series between the power
supply and the resistor to limit the current through it.

➢ LED can be interfaced to the port pin of microcontroller in two methods:

➢ Method:1- (current sourcing) Anode of LED is connected to port pin. Cathode is connected to ground
(0V) through resistor. When port pin of microprocessor goes logic 1, the LED is forward biased and
emits light. When the port pin goes 0, LED is off. That means port pin sources current to LED.
➢ Method:2- (current sinking) Cathode of LED is connected to port pin. Anode is connected to external
supply through resistor. LED turns on when the port pin is at logic 0. Here port pin sinks current, such
that the brightness of LED can be increased to the required level. See fig.3.

Fig.3 LED interfacing to the port pin of microcontroller

7- Segment LED Display

The 7 – segment LED display is an output device for displaying alpha numeric (0–9 and A–F) characters. It
contains eight LED segments arranged in a special form. Out of the 8 LED segments, 7 are used for
displaying alpha numeric characters. The LED segments are named A to G and the decimal point LED
segment is named as DP. The LED Segments A to G and DP should be lit accordingly to display numbers and
characters.
The 7 – segment LED displays are available in two different configurations, namely;
i) common anode and ii) common cathode
In the common anode configuration, the anodes of all LEDs connected together to +Vcc, and in the common
cathode configuration, the cathodes of all LEDs connected together to ground as shown in the fig.4.
Based on the configuration of the 7 – segment LED unit, the LED segment anode or cathode is connected to
the port of microcontroller in the order. A segment to the least significant port pin and DP segment to the most
significant port pin or vice versa. The current through each segment can be limited by connecting a resistor.

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 Fig.4 7-segment LED interfacing with microcontroller

In order to display the required numbers (0 - 9) or HEX characters (A - F), the correct combination of LED
segments need to be illuminated based on the type of configuration. In the above example common cathode
configuration is used.

3.2.4 Stepper Motor

A Stepper motor is an electro-mechanical device which generates discrete rotation in response to dc electrical
signals. It differs from the normal DC motor in its operation. The DC motor produces continuous rotation on
applying DC voltage whereas a stepper motor produces discrete rotation in response to the dc voltage applied
to it. Stepper motors are widely used in industrial embedded applications, consumer electronic products,
robotics control system, dot matrix printers, disk drives, etc.
Stepper motor rotor has a permanent magnet and the stator has four electromagnetic coils which remain
stationary. Whenever the coils energized by applying the current, the electromagnetic field is created,

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resulting the rotation of rotor. Coils should be energized in a particular sequence to make discrete rotation of
the rotor.
Based on the coil winding arrangements and to supply current in the coils two phase stepper motor is
classified into two types: Bipolar and Unipolar.

Unipolar Bipolar

The "polar" means electrical and magnetic polarity.

➢ Unipolar stepper motor contains two windings per ➢ Bipolar stepper motor contains single winding per
phase and has common center connection. phase and has no common center connection.
➢ Current can flows only in a single direction. ➢ Current can flow in both directions in all coils.
➢ For reversing the motor requires simple circuitry. ➢ For reversing the motor rotation the current flow
➢ They have less torque and are less efficient. through the windings is reversed dynamically.
➢ They have more torque and more efficient,
requires complex circuitry.

The circuit diagram for interfacing stepper motor to 8051 is shown in the fig.5. Let P1.0, P1.1, P1.2 and P1.3
port pins are used for controlling the phases A, B, C and D of the stepper motor, respectively. ULN2003 is a
current driver IC used for driving the individual phases of the stepper motor as it requires more than 60mA of
current. Center tap of each windings of the stepper motor is shorted and connected to + 5V motor supply. It
can be energized each winding coils (A, B, C and D) of the motor by sending electric pulses from
microcontroller pins P1.0, P1.1, P1.2 and P1.3. Unipolar stepper motor is very common and popular because
of its ease of use. There are different modes to drive a stepper motor in which full step drive is explained
below.

Fig.5 Interfacing of stepper motor with microcontroller

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Full Step Drive:In this method two coils are energized at a time, produces more torque. Hence, the power
consumption is also high.
The following table is showing the sequence of different coils energized in the following order.

Steps Coil A Coil B Coil C Coil D Coil sequence order

1 1 1 0 0 AB = ON, CD = OFF
2 0 1 1 0 BC = ON, AD = OFF
3 0 0 1 1 AB = OFF, CD = ON
4 1 0 0 1 AD = ON, BC = OFF
Working: When the sequence is followed from step 1 to 4, stepper motor rotates in the clock wise rotation.
That means, at first when the bit sequence 1100 is sent by the port 1 of microcontroller to the stepper
motor, A and B windings are energized (ON) and C and D windings are de-energized (OFF). With an
appropriate delay next bit sequences 0110, 0011 and 1001 are followed. Therefore, stepper motor completes
one rotation by four steps in the clock wise direction.
Rotation of the stepper motor can be reversed by reversing the order from step 4 to 1.

3.2.5 Relay

An electro mechanical device which acts as a dynamic path selector for signals and power. Relay works on
electromagnetic principle.

When a voltage is applied to the relay coil, current flows through the coil, which in turn generates a magnetic
field. The magnetic field attracts the armature core and moves the contact point. The movement of the contact
point changes the path of power/signal.

Fig. 6 Interface of relay with microcontroller

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The relay is normally open or closed to operate high power units (motor) using a driver circuit (transistor)
which is connected to the port pin of the microcontroller is shown in the fig.6. A transistor can be used as the
relay driver.
The transistor is turned ON when logic 1 is available on the port pin of the microcontroller; in turn, the relay
coil energized and normally closed. The relay is turned OFF by making logic 0 on the port pin. A diode is
connected across the relay coil to protect the transistor from damage due to the back emf generated in the
relay's inductive coil.

3.2.6 Piezo Buzzer

It is a piezoelectric device for generating audio indications in embedded applications. A Piezo buzzer contains
a piezoelectric diaphragm which produces audible sound in response to the voltage applied to it. Buzzer can
be used as an alarm or as a fire alarm or as an intruder alarm.
Piezoelectric buzzers are available in two types:
1. Self-driving and 2. External driving
External driving piezo buzzers supports the
generation of different tones.
A Piezo buzzer can be interfaced to the port pin
of the microcontroller through a driver
transistor as shown in the fig. The transistor is
turned ON when logic 1 is available on the port
pin of the microcontroller; in turn, transistor
drives the buzzer. Current will flow through the
buzzer and a relative sound will be heard. The
tone can be varied by applying a variable pulse
train to the piezoelectric buzzer by
programming the microcontroller. The model
circuit is shown in the fig. 7.
Fig. 7 Interface of piezo buzzer with microcontroller
3.2.7 Push button switch

The Push-button is a basic input device in the embedded system. It is used to control the operation of any
output device using the microcontroller or control unit. Push button is used for generating a momentary pulse.
Push button switch comes in two configurations:
1. Push to Make and 2. Push to Break
In push to make configuration the switch is normally in
the open state and makes a circuit contact when it is
pushed or pressed.
In push to break configuration, the switch normally in
the closed state and breaks the circuit contact when it
is pushed or pressed.
To interface a push-button with a port pin of the
microcontroller, one end of the switch is grounded, and
the other end is connected to the port-pin of the
microcontroller. The microcontroller port-pin is pulled
high with the help of a pull-up resistor R1. (See fig. 8). Fig.8 Interfacing a button switch with microcontroller

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3.2.8 Keyboard
Keyboard is an input device for user interfacing. If the number of keys required is very limited, push button
switches can be used and they can be directly interfaced to the port pins for reading. In case of handling large
number of key requirements matrix keyboard is an optimum solution. Matrix keyboard greatly reduces the
number of interface connections. Matrix keyboard connects the keys in a row column fashion. The key press
in matrix keyboard is identified with row-column scanning technique. For example, for interfacing 16 keys, in
the direct interfacing technique 16 port pins are required, where as in the matrix keyboard only 4 columns and
4 rows are required for interfacing 16 keys.
4x4 matrix keyboard interface
4×4 matrix keypad consists of 4 rows and 4 columns. Each switch is placed between the rows and columns.
When a key is pressed, a row and a column make a contact. Otherwise, there is no connection between rows
and columns. In order to detect the pressed key, the following points to be noted worthy.
i) the rows configured as an output port, making each row logic 0 and
ii) the columns configured as an input port, making each column at logic 1
iii) If all rows = 0000, and all columns = 1111, detecting no key is pressed
iv) If one of the column bits read logic 0, detecting a key is pressed
v) To detect the key pressed, microcontroller undergoes scanning technique by reading each row
Scanning procedure:
i) If all column bits are 1111, no switch is pressed.
ii) If any key is pressed, one of the column bits read logic 0. To find the pressed key is in which row the
microcontroller sends logic 0 on the first row while other rows making logic 1, (say to find the key
pressed in row-1: R0= 0, R1R2R3 = 111) and the column bits are read and then also if all column bits are
1111, no key is pressed.
iii) Next, second row is made logic 0 and set all others rows at logic 1 (say to find the key pressed in row-2:
R1 = 0, R0R2R3 = 111) and the column bits are read and if all column bits are 1111, no key is pressed.
iv) This process is repeated for all the rows until to find in which case the column bits are same as before the
scanning.
Scanning Rows Columns Key
rounds R1 R 2 R3 R4 C1 C 2 C3 C4 detected
1 0111 1111 No
2 1011 1011 Yes
3 1101 1111 No
4 1110 1111 No

Fig.6 scanning procedure to find the pressed key (6)

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Example: Scanning procedure to find the pressed key (6) for the fig.9.

a) At first assume all column bits C0C1C2C3 = 1111, when no key is pressed.
b) When key (6) is pressed, column bits become C0C1C2C3 = 1011, indicating that key (6) pressed is in
the second column as shown in the figure.
c) To find the pressed key is found in which row, microcontroller will make logic 0 on the first row while
other rows at logic 1 (i.e, R0 = 0, R1R2R3 = 111) as shown in the fig. and check all the column bits.
Here all column bits are C0C1C2C3 = 1111, indicating the key pressed is not available in the first row.
d) Next, second row is made logic 0 and make all other rows at logic 1 (i.e, R0 = 1, R1 = 0, R2R3 = 11)
and the column bits are read. For this scanning round, column bits become C0C1C2C3 = 1011.
Indicating key (6) is in the second row - second column. See the table given above.
Debouncing
Since keys are mechanical devices, there is a possibility for de-bounce issues, (multiple key press effect for a
single key press). To prevent this,
1. Hardware key de-bouncer circuits and
2. Software key de-bounce techniques available.
• The software key de-bouncing technique doesn't require any additional hardware and is easy to
implement.
• In the software de-bouncing technique, on detecting a key press, the key is read again after a delay.
• If the key press is a genuine one, the same key status will remain on the second read also.
Pull-up resistors are connected to limit the current that flows to the Row line on a key press.

3.3 Communication Interface

Communication interface is an essential process for communicating with various subsystems of the embedded
system and with the external world.
The communication interface can be viewed in two different perspectives; namely;
1. Device/board level communication interface (Onboard Communication Interface)
2. Product level communication interface (External Communication Interface)

Device/On board level communication interface

The communication channel which interconnects the various components within an embedded product is
referred as on-board level communication interface.

Examples: Serial interfaces like I2C, SPI, UART, 1-Wire and Parallel bus interface

External Communication Interface

This level communication is responsible for data transfer between the embedded system and other devices or
modules. It can be either wired media or wireless media and it can be a serial or parallel interface.
Examples:
i) For wireless communication interface: Infrared (IR), Bluetooth (BT), Wireless LAN (Wi-Fi), Radio
Frequency waves (RF), GPRS etc.
ii) For wired communication interfaces: RS-232C/RS-422/RS 485, USB, Ethernet (TCP-IP), IEEE 1394 port,
Parallel port etc.
[NOTE: Mobile Communication Equipment –
is an example of an embedded system with external communication interface]

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On board level communication interface systems are classified into
i) I2C (Inter Integrated Circuit) Bus
ii) SPI (Serial Peripheral Interface) Bus
iii) UART (Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter)
iv) 1-Wires Interface
v) Parallel Interface

3.3.1 Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter (UART)

In UART communication, two UARTs will communicate directly with each other. Only two wires are needed
to transmit data between two UARTs. Data flows from the TXD pin of the transmitting UART to the RXD pin
of the receiving UART and vice versa, as shown in the fig.10.

Fig. 10 Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter (UART)

UART data transmission is an asynchronous form of serial data transmission, which means there is no clock
signal to synchronize the output of transmitting UART and the input of receiving UART. Instead of a clock
signal, the transmitting UART consists start and stop bits with the data packet being transferred. The
transmitting UART sends a single bit at a time. After sending one bit, the next bit is sent. In this way, all the
data bits are sent to the receiver UART with a predefined baud rate (there will be a certain delay in
transmitting each bit). For example, to send one byte of data at 9600 baud rate, each bit is sent at 108 µsec
delay.
UART transmitted data is organized into packets. Each packet contains 1 start bit, 5 to 9 data bits (depending
on the UART), an optional parity bit, and 1 or 2 stop bits as shown in the below figure.

Packet

1 start 0 to 1 1 to 2
5 to 9 data bits
bit parity bits stop bits

Data frame
Start bit:The UART data transmission line is normally held at a high voltage level when it’s not transmitting
data. To start the transfer of data, the transmitting UART pulls the transmission line from high to low for one
(1) clock cycle. When the receiving UART detects the high to low voltage transition, it begins reading the bits
in the data frame

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Data Frame: The data frame contains the actual data being transferred. It can be 5 bits up to 8 bits long if a
parity bit is used. If no parity bit is used, the data frame can be 9 bits long.
Parity bit:It counts the number of 1’s and checks if the total is an even or odd number. If the parity bit = 0
(even parity), otherwise odd parity. The parity bit indicates if any data has changed during transmission. Bits
can be changed by electromagnetic radiation, mismatched baud rates, or long-distance data transfers.
Stop Bits: To indicate the end of the data packet, the sending UART drives the data transmission line from a
low to a high voltage for one to two bit(s) duration.
UART provides hardware hand-shaking signal support for controlling the serial data flow. It was used in IBM
computers. Nowadays, even though USB has replaced UART in computers and other devices, it is still used in
many serial data communication applications like GPS receivers, blue-tooth modules, GSM and GPRS
modems, Wireless Communication Systems, RFID based applications etc.

3.3.2 Parallel Interface

It is used for communicating with peripheral devices (Ex: ADC) which are memory mapped to host of the
system. Host has a parallel bus and it has the control over read/ write operation.
Communication through parallel bus is controlled by control signal interface between host and device. The
control signals for communication includes read (RD), write (WR) signal and Chip Set (CS) signal.
The peripheral devices normally contain a CS line and it becomes active only when this line is asserted by the
host processor through the address decoder circuit (See the fig.11). When the address is selected, CS line is
activated by decoder circuit. The direction of data transfer (host to peripheral device or peripheral device to
host) can be controlled through the control signal lines for ‘Read’ and ‘Write’. Only the host processor has
control over the ‘Read’ and ‘Write’ control signals.

Fig. 11 Parallel Interface

Address and data bus width must match with the host device and the peripheral device. If the peripheral
device wants to start communication, it can inform the same to microcontroller through the interrupts (An
interrupt is a signal to the host processor raised by the peripheral device indicating an event that needs
immediate attention). Parallel data communication offers highest speed for data transfer.

3.3.3 Universal Serial Bus (USB)

USB is a wired high speed external communication interface device for data communication that enables
universal communication between the peripheral devices and a host controller.
USB Topology: The USB communication system follows a star topology with a USB host at the center and one
or more USB peripheral devices (or USB hosts connected to it) as shown in the fig.12. The USB host

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controller has an embedded hub called the root hub. A hub is a common connection point that allows multiple
devices to connect in the network. A hub contains multiple ports. They are of two types: self powered and bus
powered hubs. A USB host can support connections up to 127, including slave peripheral devices and other
USB hosts. Each device receives unique address from the host (PC). USB transmits data in packet format.
Each data packet has a standard format.

Fig.12 (a) USB tiered star topology (b) Example of tiered star topology

Cable Description: The USB host controller is responsible for controlling the data communication, including
establishing connectivity with USB slave devices, packetizing and formatting the data packet.
For example, USB 2.0 cable, has four shielded wires. Red wire (1) for power supply voltage (+5V) and black
wire (4) for ground that allow the device to be powered by the host through the USB connection. The other
two wires, green wire (3) is for the data (D+) upstream and white wire (2) is for data (D-) downstream are
responsible for the transmission of the data, which is streamed in a form of a differential signal (between 0
and 3.3V). The USB cable supports communication distance of up to 5 meters.

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USB ports can be categorized based either on versions (USB 1.0, USB 2.0 and USB 3.0) or the type of USB
cable (Connector type A, B, C.).
Type-A port (USB 2.0 standard) has a flat rectangle interface that inserts into a hub or USB host which
transmits data and supplies power. Commonly used in desktop, laptop, media players, and gaming consoles.
Type-B connector is square with slanted exterior corners. Commonly used in printers, hard drives, and
phones.
Type-C is used in major smart phone brands.
Mini and micro connectors used for connecting digital cameras, phones, laptops and tabs.
Data Transmission
USB supports four different types of data transfers, namely; Control, Bulk, Isochronous and Interrupt.
Control transfer is used by USB system software to query, configure and issue commands to the USB device.
Bulk transfer is used for sending a block of data to a device. It supports error checking and correction.
Example: Transferring data from PC to a printer.
Isochronous data transfer is used for real time data communication. It doesn’t support error checking and re-
transmission of data in case of any transmission loss.
Interrupt transfer is used for transferring small amount of data. Interrupt transfer mechanism makes use of
polling technique to see whether the USB device has any data to send.
Example: Devices like Mouse and Keyboard, which transmits fewer amounts of data.

3.3.4 Wi-Fi

Wi-Fi is a wireless high-speed internet connection technique used to connect computers, tablets, smart phones
and other accessing devices for internet. Wi-Fi uses radio waves sent from a wireless router to a nearby
device, which translates the signal into a data format. Wi-Fi connection is established from the access point to
the Wi-Fi enabled devices within a specific range as shown in the fig.13. There are four major types of Wi-Fi
standards, operate in wide range of data speed and transmits on 2.4GHz or 5GHz frequency.

Fig.13 Wi-Fi network

Router: Wi-Fi router is the medium between the internet connection (WAN) and a wireless network. It acts
as a base station. The router sends out radio waves through its antennas and broadcasts them into local area,
allowing multiple devices access to the internet simultaneously.

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The Wi-Fi router is responsible for
i) restricting the access to a network,
ii) assigning IP address to devices on the network,
iii) routing data packets to the intended devices on the network.
When Wi-Fi enabled device encounters a hotspot the device is then connected to that network wirelessly by
configuring with the SSID and Password. Wi-Fi network is identified with a Service Set Identifier (SSID). If
the network is security enabled, a password may be required to connect to a particular SSID.
For securing the data communication, Wi-Fi employs different security mechanisms like
• Wired Equivalency Privacy (WEP)
• Wireless Protected Access (WPA), etc.
SSID: It is a name that identifies the Wi-Fi network and differentiates one Wi-Fi from another Wi-Fi. When
multiple wireless networks overlap in a certain location, SSIDs make sure that data gets sent to the correct
destination.
Sl. Transmitting
Wi-Fi standards Data speed
No frequency
1 IEEE802.11b 2.4GHz 11Mbps
2 IEEE802.11a 5GHz 54Mbps
3 IEEE802.11g 2.4GHz 100Mbps
4 IEEE802.11n 2.4GHz/5.0GHz 600Mbps

Wi-Fi supports data rates ranging from 1 Mbps to 1300Mbps (Growing towards higher rates as technology
progresses), depending on the standards and access method. Depending on the type of antenna and usage
location (indoor / outdoor), Wi-Fi offers a range of 100 to 1000 feet coverage area.

3.3.5 General Packet Radio Service (GPRS), 3G, 4G, LTE

GSM, stands for Global Systems for Mobile Communications, is basic standard bearer of 2G technologies. It
is mainly used in mobile communication.
Features: Short Messaging System (SMS) was introduced; the data rate is only 9.6Kb/s.

General packet radio service (GPRS) is the first packet based mobile data service that available to users to
get the phones online. Packet-based means the data is broken up into small blocks and transmitted over
various channels. The data is then re-assembled into its original order at the receiving end.
GPRS supports a theoretical maximum transfer rate of 171.2kbps.
Features of GPRS: It’s a 2G technology network.
MMS (Multimedia Messaging System)
It allowed subscribers to send videos, pictures, or sound clips to each other just like text messages.
GPRS also provided mobile handset the ability to surf the internet at dial-up speeds.
The limitation of GPRS: data cannot be sent while a voice call is in progress.

EDGE (Enhanced Data GSM Evolution)

✓ GPRS and EDGE are both 2G technology but EDGE is significantly faster with a download speed of
up to 384Kbps. EDGE is sometimes called a 2.5G network

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1G: Analog cellular telephony (voice only)
Introduced in 1980’s
➢ It’s speed was upto 2.4kbps
➢ It uses analog signal
➢ The frequency is typically 800 MHz band
Limitations:
➢ Poor voice quality
➢ Poor battery life
➢ Large phone size
➢ No security
➢ Limited capacity
2G: Digital cellular telephony
2G launched in the year 1991. Its capabilities were achieved by allowing multiple users on a single channel
via multiplexing. It implemented the concept of CDMA and GSM technology.
➢ It uses digital signals.
➢ Data speed was upto 64kbps.
➢ It enables services such as text messages, picture messages and multi-media message (MMS).
➢ Internal roaming , conference calls, call hold and billing
➢ Provided better quality voice calls
➢ It used a bandwidth of 30 to 200 KHz

Limitations:
➢ It requires digital signals for communication.
➢ If there is no network coverage then digital signals would weak.
➢ These systems are unable to handle complex data such as videos.
➢ Reduced range

3G: High-speed digital cellular telephony (including video telephony)

3G Networks are based on WCDMA (Wideband Code Division Multiple Access). 3G network combines
aspects of the 2G network with new technologies and protocols to deliver a significantly faster data rate.
➢ Phone calls
➢ Speed of up to 2 Mbps
➢ Global roaming
➢ Send/receive large email messages
➢ High speed web
➢ Navigation / maps
➢ Video conferencing
➢ TV streaming
➢ Electronic agenda meeting reminder

HSDPA (High-Speed Down-link Packet Access)

• It is based on the 3G network and an enhancement to 3G. Thus has a faster speed, download speed can
be up to 14Mbps. HSDPA is sometimes called 3.5G.

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4G: Fourth Generation Technology
It was released in 2008. IP-based “anytime, anywhere” voice, data, and multimedia telephony at faster data
rates than 3G. The key technologies involved are MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple Output) and OFDM
(Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing). The most important 4G standards are Wi-MAX and LTE.
What is 4G LTE?
4G LTE is a “fourth generation long term evolution”, capable of delivering a very fast and secure internet
connection using a different radio interface together. LTE is the upgrade path for carriers with both
GSM/UMTS networks and CDMA2000 networks.
Features of 4G LTE:
➢ Support gaming services, HD mobile TV, video conferencing, 3D TV
➢ High speed, high capacity and low cost per bit (Speeds of up to 20 Mbps or more.)
➢ Global and scalable mobile networks.
➢ Ad hoc and multi-hop networks
➢ download speed as high as 99.6Mbps

Generation 1G 2G 3G 4G
Period 1980-1990 1990-2000 2000-2010 2010-2020

Band width 150/900MHz 900MHz 100MHz 100MHz

Frequency Analog Signal (30KHz) 1.8GHz (Digital) 1.6 - 2.0GHz 2 - 8GHz

Data rate 2Kbps 64Kbps 144Kbps – 2Mbps 100Mbps – 1Gbps

First wireless Digital broadband, High speed,

Characteristics Digital
communication increased speed all IP
Technology Analog cellular Digital cellular (GSM) CDMA, UMTS,EDGE LTE, Wi-Fi

WHAT IS 5G ?
5G is a packet switched wireless system with wide area coverage and high throughput. 5G wireless uses
OFDM and millimeter wireless that enables data rate of 20 Mbps and frequency band of 2 to 8 GHz.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Compare embedded systems and general computing systems. Also provide major application areas of
Embedded Systems.
2. Write a note on classification of embedded systems.
3. Using suitable diagrams explain instrumentation and control systems.
4. Give the classification of transducers with examples.
5. Bring out the differences between RISC and CISC, Harvard & Von-Neumann.
6. Distinguish between microprocessor and microcontroller systems.
7. Explain the working, principle of operation and applications of stepper motor.
8. Define actuator and briefly describe the following actuators - LED, Piezo-buzzer.
9. With relevant diagrams explain the operation of relay, push button.
10. Define sensors and give its classification with examples.
11. Explain the different configurations of 7-segment LED Display.
12. Describe the matrix keyboard interfacing.
13. Bring out the main features of UART and USB.
14. Explain the following external communication interfaces: Wi-Fi
15. Bring out the main features of General Packet Radio Service (GPRS), 3G, 4G, LTE
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 MODULE 4
Communication Systems

Analog and Digital Communication

Modern communication system scheme
Information source and input transducer
Transmitter
Channel or Medium – Hardwired and Softwired
Noise
Receiver
Multiplexing
Types of communication systems

Types of modulation
AM
FM
Phase Modulation
Pulse Modulation
PAM
PWM
PPM
PCM

Concept of Radio wave propagation (Ground, space, sky)

Concepts of Sampling theorem
Nyquist rate

Digital Modulation Schemes – ASK, FSK, PSK

Radio signal transmission
Multiple access techniques
Multipath and fading
Error Management
Antenna
Types of antennas

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 Communication?

❑ Transfer of information from one point to

other (or) Exchange of Information between
two points.
❑ Electronic Communication: Sending data or
Information using electronic devices. This
allows rapid transfer of goods, money and
ideas

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Need for Communication

❑ Speedy transmission: Requires only few seconds to communicate through electronic media due the
technology available for quick transmission
❑ Wide Coverage: The whole world has become a global village and communication around the globe
requires just a second
❑ Low Cost: Cost of an SMS is cheaper than sending a letter by post
❑ Exchange of feedback: Instant exchange of feedback
❑ 24/7 accessibility: Can be accessed anytime

Message signal: The signal that consists information is called modulating signal. The modulating signal is
usually of low-frequency signal. (20 Hz – 20 KHz)

Carrier signal:
The signal which carries the information is called carrier signal. Carrier signal is a high frequency signal
which does not contains any information. The purpose of this signal is just to carry the message signal. The
range is in terms of Mega Hertz.

4.1.1 Modern Communication System scheme

General form of a basic communication system is shown in the fig.1.

Fig.1 Illustration of Basic Communication System

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 Elements of Communication System
➢ Information source and transducer
➢ Transmitter
➢ Channel or medium
➢ Noise
➢ Receiver
➢ Output transducer and final destination
A communication system transmits information from an information source (message) to a destination.
➢ Examples: Voice, Live scenes (video), music, written text, and e-mail.
A transducer is a device that converts a physical signal into its corresponding electrical signal and vice
versa.
Examples of input transducers: Sound - Microphone
Picture - Camera
Text - Keyboard
Temperature/Pressure - Sensor with transducer

(i) Information Source and Transducer

Message or information originates in the information source may be in the form of sound (human speech),
picture (image source), words (text). However, out of these messages, only the desired message is selected
and communicated.
Type of Signals

Signals are functions that carry information. We use signals to convey information from place to place. In
electronics, signals are mainly in the form of varying voltages. There are two types of signals.

Analog Signals Digital Signals

Analog signal is continuous and time varying Digital signal have two or more states (binary
form)
Troubleshooting is difficult. Troubleshooting is easy.
Easily affected by the noise. These are stable and less prone to noise.
Analog signals use continuous values to represent the Digital signals use discrete values to represent the
data, usually in the form of sine wave. data, usually in the form of square wave.
Accuracy may be affected by noise. Accuracy is immune from the noise.
Analog signals may be corrupted during data Digital signals are not corrupted during data
transmission. transmission.
Analog signals use more power. Digital signals use less power.
Examples: Temperature, Pressure, Flow measurements, Examples: Motor Start, Trip, etc.
etc.
Components like resistors, Capacitors, Inductors, Diodes Components like transistors, logic gates, and
are used in analog circuits. micro-controllers are used in digital circuits.

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A transducer is a device which converts one form of energy into another form. Generally, the input transducer
converts the non-electrical signal (Ex: sound signal or light signal) into an electrical signal.

For example, in case of radio-broadcasting, a microphone converts the information or massage which is in the
form of sound waves into corresponding electrical signal.

(ii) Transmitter
The base band signal (electrical form), output from the input transducer is applied to the input of the
transmitter. The transmitter section processes the signal prior to transmission. The nature of processing
depends on the type of communication system.
There are two options for processing signals prior transmission
(i) The baseband signal, which lies in the low frequency spectrum, is translated to a higher frequency
spectrum --- carrier communication system
In this process, modulation is the main function of the transmitter. In modulation, the message signal is
superimposed upon the high-frequency carrier signal. As the original message signal cannot be transmitted
over a longer distance because of their low frequency and amplitude, they are superimposed with high
frequency carrier signal.
(ii) The baseband signal is transmitted without translating it to a higher frequency spectrum --- baseband
communication system.

If the signal is to be transmitted through the space, then the transmitter will convert the electrical signals into
radio waves. If the signal is to be transmitted through the fiber optic cable then the transmitter will convert the
electrical signal into light or optical signal.

Typical Analog transmitter

Let s(t) be the baseband signal applied to the modulated stage as shown in the fig1a, to translate (modulate) it
from low to high frequency spectrum. That means, s(t) is superimposed upon the high-frequency carrier signal
c(t), which is generated by a high frequency carrier oscillator. The output of the modulated stage is called the
modulated signal, and is designated as x(t). This signal is then applied to amplifier stage. The voltage of the
modulated signal is amplified to drive the power amplifier stage. The power amplifier that amplifies the

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power of the modulated signal x(t) and thus it carries enough power to reach the receiver stage of the
communication system. Finally, the signal is passed to the transmission medium or channel.

Fig.1a Block diagram of analog transmitter section

For example, in radio broadcasting the sound signal (message signal) is converted into the electrical signal
(baseband signal), by the input transducer. Then, it is modulated with the radio frequency range carrier signals
to produce radio signals. These radio signals are transmitted through electromagnetic waves (open space),
referred to as radio waves.
Radio Frequency (RF) bands spread in the range between 30 kHz and 300 GHz. Transmission systems are
operated in the RF spectrum range and its application in communication systems is tabulated in the table-1.

Table 1: Frequency ranges and its application in communication systems

Frequency Name Frequency Range Application

Super high frequencies 3GHz-30GHz RADAR

Ultra high frequencies 300MHz-3GHz Satellite communication, cellular phones
Very high frequencies 30MHz-300MHz TV and FM
High frequencies 3MHz-30MHz Commercial short wave broadcast
Medium frequencies 300kHz-3MHz AM broadcast
Low frequencies 30kHz-300kHz Navigation, submarine communication
Very low frequencies 3kHz-30kHz Navigation, submarine communication
Voice frequencies 300Hz-3kHz Navigation ,submarine, audio
Extremely low frequencies 30Hz-300Hz Power transmission

(iii) Channel or medium

The term channel means the medium through which the message travels from the transmitter to the
receiver. The transmitted signal should have adequate power to withstand the channel noise. The channel
characteristics also impose constraints on the bandwidth.
Depending on the physical implementations, one can classify the channels in the following two groups:

a) Hardwired channels (Manmade structure)

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 Transmission lines: It is a conductive medium consisting of two or more conductors through which
electrical signal are transmitted from transmitting point to receiver point.
Example: i) Twisted pair cables used in telephony, in which two conductors are twisted together for the
purposes of improving electromagnetic compatibility.
ii) Coaxial cable used in TV transmission, to carry high-frequency electrical signals with low losses.
Waveguide: consisting of a hollow, metal tube of uniform cross-section used for transmitting electro-
magnetic waves. When signals entered the waveguides are reflected at the metallic walls and propagate at
the other end. The energy is in the form of electric field and magnetic field which are perpendicular to
each other.
Optical Fibre: consist of very thin hollow glass fibre through which signal is transmitted in the form of
light energy.
b) Soft-wired channels (no physical link between transmitter and receiver)
Natural resources which can be used as the transmission medium for signals.
Example: Air or Open space and Sea water.
The signals are transmitted in the form of electromagnetic (EM) waves also called radio waves. Radio
waves travel through open space at a speed equal to that of light (c = 3 x 108 m/s)
(iv) Noise
Noise is defined as unwanted electrical signal which do not have any useful information. Noise is a highly
undesirable part of a communication system, and has to be minimized. When noise is mixed with the
transmitted signal, it rides over it and deteriorates its waveform.

Noise calculation:
Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR) and Noise figure (F)
SNR is defined as the ratio of signal power (S) to the noise power (N), often expressed in decibels (dB).

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(v) Typical Analog Receiver
The main function of the receiver is to reproduce the original message signal. This reproduction of the
original signal is accomplished by a process known as the demodulation or detection. Demodulation is the
reverse process of modulation carried out in transmitter. Typical analog receiver section is shown in the fig.2.
The signal received by the receiver is r(t). Due to attenuation this received signal r(t) is a weak signal. A
voltage amplifier amplifies to make strong enough for further processing.

Fig.2 Block diagram of analog receiver section

Next, this signal is applied to the demodulator. In demodulation, the baseband signal is separated from the
high-frequency carrier signal. After recovering the original baseband signal s’(t), its voltage and power is
amplified before send to the final destination block.

(vi) Destination

Destination is the final stage which is used to convert an electrical message signal into its original form. For
example in radio broadcasting, the destination is a loudspeaker which works as a transducer that converts the
electrical signal to original sound signal.

4.1.2 Types of Communication Systems

❑ Communication Systems based on Physical Infrastructure

Based on physical infrastructure there are two types of communication systems:
Line communication systems: Uses power lines to transfer data from one point to another point. There is a
physical link, called a hardwire channel between the transmitter and the receiver inline communication
systems. Ex: Land line telephony, Cable TV
❑ Communication systems based on Signal specifications

A. Based on Nature of baseband or information signal

i) Analog communication systems: Exchange of information between two points through analog
signals.
Ex: Audio, video and pictures between two points using the analog signals.

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 ii) Digital communication systems: Exchange of information between two points through digital
signals.
Ex: Audio, HDTV

B. Based on Nature of the transmitted signal

i) Baseband communication system: Baseband signals are transmitted without translating (or
amplified) to higher frequencies. Ex: Land line, fax, etc
ii) Carrier communication system: The baseband signal (low frequency) is mixed with high frequency
carrier signal. Ex: Radio, voice messages and calls.

4.1.3 Multiplexing

Multiplexing is a process which allows more than one signal to be transmitted through a single channel.

In multiplexing, each baseband signals are modulated with different carrier frequencies. At the transmitter
they can be mixes and transmitted. At the receiver end, all different transmitted signals can be easily separated
by the known carrier frequencies.

Due to multiplexing it is possible to increase the number of communication channels so that more information
can be transmitted where it makes the communication system economical. The typical applications of
multiplexing are telephone, satellite communication etc.

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4.1.4 Types of Modulation

Modulation is the process in which any one of the parameters (amplitude, frequency or phase) of the high
frequency carrier signal is varied according to the instantaneous values of the low frequency message signal,
keeping other parameters constant.

Analog modulation is typically used for AM, FM radio, and short-wave broadcasting. Digital modulation
involves transmission of binary signals (0 and 1).

Amplitude Modulation (AM) is the process in which the amplitude of the carrier signal is varied according to
the instantaneous values of the message signal, where as the frequency and phase are kept constant. It is as
shown in the fig.2.

The first figure is the carrier wave, which is a high frequency signal and contains no information. Denoted as
c(t) = Ac cos(2πfct)
The next one is the modulating wave, which is the message signal; (low frequency signal) contains
information. Denoted as m(t) = Am cos(2πfmt)
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The last one is the resultant amplitude modulated wave. Mathematically, AM is denoted as
VAM = Vc sin ωc t + cos (ωc - ωm) t - cos (ωc + ωm) t
In AM, most of the transmitted power is wasted in carrier, but used for longer distance communication.
Frequency Modulation is defined as a process in which the frequency of the carrier is varied in accordance
with the instantaneous values of the message signal, where as the amplitude and phase are kept constant.

Δ f (frequency deviation)

Mathematically, FM wave is denoted as S (t) = A sin [2πfct + mf )]

Modulation index (depth of modulation) mf =
Carrier Swing = f(max) - f(min) = 2f
In FM, all the transmitted power is useful, but used for short distance communication.
Phase Modulation is defined as a process in which the phase of the carrier is varied in accordance with the
instantaneous values of the message signal, where as the amplitude and frequency are kept constant.

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Mathematical equation of PM wave will be
s(t)=Ac cos(2πfct+βcos(2πfmt))
Where, β = modulation index = Δϕ = kpAm and Δϕ is phase deviation.
Phase modulation is used in mobile communication systems.

4.1.5 Pulse Modulation

In pulse modulation, the signal is transmitted in the form of pulses. In analog pulse modulation, the
continuous signals are sampled at regular intervals. Pulse modulation can be classified as follows.

Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) is an analog modulating scheme in which the amplitude of the carrier
pulse varies proportional to the instantaneous amplitude of the message signal.

Message signal is sampled at regular intervals using carrier pulse train. The amplitude of each pulse is directly
proportional to the instantaneous values of amplitude of the modulating signal at the time of pulse occurrence.

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Advantages:
➢ PAM is the simplest form of pulse modulation.
➢ Its implementation is quite easy.
Disadvantages:
➢ The transmission bandwidth required is very large
➢ Due to the variation in amplitude, transmission power also varies
➢ Less immune to noise due to amplitude variation
Applications: used in LED lighting, in the Ethernet communication system, etc

Pulse width or Pulse duration modulation (PWM or PDM)

PWM is a modulation technique in which each pulse duration is made proportional to instantaneous values of
the modulating signal. That means, starting time and amplitude of PWM signal is constant as carrier pulses,
but the width is varied in accordance with the amplitude of the modulating signal.

Advantages:
➢ Noise is less, since in PWM, amplitude is held constant.
➢ Signal and noise separation is very easy.
Disadvantage: Variable pulse width causes variation in the transmission power. Large bandwidth is required.
Application: used in telecommunications, brightness controlling of light, speed control of DC motors.

Pulse Position Modulation (PPM)

In PPM, the amplitude and width of the pulses are kept constant and only the position of the pulses is varied
in accordance with the amplitude of the message signal.

PPM signal is generated in reference to a PWM signal. Thus, the trailing edge of the PWM signal acts as the
beginning point of the pulses of PPM signal.
Advantages:
➢ Recovering a PPM signal from distorted PPM is quite easy.
➢ Transmission power is constant.
➢ Noise is less than PAM and PWM, since in PPM signal amplitude and width is held constant.
Disadvantage: Large bandwidth is required
Applications: used in an optical communication system, in radio control and in military applications.

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4.1.6 Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

PCM is a modulation technique in which analog signal gets converted into digital form in order to have signal
transmission through a digital network.

PCM system allows the representation of the analog

message signal as a sequence of binary coded pulses
(logic states 0’s and 1’s). The major steps involved
in PCM is sampling, quantizing and encoding. It is
shown in the above fig.
Sampling: Converting an analog signal to a discrete
time signal by multiplying the analog signal with
periodic impulse train.

Quantization: ADC unit rounded off the samples to

the nearest value of a finite set of allowable values.
Encoding: The rounded off values are binary coded.

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Advantages:
1. Immune to channel induced noise
2. Secured data transmission
3. Ensures uniform transmission quality
Disadvantages:
Requires large transmission bandwidth and more complex than other systems.

4.1.7 Sampling theorem and Nyquist Rate

Sampling theorem: A band limited analog signal can be sampled and perfectly reconstructed from its samples
if the sampling frequency is at least twice the maximum frequency of the base band signal.
i. e, fs ≥ 2fmax
Nyquist Rate
To discretize the analog signals, the gap between the samples
should be fixed. That gap can be termed as a sampling period Ts.
Sampling Frequency, fs = 1/Ts (sampling rate)

Sampling
Where, Ts = the sampling period
The sampling rate denotes the number of samples taken
per second, or for a finite set of values.

Quantization

Aliasing is an effect of the sampling that causes different

signals to become indistinguishable. Due to aliasing, the
Sampling

signal reconstructed from samples may become different

than the original analog signal.

Aliasing occurred when fs < 2fmax.

Aliasing is avoided by:

i) The analog low pass (anti aliasing) filter processes the analog
input to obtain the band-limited signal.
ii) Sampling the signal at a higher rate than the Nyquist rate
(fs ≥ 2fmax).

4.2 Radio Wave Propagation

Radio waves exhibit the properties of light with the velocity 3x108 m/s. These are electromagnetic (EM)
waves that consist of electric and magnetic field components. It is traversed in nature. Radio signals can travel

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from one end to another over vast distances. Since these are EM waves, they exhibit properties (like light
waves) such as reflection, refraction, diffraction, absorption, polarization and scattering.

Radio propagation is the way of transmitting radio signals in different ways:

i) Ground or surface wave
Ground waves can be used for radio communication. Ground wave transmission is very reliable
irrespective of the atmospheric conditions.

Frequency range: 30 kHz to 3 MHz

Transmission distance: 100 to 1000 km
Example: AM radio broadcast in the medium frequency band cover local areas.

ii) Space or tropo-spheric wave

In space wave (or line of sight propagation), radio waves move in the earth’s troposphere within about
12 KM over the surface of the earth. Frequency range: 3MHz to 30 MHz. Example, TV Transmission.
The space wave is made up of two components:
(a) a direct or line-of- sight wave from the transmitting to the receiving antenna and
(b) an indirect or ground-reflected wave traversing form the transmitting antenna to ground and
reflected to the receiving antenna.

iii) Sky wave

Radio waves transmitted from the transmitting antenna reach the receiving antenna after reflection
from the ionosphere (the earth’s upper atmosphere).
Sky wave is responsible for short wave transmission around the globe via successive reflections at the
ionosphere and the earth’s surface.
Ionosphere - The ionized region extending about 80 KM above the earth’s surface. In ionosphere
radiation from the sun ionizes atoms and molecules that liberate electrons and ions from molecules.
The propagation of radio wave through the ionosphere is affected by the electrons and ions. The effect
of the electrons on the propagation is much greater than that of the ions since the electronic mass is
much less than the ionic mass.

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 Fig.4 Radio wave propagation

Advantages of sky wave propagation

1. It supports large distance propagation.
2. The frequency range of operation is considerably high.
3. Attenuation due to atmospheric conditions is less.
Disadvantages of sky wave propagation
1. Long-distance propagation requires large-sized antennas.
2. Due to the presence of the ionosphere near and far during night and day respectively there exist
variation in signal transmission in day and night.
Applications
Sky wave propagation is widely used in mobile and satellite communications.

4.3 Digital Modulation Schemes

In digital communications, the modulating signal consists of binary data. When it is required to transmit
digital signals, the amplitude, frequency or phase of the sinusoidal carrier is varied in accordance with the
incoming digital data.
Digital modulation schemes are classified as
i) Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
ii) Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
iii) Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

ASK (Amplitude Shift Keying)

ASK represents digital data as variations in the amplitude of a carrier wave. ASK signal can generated when
the incoming binary data and the sinusoidal carrier are applied a product modulator as inputs.

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FSK (Frequency Shift Keying)
In this technique digital signal is transmitted by switching between low frequency and high frequency in order
to represent 0’s and 1’s. The simplest FSK is Binary FSK (BFSK). It uses a pair of discrete frequencies to
transmit binary (0s and 1s) information.

Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

The simplest form of PSK is binary phase shift keying (BPSK). In this case, the carrier phase is shifted
between two different phases (typically 0° and 180°) depending on whether 0-bit or 1-bit is being transmitted.

For example:
0- bit: the symbol transmitted is Vc cos (2πfc t)
1- bit: the symbol transmitted is Vc cos (2πfc t +180°) = − Vc cos(2πfc t)

4.4 Radio signal Transmission

From the fig.5 the wireless transmitter accepts four different binary streams of bits (00, 10, 11 and 01) from
the application software. Further, these bits encoded on to a radio wave, known as a carrier by adjusting its
amplitude or phase. Transmitter operates in two stages. In the first stage, quadrature phase shift keying
(QPSK) modulator accepts the incoming binary bits and convert it to symbols that represents the amplitude
and the phase. Then, the symbols are passed over the analog transmitter, which generates the radio wave.

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 Fig.5 Wireless communication transmitter

QPSK modulator takes two bits at a time and transmits them using a radio wave. Four different binary states
have phases of 45o, 135o, 225o, and 315o as shown in the fig.6.

Fig.6 (a) QPSK representation (b) QPSK constellation diagram

The distance of each state from the origin represents the amplitude of the transmitted wave, while angle
measured anti-clockwise from x-axis represents the phase.
Each symbol is conveniently represented by two components: in-phase (I) and quadrature (Q).
I = a cos Φ (real part)
and Q = a sin Φ (imaginary part)

Note: Radio works by transmitting and receiving electromagnetic waves. Radio signal uses specific radio frequency
AM is expressed in kilo Hertz, while FM radio is expressed in mega Hertz.

LTE Modulation scheme

LTE (Long Term Evolution) is a standard for wireless broadband communication for mobile devices
(marketed as 4G). LTE uses four modulation schemes together as given below.
i) Binary Phase Shift Keying – BPSK
ii) Quadrature Phase Shift Keying - QPSK
iii) 16 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation -16 QAM
iv) 64 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation – 64 QAM

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i) BPSK sends one bit at a time using two states (0 and 1) representing phases of 0o and 180o or signal
amplitudes of +1 and -1

ii) QPSK sends two bits at a time iii) 16 - QAM sends four bits at a iv) 64 - QAM sends six bits at a
using 4 states (00, 01, 10 and 11) time using 16 states to represent time using 64 states to represent
to represent amplitude and phase amplitude and phase. amplitude and phase.
by 45o, 135o, 225o, and 315o

4.5 Multiple Access Techniques

Multiple access is a technique to provide communication service to multiple users over a single channel. It
allows multiple mobile users share the allotted spectrum in the most effective manner.
Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
Available frequency band is split into smaller frequency channels, and different channels are assigned to
different users. The carriers are separated by guard bands, which avoid the interference between the users.
Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
Various users can transmit at the same frequency band at different times. Every user is permitted to transmit
only in specific time slots using a common frequency band.
GSM uses a combination of both TDMA and FDMA techniques.LTE uses orthogonal FDMA techniques.

Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

Mobiles receive signals on the same carrier frequency and at the same time. But the signals are labeled by the
use of codes, which allows a mobile to separate its own signal from the others.
CDMA is the common platform on which 3G technologies are built.

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FDD and TDD Modes
Duplexing: Allows users to send information simultaneously to the base station, while receiving information
from the base station. The wireless telephony applies duplexing technique where talking and listening is
enabled at a time.
Frequency Division Duplexing (FDD): Base station and mobile will transmit and receive at the same time, but
using different carrier frequencies. FDD uses two separate frequency bands for every user. A sufficient guard
band needs to separate the transmitting and receiving channels, so they do not interfere with one another. FDD
is suitable for radio communication systems. It uses frequency for uplink and down link.

[Down link: Base Station to mobile; Uplink: Mobile to Base Station]

Time Division Duplexing (TDD)- Base station and mobile will transmit and receive on the same carrier
frequency but at different times. Time slots could be dynamically allocated separated by a guard band. A
guard period ensures that UL and DL transmissions do not collide. TDD is more suitable for fixed wireless
systems. It uses time for uplink and down link.

4.6 Multipath and Fading

As a result of reflections and diffractions the

signals can take several different paths from the
transmitter to the receiver. This phenomenon is
known as multipath.

At the receiver end, the incoming rays can add

together in different ways, which are classified
as constructive interference and destructive
interference.

If the peaks of the incoming rays coincide, then

they reinforce each other, a situation known as
constructive interference.

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If the peaks of one ray coincide with the troughs of another, the result is destructive interference, in which the
rays cancel. Destructive interference can make the received signal power drop to a very low level, a situation
known as fading.

If the mobile moves from one place to another, then the ray geometry changes, so the interference pattern
changes between constructive and destructive. Fading is therefore a function of time.
The amplitude and phase of the received signal vary over a time scale called the coherence time, Tc that can be
estimated as

Where, fD is mobile Doppler frequency, given by

Where, fc is carrier frequency, v is speed of mobile and c is speed of light (3x10-8m/s)

If the carrier frequency changes, wavelength of the radio signal also changes. This makes the pattern change
between constructive and destructive interference. The amplitude and phase of the received signal vary over a
scale called the coherence bandwidth, Bc that can be estimated as

Where, r is delay speed of radio channel.

4.7 Error Management

Noise and interference lead to errors in wireless communication.

Forward error correction – It is a technique used for controlling errors in data transmission over unreliable
or noisy communication channels. The transmitted information is represented using a codeword that is
typically two or three times as long. The extra bits supply additional, redundant data that allow the receiver to
recover the original information sequence.
For example, a transmitter might represent the information sequence 101 (3-bits) using the codeword
110010111 (9-bits). After an error in the second bit, the receiver might recover the codeword 100010111. If
the coding scheme has been well designed, then the receiver can conclude that this is not a valid codeword,
and that the most likely transmitted codeword was 110010111.

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The coding rate –is the number of information bits divided by the number of transmitted bits (1/3 in the
example above).
Forward error correction algorithms operate with a fixed coding rate. Despite this, a wireless transmitter can
still adjust the coding rate using the two- stage process shown in the below fig.

Automatic Repeat Request

Automatic repeat request (ARQ) is another error management technique, which is illustrated in fig.

Transmitter takes a block of information bits and uses them to compute some extra bits that are known as a
cyclic redundancy check (CRC).
It appends these to the information block and then transmits the two sets of data in the usual way. Receiver
separates the two fields and uses the information bits to compute the expected CRC bits.
If the observed and the expected CRC bits are the same, then it concludes that the information has been
received correctly and sends positive acknowledge back to the transmitter.
If CRC bits are the different, then it concludes that the error has occurred and sends negative acknowledge
back to the transmitter to request retransmission. Positive and negative acknowledgements are often
abbreviated to ACK and NACK respectively.
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A wireless communication system often combines these two error management techniques. Such a system
corrects most of the bit errors by the use of forward error correction and then uses automatic repeat requests to
handle the remaining errors that leak through.

4.8 Antennas and Types

Antenna is a device used for converting electromagnetic radiation in space into electrical currents in
conductors or vice-versa, depending on whether it is being used for receiving or for transmitting, respectively.
Antennas transform wire propagated waves into space propagated waves. Antennas receive electromagnetic
waves and pass them onto a receiver or they transmit electromagnetic waves which have been produced by a
transmitter.

Some of the features of the antenna are as follows.

• The radiation pattern of the antenna.
• The intensity of radiation.
• Benefit and direction.
• Effective aperture.
• Power gain and radiation efficiency
• Effective length.
• Polarization of the antenna.
• Bandwidth.
Working principle of Antenna

Types of Antenna
• Omni-directional Antennas
• Dipole Antennas
• Collinear omni Antennas
• Directional Antennas
• Patch Antennas
• Patch Array Antennas
• Yagi Antennas

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Omni-directional Antennas
It is a circular pattern in a given plane. It radiates equal power in all
directions perpendicular to the axis.
Examples : Dipole Antennas and Collinear antennas

Dipole Antennas
Dipole Antenna has two metallic rods (lie along the same axis) through
which current and frequency flow. The current flow creates an
electromagnetic wave. Energy radiates outward the horizon. Most commonly
referred as half-wavelength (λ/2) dipole. Omni-directional Antenna
Applications: Radio, TV receivers.

Collinear Omni Antennas

A collinear antenna consists of an array of dipole elements. These dipoles are parallel and collinear with each
other. This type of antenna has an enhanced gain. Higher gain implies same power radiated in a more focused
way. Applications: Base station antenna for dispatcher for police, fire, ambulance, and taxi services.

Directional Antennas
Effectively it sends and receives large
signals only in forward direction. They have
one main lobe and several side lobes.
They are available in different shapes, sizes
and design that according to the intended
purpose.
Example: dish or horn antennas
It is the best choice in a point to point
application.

Patch Antenna
In its simplest form is a single rectangular
conductive plate that is spaced above a ground
place.
These antennas are attractive due to their ease
of fabrication. It is widely used in portable
wireless devices.

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Patch Array Antennas
It is an arrangement of multiple patch antennas commonly driven by the
same source. It consists of patches arranged in the order of rows and
columns. Mainly this arrangement is made to achieve higher gain.
Yagi antenna

A Yagi antenna is a directional antenna that radiates signals in one main

direction. It consists of a long transmission line with a single driven element
consisting of two rods connected on either side of the transmission line. A
typical Yagi antenna has one reflector and one or more directors. Patch array antenna

Review Questions

1. Describe the blocks of the basic communication system.

2. Define the following terms: i) Carrier communication system ii) Baseband communication system
with neat and suitable waveforms.
3. Define and explain SNR, Noise Figure, channel types.
4. What is modulation? Explain types of analog modulation with the help of waveforms.
5. Explain the following with the help of waveforms
a) PAM b) PWM c) PPM d) PCM
6. Define sampling theorem and explain when aliasing can happen. Also mention the different ways in
which aliasing can be avoided.
7. With suitable waveforms explain digital modulation schemes.
8. Present the architecture of a wireless communication transmitter and its modulation scheme QPSK
with waveforms and constellation diagrams.
9. Discuss the transmission modes used in mobile communication system.
10. Discuss the various Multiple Access Techniques used in cellular network.
11. Briefly explain the concept of radio propagation methods.
12. Describe the classification of RF (Radio Frequency) spectrum with applications in communications
systems.
13. Define the following terms: i) Multipath, ii) Constructive and destructive interference, iii) Coherence
time, iv) coherence bandwidth, v) Delay spread
14. Explain different types of radio wave propagation with a neat diagram.
15. Write short notes on: Forward Error Correction, Automatic Repeat Request.
16. Define an antenna and discuss different types of antennas.

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 MODULE – 5
Wireless Networks
Cellular Wireless Networks
Introduction
Cellular telephone system
Cellular concept and frequency reuse

Wireless Network Topologies

First Generation (1G) Technology
Second Generation (2G) Technology
GSM Communications, GSM System architecture
Third Generation (3G) Technology
CDMA Technology, High-level architecture of LTE
Fourth Generation (4G) Technology
Wireless LAN
Bluetooth, Bluetooth Architecture

Satellite Communication
Elements of Satellite Communication
Types of satellites – GEO, LEO, MEO

Optical Fiber Communication

A fiber optic Communication system

Microwave Communication
Introduction
Frequency modulated microwave communication system

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5.1 Cellular Wireless Networks
Wireless technology employs radio waves (RF) and/or microwaves (IR signals) between the devices without
using wires or cables. It enables mobile communication, in turn, cellular networks allow broadcast of voice
and multimedia data between the mobile devices and the wireless network system. Hence, it makes human life
easier, saves time and effort.
A typical cell site offers geographical coverage of between 5 - 20 kms. The base station is responsible for
monitoring the level of the signals when a call is made from a mobile phone. When the user moves away from
the geographical coverage area of the base station (BS), the signal level may fall. This can cause a base station
to make a request to the mobile switching center (MSC) to transfer the control to another base station that is
receiving the strongest signals without notifying the subscriber; this phenomenon is called handover. Cellular
networks often encounter environmental interruptions like a moving tower crane, overhead power cables, or
the frequencies of other devices.
A cellular system comprises the following basic components:
Mobile Station (MS): This is the mobile handset. It consists: i) subscriber identity module (SIM) which stores
all the user specific data ii) software needed for communication with a mobile network.
Cell: A basic geographical service area (5-20kms) of a cellular communication system. Each cell is allocated a
band of frequencies and is served by a base station.
Base Station (BS): Each cell contains an antenna, which is controlled by a small office called base station,
consisting of transmitter, receiver, and control unit. Each BS is controlled by a MSC office.
Mobile Switching Center (MSC): It is the primary service delivery node for GSM/CDMA, responsible for
connecting calls, SMS and other services such as conference calls, FAX, billing. It interfaces with telephone
company zone offices, controls call processing, provides operation and maintenance (hand-over requirements
during the call).

Fig.1 Cellular system

5.1.1 Cellular concept and frequency reuse
In a cellular system, as shown in the fig. 1, hand-sets carried by the users, vehicles, etc are called Mobile
Stations (MS). The MS communicate to the Base Stations (BS) through a pair of frequency channels, one for
up-link and another for down-link. All the BS of cellular systems are controlled by a central switching station
called Mobile Switching Center (MSC). The MSC is responsible for all kinds of network management
functions such as channel allocations, handoffs, handover, billing, power control etc. The MSC can route
voice calls through the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) and it can also provide internet access.

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Features of cellular concept

i) Geographical area is divided into number of smaller service areas (5-20kms) called as cells.
ii) The groups of cells are known as clusters, in which no frequency is reused within a cluster.
iii) Frequencies used in one cell can be reused in other cell of neighboring clusters.
iv) High power transmitter is replaced by many low power transmitters, each providing coverage to only a
small portion of the service area.
v) Cluster size is not fixed, it can be varied based on the subscriber density and the demand.
vi) Small cells will increase the network capacity.

Fig. 2 Cellular concept in wireless & mobile networks

Disadvantages: i) Co-channel interference (CCI)

ii) Increase in hardware cost as cluster size increases.
iii) Reuse of radio channel in different cells

Frequency Reuse
In a cellular system, each cell has a base transmitter and receiver. Cells with the same number (say, cell-1 in
the fig.3,) use the same frequency in other nearby cells, thus allowing the frequency to be used for multiple
simultaneous conversations.

Fig.3 Concept of frequency reuse

Reuse distance, D is given by

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D = Minimum distance between center of cells that use the same frequency band (called co-channels)
R = Radius of a cell
N = number of cells in a repetitious pattern that provide sufficient isolation between two uses of the same
frequency (each cell in the pattern uses a unique band of frequencies), termed the reuse factor. N = 7, is
the smallest pattern that can provide sufficient isolation between two uses.
d = Distance between centers of adjacent cells. Relation is,

Reduction in Interference
The essential issue is to determine how many cells must intervene between two cells using the same frequency
so that the two cells do not interfere with each other.
Co-channel interference (CCI) caused by transmitting at the same frequency by two or more wireless systems,
that limits the reusing the same frequency channel in different cells. These are the ways to reduce CCI:
i) Sufficient distance between two co-channel cells to be maintained
ii) Use of directional antennas at the BS which is called as cell sectoring
iii) Increasing the ratio D/R
Adjacent channel interference (ACI) caused due to overlapping between two neighboring channels. These are
the ways to reduce ACI:
i) Filtering the signal to be received
ii) Proper separation of adjacent channels

5.1.2 Basic operation of cellular network (Transmitting and Receiving)

Basic operations of transmitting in a cellular telephone network are discussed in this section.
Assume a caller enters a 10-digit code (phone number) and
presses the send button.

1. Mobile unit initialization

➢ Mobile unit scans and choose strongest free channel.
➢ Automatically pick up a BS antenna of cell.
➢ Handshake is used to identify user and register location.

2. Request for connection

➢ Check if the set up channel is free and monitor up-link
channel (from BS) and wait for idle.

➢ Send number on the pre-selected channel.

3. Paging
➢ MSC attempts to connect to mobile unit and it sends over
the Mobile Identification Number (MIN) to all BSs
depending on called mobile number.

➢ Each BS transmits paging signal on its own set up channel

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 4. Call accepted
➢ Mobile unit recognizes the number on the set up channel
and responds to BS.
➢ Then BS sends response to MSC, a circuit is setup between
calling and called BSs.
➢ MSC assigns an unused voice channel to the call and call is
established.
5. Ongoing call
➢ Voice/data exchanged through respective BSs and MSC.

6. Handoff
➢ If the signal strength decreases as the mobile moves out of
range from the BS and the traffic channel changes to the one
assigned to new BS, without interruption of service to user.

5.1.3 Mobility management

When an MS moves out from current BS into another BS, a procedure is performed to maintain service
continuity, known as handoff management. The procedure to keep track of the user’s current location is
referred to as location management. Handoff management and location management together are referred to
as mobility management.
Handoff: At any instant, each MS is logically in a cell and under the control of the cell’s BS. When a MS
moves out of a cell, the BS notices the MS’s signal fading away and requests all the neighboring BSs to report
the strength they are receiving. The BS then transfers ownership to the cell getting the strongest signal and the
MSC changes the channel carrying the call. The process is called handoff.

There are two types of handoff.

1. Hard Handoff and 2. Soft Handoff.
Hard handoff: As a MS moves from cell A to cell B (see fig.(a)),
the communication between the MS and BS-1 of cell A is first
broken before communication is started between the MS and the
BS-2 of B (position-2). Hence, the transition is not smooth.
Soft handoff: As the MS moves from cell A to cell B, it ensures
that no communication break occurs between cell A and cell B.
That means, new connection is established before break the old
connection, see fig. (b). Hence, the transition is smooth.

Fig. (b)

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Roaming
Roaming is a facility provided to the cell phone user to use the cellular services (telephone calls, data, or
access other services) when travelling outside the home network. Roaming can be either national roaming or
international roaming.
Two fundamental operations are associated with location management:
1. Location update:
• The foreign network contacts the home network and requests service information.
• Home directory of the MS is updated with its current location.
2. Paging: Broadcasting of Mobile Identification Number (MIN) by MSC.

5.2 Wireless Network Topologies

Wireless network topology is defined as the configuration in which a mobile terminal (MT) communicates
with other MTs. The topology of a wireless network is simply the way network components are arranged. It
describes both the physical layout of devices, routers, and gateways, and the paths that data follows between
them.
There are TWO types of topologies used in wireless networks:
1. Ad – Hoc Network Topology
2. Infrastructure Network Topology
1. Ad – Hoc Network Topology: Wireless devices communicate directly with each other without any access
point (AP). Ad hoc network is also known as IBSS (Independent Basic Service Set) configuration.
Single ad-hoc network: Without Base Station, each node can communicate wirelessly with each other within
their radio range. This is suitable for rapid wireless communication.
Application: Military- establishing common communication among soldiers for voice and data, Collaborative
– conference held among groups
Multi ad-hoc network: In multi-hop ad-hoc network, the coverage area is larger than radio range of single
nodes. Therefore, to reach some destination a node can use other nodes as relays. Direct transmission will
held with the neighboring nodes.
Single ad-hoc network Multi ad-hoc network

2. Infrastructure Network Topology

In this topology, there is a fixed infrastructure that supports the communication between the mobile terminals
and fixed terminals. This topology is often designed for large coverage areas.

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5.3 First Generation (1G) System
The first generation was designed for voice communication. For example, Advanced Mobile Phone System
(AMPS) is an analog cellular phone system used in North America. It uses 800 MHz ISM band and two
separate analog channels; forward (uplink) and reverse (downlink) analog channels. The band between 824 to
849 MHz is used for reverse communication from MS to BS. The band between 869 to 894 MHz is used for
forward communication from BS to MS. Each band is divided in to 832 channels of 30-KHz as shown in Fig.

As each location area is shared by two service providers, each provider can have 416 channels, out of which 21 are
used for control. AMPS uses Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) to divide each 25-MHz band into 30-
KHz channels as shown in Fig.

1G featured mobile radio telephones and technologies such as:

Mobile Telephone System (MTS)
Advanced Mobile Telephone System (AMTS)
Improved Mobile Telephone Service (IMTS)
Push to Talk (PTT)
Limitations:
➢ Poor voice quality
➢ Poor battery life
➢ Large phone size
➢ No security
➢ Limited capacity

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 Second Generation (2G) System
To provide better voice quality, 2G was developed for digitized voice communication. It enables services such
as text messages SMS, picture messages and multi-media message (MMS).
2G can be divided into TWO standards based on the type of multiplexing used, TDMA and CDMA. Three
major 2G systems were evolved, as shown in fig.4.

D-AMPS is essentially a digital version of AMPS and it is backward compatible with AMPS. It uses the same
bands and channels as AMPS. There are 6 slots shared by three channels. D – AMPS uses both TDMA and
FDMA medium access control techniques.

Fig.4 Digital AMPS

5.4.1 Global System for Mobile (GSM)

The Global System for Mobile (GSM) communication is a European standard developed to replace 1G. It is
an open, digital cellular radio network operated on three different frequencies:
• 900 MHz: It was used by the original GSM system.
• 1800 MHz: It was used to support the growing number of subscribers.
• 1900 MHz: It is mainly used in the US.
Each voice channel is digitized and compressed to a 13Kbps. For medium access control, GSM combines
both TDMA and FDMA. GSM is used 76% of the users worldwide.

Architecture of GSM networks

The GSM architecture consists of three major interconnected subsystems that interact with themselves and
with users through certain network interface. They are Mobile Station (MS), the Base Station Subsystem
(BSS), Network Switching Subsystem (NSS) and Operation and Maintenance Subsystem (OMSS).

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 Mobile System (MS): comprises user equipment and software needed for communication with a mobile
network. Mobile Station (MS) = Mobile Equipment(ME) + Subscriber Identity Module (SIM). See fig 5.

Fig.5 Architectural block diagram of Global System for Mobile (GSM)

Base sub-system (BSS): The BSS handles traffic between the MS and the NSS. It consists of two main
components: the base transceiver station (BTS) and the base station controller (BSC). The BTS contains the
equipment that communicates with the mobile phones, while the BSC is to allocate necessary time slots
between the BTS and MSC.
Network Sub-system (NSS): The NSS is the core network that tracks the location of callers to enable the
delivery of cellular services. It includes 5 functional units.
i) Mobile switching center (MSC): performs call setup, call release, call tracing, call forwarding and Short
Message Service (SMS)
ii) Home location register (HLR): functions the subscriber’s ID, plan and caller tune you are using location,
authentication via SIM cards.
iii) Visitor location register (VLR): contains the exact location of all mobile subscribers currently present in
the service area of MSC
iv) Equipment identity register (EIR): It is a database which contains a list of valid mobile equipment on the
network. database that keeps the record of all allowed or banned in the network.
v) Authentication center (AuC): It perform authentication of subscriber.
Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN): connects with MSC. It is originally a network of fixed line
analog telephone systems.

Third Generation (3G) System

3G is the upgrade over 2G, 2.5G, GPRS and 2.75G EDGE networks (family of standards), offering faster data
transfer, and better voice quality, with high speed packet switched data (up to 2 Mbps). In this generation
smart phones are introduced. 3G networks operate on frequency bands between 400 MHz and 3GHz.
Two main 3G networks are:
1. UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunication System) and
2. CDMA-2000
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Both these systems use CDMA technology.
AS seen from the fig.6, goals of the third generation (3G) technologies are mentioned below:
Allow both digital data and voice communication.
To facilitate universal personnel communication.
Listen music, watch movie, access internet, video conference, universal global roaming, etc.

Fig.6 Architectural block diagram of 3G

MSC – Mobile Switching Center, GMSC – Gateway MSC, SGSN – Service GPRS Support Node, GGSN –
Gateway GPRS Support Node, IMS –IP Multimedia system

5.5.1 CDMA Technology

The dominant technology for 3G systems is CDMA. Code Division Multiple Access system is very different
from time and frequency multiplexing. It optimizes the use of available bandwidth. The technology is
commonly used in ultra-high-frequency (UHF) cellular telephone systems, bands ranging between the 800-
MHz and 1.9-GHz. Though CDMA is used only by 24% of the users worldwide, CDMA phones emit less
radiation than GSM phones.
Capacity of a Mobile Telecommunication System is given by
= 2(1 + )
CDMA offers these advantages: Error Control Coding, Spreading of the spectrum, Soft handoffs, Strict power
control.

5.5.2 High Level Architecture of Long Term Evolution (LTE)

The 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) has redesigned both the radio network and the core network is
brand named as LTE. LTE uses OFDM with QAM modulation in 10 - 20 MHz channels to provide downlink
data rates of up to 100 mbps.
UMTS (universal Mobile Telecommunication Services) is the main technology responsible behind 3G.
Universal Terrestrial Radio Access Network (UTRAN) consists of multiple Radio Network Sub-systems
(RNSs) which is equivalent to the base station subsystem (BSS). RNS consists of radio transceivers referred
to as Node B which are equivalent to the BTSs in the GSM architecture.
High Level Architecture of Long Term Evolution (LTE) is given in the fig.7.

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Core Network (CN)
The CN is similar to the network and switching subsystem (NSS) of the GSM architecture. The main function
of the CN is to perform packet routing, connection of users, security, billing and the connection of UMTS to
external packet switched and circuit switched networks.
Evolved Packet Core (EPC)
The EPC in the LTE technology supports access to the packet switched domain and provides no support for
the circuit switch domain. The EPC functions include: policy control, interconnection to external networks,
subscriber charging. The Evolved UTRAN (E-UTRAN) is the network, which handles the evolved pocket
core’s (EPC) radio communications with the mobile unit. It distributes voice and data using the packet
switching technologies. Voice calls are transported using voice over IP.

Fig.7 High Level Architecture of Long Term Evolution (LTE)

Table: Comparison of GSM, UMTS and LTE

GSM (2G) UMTS (3G) LTE (4G)

Radio Access Wideband CDMA OFDMA and SC-

FDMA and TDMA
Methodology (WCDMA) FDMA
Downlink speed 10-150kbps 384kbps 100-150mbps
Uplink speed 10-150kbps 128kbps 50mbps
Bandwidth 200kHz 5MHz 1.4-20MHz
Modulation Types GMSK QPSK QPSK,16-QAM,
Supported 64-QAM
Core network type circuit switched circuit /packet switched Fully IP based
support complete mobile support Email, web support only high speed
Communication communication network browsing, video calling data communication
Support and text messaging and internet access and
(SMS) rely on GSM

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5.6 Fourth Generation (4G) technology
4G has mainly three benefits: improved speeds, reduced latency, and crystal-clear voice calls. Two candidates
for 4G are Wi-Max (Enhancement of previous fixed wireless standard for mobility) and Long Term Evolution
(LTE), third Generation Partnership Project (3GPP).
Advantages of 4G are wireless high-data applications to include multimedia consumption such as video and
audio streaming, video gaming, and video conferencing using mobile devices, as well as cloud computing
applications. The high level requirements for a 4G technology were identified as:
i) High spectral efficiency
ii) Reduced cost per bit
iii) Increased services by increasing the efficiency
iv) Open interfaces
v) Power efficiency
vi) Flexible usage of frequency bands

LTE-A System Architecture

A standard LTE system architecture as shown in the fig.8, consists of an Evolved UMTS (E-UTMS),
Terrestrial Radio Access Network (TRAN), more commonly known as E-UTRAN, and the System
Architecture Evolution, also known as SAE. SAE's main component is the Evolved Packet Core, also known
as an EPC. The E-UTRAN is comprised of: User Equipment (UEs).

The high-level network architecture of LTE is comprised of following three main components:
• The User Equipment (UE).
• The Evolved UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network (E-UTRAN).
• The Evolved Packet Core (EPC).

User Equipment (UE)

User Equipment is a device that allows a user to access network services consists of hardware and software
needed for communication. It connects to the base stations, known as NodeB and eNB via radio interface.
UE = Mobile Equipment (ME) + Universal Subscriber Identity Module (USIM).
USIM stores user specific data very similar to 3G SIM card. This keeps information about the user's phone
number, home network identity and security keys etc.

E-UTRAN (Radio access network)

The E-UTRAN handles the radio communications between the mobile and the evolved packet core (EPC) and
consists the evolved base stations, called eNodeB or eNB. Each eNB is a base station that controls the mobiles
in one or more cells. The eBN sends and receives radio transmissions to all the mobiles using the analog and
digital signal processing functions of the LTE air interface.

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Evolved Packet Core (EPC) (The core network)
Evolved Packet Core (EPC) is a unit for providing converged voice and data on 4G LTE network. It is formed
by elements: Serving Gateway (SGW), the PDN Gateway (PDN GW), the MME and the HSS.
Serving Gateway (SGW) – It routes data packets through the access network. The ePDG is responsible for
interworking between the EPC and untrusted non-3GPP networks that require secure access, such as a WiFi,
etc.

Fig.8 LTE-A System Architecture

Packet Data Network (PDN) Gateway (GW) - It communicates with the outside world. The serving GW acts as a
router, and forwards data between the base station and the PDN gateway.
The mobility management entity (MME) - It controls the high level operation (supports user equipment,
identity, authentication and tracks a user across the network) of the mobile by means of signaling messages
and Home Subscriber Server (HSS).
Home Subscriber Server (HSS) – is the main user database used within one single node which manages
customers in real time.
Policy Control and Charging Rules Function (PCRF) - is the software node designated in real-time to determine
policy rules (decision-making) in a multimedia network. PCRF plays a key role in VoLTE as a mediator of
network resources offering personalized data plans.

5.7 Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)

WLAN is a method of connecting two or more devices together within a single organization using a wireless
communication method. It usually provides a connection through an Access Point (AP) to the wider internet.
AP sends and receives radio frequency signal to the connected devices; they normally function as routers.
Data is sent in packets. The packets contain layers with labels and instructions.

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WLAN connects laptops, smart phones, personal digital assistants, desktop computers, workstations and
printers. This network is easy to install and use at the home or any other place.

WLAN Specifications
The major IEEE (802.11) WLAN standards include: 802.11, 802.11a, 802.11b, and 802.11g. Details of each
standards is given in the below table.

IEEE Standard Frequency Band Bandwidth Modulation Type Maximum Data Rate

802.11 2.4GHz 20MHz Phase Shift Keying 2 mbps

802.11a 5 to 6 GHz 20MHz Orthogonal FDM 54 mbps

Complementary code
802.11b 2.4GHz 20MHz 11 mbps
keying (CCK)
802.11g 2.4GHz 20MHz DSSS, OFDM 54 mbps

Advantages of WLAN over Wired LAN

• No physical wires , so easy to install
• Add or remove workstation
• It provides high data rate due to small area coverage
• Move workstation while maintaining the connectivity
• Economical because of the small area access

5.8 Bluetooth and its Architecture

Bluetooth is a short-range wireless technology standard, used for exchanging data between fixed and mobile
devices over short distances. It operates in the band of 2.4 GHz. The IEEE standardized Bluetooth as IEEE
802.15.1, but no longer maintains the standard. Maximum devices that can be connected at the same time are 7.
Bluetooth ranges up to 10 meters. It provides data rates up to 1 mbps or 3 mbps depending upon the version.
Bluetooth technology can be used at home, office, car, etc. It allows communicating voice and text information
between several devices in real time. Bluetooth is a small microchip that operates in a band of available frequency
throughout the world. Communications can realize point to point and point to multipoint.
Bluetooth architecture
A Bluetooth network is called a piconet and a collection of interconnected piconets is called
scatternet. Piconets are small Bluetooth networks, formed by at most 8 stations, one of which is the master
node and the rest slave nodes (maximum of 7 slaves). Master node is the primary station that manages the
small network. The slave stations are secondary stations that are synchronized with the primary station.

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5.9 Satellite communication

A satellite is an artificial body placed in the orbit round the earth or another planet. If the communication
takes place between any two earth stations through the satellite, then it is called as satellite communication
(see fig.). Satellite orbit (circular or elliptical) height can range from 2000 km to 35786 km. In this
communication, electromagnetic waves are used as carrier signals. These signals carry the information such as
voice, audio, video or any other data between ground and space. The maximum hop or the station distance is
limited to 1500KM only in both ground wave propagation and sky wave propagation. Satellite
communication overcomes this limitation by providing communication for long distances, which is well
beyond the line of sight. Satellite communication is used for mobile applications such as communication to
ships, vehicles, planes, weather forecasting, hand-held terminals and for TV, radio broadcasting, global
mobile communication, military communication, etc,.
For an electronics engineer satellite is a radio frequency repeater in space. A repeater is a circuit, which
increases the strength of the received signal and then transmits it. But, this repeater works as a transponder.
That means, it changes the frequency band of the transmitted signal from the received one.

[NOTE: i) Natural Satellite: Moon

ii) The first artificial satellite, Sputnik 1, was launched successfully by the Soviet Union on October 4, 1957.
Sputnik 1 was only 58 cm (23 inches) in diameter with four antennas sending low-frequency radio signals at
regular intervals. It orbited Earth in an elliptical orbit, taking 96.2 minutes to complete one revolution. It
transmitted signals for only 22 days until its battery ran out and was in orbit for only three months].

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Need for Satellite Communication
1] Helps to study environment, temperature and space
2] Sends pictures and maps of earth
3] Very helpful for the people staying in a remote area
4] Telephone, mobile communication
5] TV and radio broadcasting
6] Energy is conserved since satellites use solar power
7] Each and every corner of the earth can be covered

5.9.1 Elements of the Satellite communication system

The basic elements of a satellite communication system (as illustrated in the fig. 9) are:
• User
• Satellite
• Terrestrial Network System
• Earth Station

Fig.9 Basic elements of the Satellite communication system

User: The user generates baseband signal that propagates through a terrestrial network and transmitted to the
satellite from earth station. The frequency with which, the signal is sent into the space is called as uplink
frequency (5.9 - 6.4 GHz). Similarly, the frequency with which, the signal is sent by the transponder is called
as downlink frequency (3.7 - 4.2GHz). Higher frequency is assigned for uplink, to avoid interference and
lower frequency for downlink.
Satellite: Repeater in space, receives the RF modulated carrier from all earth stations in the uplink and
amplifies before sending in the downlink.
Terrestrial network: This is a network on ground which carries the signal from user to earth station. It is a
dedicated link between user and earth station.
Earth station: It is a radio station located on earth, that sends /receives the signals from satellites. The earth
station is responsible for controlling the satellite if it drifts from its orbit when it is subjected to any kind of
drag from the external forces.
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5.9.2 Types of Satellites
Depending upon the intended mission, satellites may be placed in orbits at varying distances from the surface
of the Earth. Thus, these are classified as Low Earth Orbits (LEOs), Medium Earth Orbits (MEOs) and
Geostationary Earth Orbits (GEOs), as shown in fig.

Based on the distance from the earth’s surface,

there are different orbits. They cover different
applications based on the orbit location.

Low Earth Orbits (LEOs)

• Satellites in the low Earth orbit (LEO) circle Earth at a height of around 200 to 500 km above the
surface of the Earth.
• These satellites, being closer to the surface of the Earth, have much shorter orbital periods (95 to 120
minutes) and smaller signal propagation delays (4.5 ms).
• Each LEO satellite will be visible to earth for around ten minutes.
• Application of LEO satellites is for remote sensing and mobile communication services.
Disadvantages:
• Many Satellites required for global coverage (50-200).
• Because of large number of Satellites, complexity to whole system.
• Short time of visibility requires additional mechanisms for connection handover between different
Satellites.
• Short life time about 5 to 8 years because of atmospheric drag.
Medium Earth Orbits (MEOs)
• Medium Earth orbit (MEO) satellites orbit at a distance of approximately 10,000 to 20,000 km above
the surface of the Earth.
• They have an orbital period of 6 to 12 hours.
• Propagation delays about 70-80 ms
• These orbits are generally polar in nature and are mainly used for communication and navigation
applications.
Disadvantages:
• Due to larger distance to earth, delay increases to about 70-80ms.
• These Sats require higher transmit power and special Antennas For smaller footprints.

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Geostationary /Geosynchronous Earth Orbits (GEO)
A geosynchronous: The orbit is synchronous with Earth’s rotation (Earth moves from west to east). It can be
tilted with respect to the poles of the earth and it may not be a circular orbit.
Example: Indian Astra 1C

A geostationary orbit is a circular orbit located at an altitude of 35,786 kilometers above the surface of Earth
with zero inclination to the axis of Earth’s rotation (equatorial plane). Orbital period: The orbital period
should be equal to 23 hours 56 minutes 4 seconds. Example: Indian INSAT satellites
Applications of Geostationary orbit: Applications of Geosynchronous orbit:
• Broadcasting application (TV) • Voice communication,
• Point to multipoint communication • Internet,
• Mobile services • Broadcasting cable TV and radio signals
• Weather Forecasting

5.10 Optical Fiber Communication

Fiber-optic communication is a technology that transmits information as light pulses along a glass or plastic
fiber. Through the internal reflection, light rays beamed into the fiber can propagate within the core for longer
distances with little attenuation.

Advantages:
Low cost— Silica or Sand is the raw material

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 Light weight and compact— size of the optical fiber (microns)
Higher carrying capacity— large bandwidth (higher frequencies)
Less signal degradation—low losses (0.5 dB/km)
No Electromagnetic Interference- not affected by the nearby electrical/circuit interferences
Higher Security- it is not possible to tap the information from the fibre
High efficient - Less power loss and allows data transmission for longer distances
Long lifespan— longer life cycle for over 100 years

Generalized configuration of a fiber-optic communication system

Fig.10 Generalized configuration of a fiber-optic communication system

The generalized configuration of a fiber-optic communication system is (shown in the fig.10) described as
follows:
Information input:
It receives information in physical forms (for example, voice, video and data) and passed over to transducer.
Input transducer (sensor) converts the physical signal into electrical signal.
Example: microphone converts the sound signal to electrical signal
Transmitter (Modulator): The role of the optical transmitter is to:
• convert the electrical signal into optical form
• couple (launch) the resulting optical signal into the optical fiber
The optical transmitter consists of driver circuit and optical source which impresses the signal onto EM wave.
Optoelectronic (OE) source:
OE source generates the EM wave (light) acts as a carrier in optical range. Common sources for fiber optic are
– LED and ILD (injection laser diode)- generate a stable single frequency EM wave by turn a light source on
and off rapidly. Their Important properties are compact, light weight, moderate power dissipation and easy to
modulate.
Coupler: It collects light signal from the OE source and sends it efficiently to the optical fiber cable. Coupling
losses may be large due to reflection and limited light gathering capacity of the couplers.
In an optical system, channel means the optic cable consisting of single or bundle of fibers. The optical fiber
acts as a wave guide and transmits the optical pulses towards the receiver, by the principle of total internal
reflection. The information channel should have low attenuation for the frequencies being transmitted through
it and a large light gathering capacity. The channel must have low dispersion in both time and frequency
domains, because dispersion causes distortion of the propagating signals.

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Repeater signal degradation in long distance
After certain long distance optical signals become weak and degrade (bit errors), due to scattering, absorption
and dispersion. The repeater (optical amplifier - erbium doped fiber amplifier EDFA) is used for restoring the
strength and shape of the signal. EDFA amplification (stimulating the emission of photons) occurs as the laser
pump that excites the erbium ions, which then reach a higher energy level.
Photo detector
This converts the optical signal to electrical signal. For this semiconductor PIN diodes or avalanche
photodiodes are used. The photo current developed is proportional to the incident optical power. The good
detector characteristics are small size, low power consumption, linearity, faster response to optical signals.
Receiver
The output of the photo detector (photocurrent) is filtered to remove the dc bias. After filtering the
photocurrent, it is amplified if needed. Then the receiver converts the light signal into electrical form.
For digital transmission, in addition to filter and amplifier, a decision circuit may be included. In analog
transmission, ADC may be required.
For quality communication: high sensitivity and low distortion is required, SNR (signal to noise ratio) and
BER (bit error ratio) are important factors.

5.11 Microwave Communication

The electromagnetic waves with wavelengths from 1m to 1 mm (300 MHz − 300 GHz) of the electromagnetic
spectrum are categorized as microwaves. Microwave communication is a line-of-sight wireless
communication technology that uses high frequency beams of EM waves to provide high speed
wireless connections that can send and receive voice, video, and data information. Signals are transmitted
directly from a transmitter to a receiver site.

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Microwave radio transmission is commonly used in point-to-point communication systems on the surface of
the Earth, in satellite communications, military and in deep space radio communications. Other parts of the
microwave radio band are used for radars, radio navigation systems, sensor systems, and radio astronomy.
Microwave signals are often divided into three categories: Ultra high frequency (UHF) (0.3-3 GHz);
Super high frequency (SHF) (3-30 GHz); and Extremely high frequency (EHF) (30-300 GHz).
See EM diagram shown below.

In addition, microwave frequency bands are designated by specific letters with the range. The designations by
the Radio Society of Great Britain are given below.

Frequency
Band Applications
Range (GHz)
Global Positioning System (GPS) carriers ; satellite mobile phones, such as Iridium;
L 1–2
World Space satellite radio.
S 2–4 Weather radar, surface ship radar, and some communications satellites

C 4–8 Primarily used for satellite communications, for full-time satellite TV networks
Primarily used by the military. X-band radar frequency sub-bands are used in civil, military
X 8 – 12 and government institutions for weather monitoring, air traffic control, maritime vessel
traffic control, defense tracking.
Ku 12 – 18 satellite, DTH Services

Ka 26 – 40 satellites, DTH Services

V 40 – 100 Satellite

Properties of Microwaves
• Radiate electromagnetic energy with shorter wavelength.
• Microwaves are not reflected by Ionosphere.
• Travel in a straight line and are reflected by the conducting surfaces.
• Microwaves are easily attenuated within shorter distances.
• Microwave currents can flow through a thin layer of a cable.

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Frequency Modulated (FM) Microwave Communication System

FM microwave communication system provides flexible, reliable and economical point to point
communication. It can simultaneously carry thousands of voice and data channels.

FM Microwave Transmitter
Fig.11 shows simplified block diagram of FM microwave transmitter.
Baseband input signal: It can be FDM voice channel, TDM channel, composite video signal, or wideband data
signal applied to pre-emphasis network as input.

Fig.11 Block diagram of FM transmitter

Pre-emphasis network: It provides extra amplification to high frequency baseband signals. This will provide a
uniform signal to noise ratio.
FM deviator: Signal from pre-emphasis circuit is applied to FM deviator that provides the modulation. At this
stage low frequencies get frequency modulated by the IF range (60-80MHz) signal and high frequencies get
phase modulated.
IF amplifier: Output of FM deviator is amplified by the IF amplifier and it is passed to mixer circuit.
Mixer: It converts IF signal into RF microwave frequencies. The mixer preserves modulation index and limits
the bandwidth.
Band pass filter: The output of the mixer is passed through the band pass filter to band limit the signal and
then to channel combining network that separates individual channels. Finally, the signal is fed to transmitter
antenna.
FM Microwave Receiver

Fig.12 shows simplified block diagram of FM microwave receiver.

In the FM microwave receiver as shown in fig.12, the RF signal is picked by antenna and passed to the
channel separation network that provides the separation of individual microwave channels and directs them to
their respective receivers.
Band-pass filter: It filters any signal falling outside the bandwidth of the required signal and passed to the
mixer.
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 Fig.12 Block diagram of FM receiver

Mixer: Mixer translates (down-convert) the RF microwave frequencies to IF frequencies and pass them on to
the FM demodulator. The FM demodulator is an FM detector, that separates baseband signal from IF band.
The output of the FM detector is applied to a de-emphasis network. De-emphasis stage performs attenuating
those frequencies by the amount by which they are boosted during pre-emphasis at the transmitter side.
Finally, restores the baseband signal.

Repeaters
A microwave repeater is a tower equipped with a receiver and transmitter for picking up, amplifying,
reshapes it and then transmits the signal to the next repeater or terminal station. Also known as microwave
link; microwave relay.

Need of repeaters
The permissible distance between an FM microwave transmitter and receiver depends on several system
variables, such as transmitter output power, receiver noise threshold, atmospheric conditions, system capacity,
reliability objectives, and performance expectations. When the distance is longer than 40 miles or when
geographical obstructions (such as a mountain, buildings etc) block the transmission path, then repeaters are
needed. See below figure.

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 Review Questions

1. Draw the schematic diagram of a cellular telephone system and explain its basic components.
2. Define the terms cell & cluster in a cellular system. And explain the cellular concept in wireless
mobile networks.
3. What is frequency reuse technique? List out the advantages of it.
4. Discuss the steps involved in transmission of data in a cellular telephone network.
5. What is Mobility management? Explain Handoff & Roaming in Mobility management.
6. With the help of diagrams, discuss the following types of network topologies.
a. Ad-Hoc Network Topology
b. Infrastructure Network Topology
7. Describe the first generation of wireless telecommunication technology.
8. List the major systems evolved in 2G wireless telephone technology.
9. Draw the architecture of GSM system and explain the important features of it.
10. Define the following terms with respect to GSM system.
a. Mobile Station (MS)
b. Base Station Subsystem (BSS)
c. Network & Switching System (NSS)
11. List the advantages of CDMA technology over FDMA & TDMA.
12. With the help of architecture figures explain the evolution from GSM to LTE.
13. List the requirements identified for the 4G technology.
14. Draw the LTE – system architecture and define the important terms.
15. Define the following IEEE standards:
a. IEEE 802.11a
b. IEEE 802.11b
c. IEEE 802.11g
16. Compare Wireless LAN & Wired LAN and bring out the advantages of Wireless LAN.
17. Write a short note on Bluetooth technology.
18. Draw the block diagram showing the basic elements of a satellite communication system and briefly
explain them.
19. Based on orbits, discuss the different types of satellites.
20. With the help of a block diagram explain the generalized configuration of a fiber – optic
communication system.
21. With the help of block diagram explain the microwave FM transmitter.
22. With the help of block diagram explain the microwave FM receiver.
23. What is the need for repeaters in FM transmission? Explain with a suitable illustrious figure.

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Basic Electronics and Communication Engineering
Laboratory Manual

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Experiment: 1 +5V power supply unit using Bridge rectifier, capacitor filter, and IC 7805.

Aim: To obtain regulated +5V DC output voltage from 230V AC input voltage.

Components No. Value

Stepdown 1 23:1 turns ratio
transformer 230V AC: 10V AC
Diodes 4 1N4007
Capacitors 3 1000uF, 0.1uF(2)
Resistor 1 10k
CRO 1
Multimeter 1
Circuit Diagram:

Observation

Output voltage across Voltage form Voltage value

Secondary windings AC
Load resistor DC

Student Activity

1. Voltage at the output of Rectifier is lesser than that of the secondary voltage. Give reason.
2. What is the need of C filter?
3. Explain how the unregulated DC voltage is regulated at the output.
4. Obtain the relationship between voltage, current and resistance.

Experiment: 2 To switch on/off an led using a diode in forward and / reverse bias using a battery cell

Aim: To illustrate diode works as a switch

Components No. Value

Diode 1 1N4007
Resistor 1 1k
Battery /power supply 1 10V DC
LED 1
Multimeter 1

131 Basic Electronics and Communication Engineering (21ELN14/24)

Circuit Diagram:

Observation:

Diode bias condition LED status Supply voltage Voltage across Voltage across load
In volts diode (volts) resistor(volts)
Forward bias ON
Reverse bias OFF

Student activity:

1. Explain why LED turns ON during FB and LED turns OFF during RB.
2. Explain why voltage across load resistor is lesser than the supply voltage.
3. List the applications of diode.

Experiment: 3 Transistor switch circuit to operate a relay that switched off/on an LED.

Aim: To demonstrate the operation of a relay

Components No. Value /ratings

Relay 1 5V/12V
Transistor 1 BC547
Diode 1 1N4007
Resistor 2 1k, 330
LED 1
Battery 2 5V/12V
Connecting board, wires

Circuit Diagram:

132 Basic Electronics and Communication Engineering (21ELN14/24)

Observation:

Relay status LED Comments by students

Normally closed (NC) ON
Normally opened (NO) OFF

Student activity

1. What is the need of diode that is connected across the relay?

2. Explain the operation of NPN transistor when relay is normally closed /normally opened.
3. Explain the working principle of a relay.
4. What is the minimum voltage applied to the Base terminal of BJT to bring it into conduction mode?

Experiment: 4 construct and verify truth table of Half Adder circuit using EXOR and AND gate ICs

Aim: To verify binary addition rules of two binary inputs using half adder

Components No. Remarks

IC 7848 EXOR gate 1 Derived logic gate
IC 7804 AND gate 1 Basic logic gate

Circuit diagram:

133 Basic Electronics and Communication Engineering (21ELN14/24)

Observations:

Verify truth table of half adder circuit by connecting input and output to LED devices, such that LED on= logic
1, LED off = logic 0.

Student activity

1. Write Boolean functions of sum and carry outputs of half adder circuit.
2. What is the limitation of a half adder circuit? What is the remedy?
3. Write half adder logic circuit using basic gates, only NOR and NAND gates.

Experiment: 5 IC 741 Integrator circuit/ Differentiator circuit

Aim: To demonstrate OPAMP as integrator and differentiator

Components No Value
IC 741 1
Resistors 2 100k, 10k
Capacitor 1 0.01uF
DC supply +/-12V
Signal generator 1 1V, 1KHz square wave
CRO 1
Connecting board, wires

Circuit diagram/Waveform:

134 Basic Electronics and Communication Engineering (21ELN14/24)

Observation

Circuit type Input voltage form /amplitude (v) Output voltage form /amplitude
Integrator 1. Square wave / (1V)
2. Triangle wave / (1V)
Differentiator 1. Square wave/ (1V)
2. Triangle wave/ (1V)

Student activity

1. Justify the integration of a square wave is a triangle wave and differentiation of square wave is a pulse wave.
2. List the applications of OPAMP integrator and differentiator.
3. List the properties of OPAMP

Experiment: 6 IC 741 Non-inverting / Inverting Amplifier circuit

Aim: To illustrate OPAMP as inverting / non- inverting amplifier

Components No. Value

IC 741 1
Resistors 2 10k, 33k
DC supply +/-12V
Signal generator 1 1V, 1KHz square wave
CRO 1
Connecting board, wires
Circuit diagram:

135 Basic Electronics and Communication Engineering (21ELN14/24)

Observation:

Input voltage form Output voltage form

Circuit type Phase shift
/amplitude (v) /amplitude
Inverting amplifier Sine wave / (1V)
Non-inverting amplifier Sine wave / (1V)

Student activity

1. Define OPAMP. Draw the pin diagram and name all pin terminals of uA 741 IC
2. List all characteristics of OPAMP.
3. List applications of inverting / non- inverting amplifier separately.

Experiment: 7 construct and verify working principle of photodiode.

Aim: To verify the working principle of photo diode

Components No. Value

Photo diode 1
Resistor 1 1k
Battery /power supply 1 5V
Multimeter 1
Light source 1
Circuit diagram:

Observation:

136 Basic Electronics and Communication Engineering (21ELN14/24)

 Input light intensity Output voltage across load resistor
Dark
Room light
Bright light (use lamp)

Student activity

1. Differentiate between PN junction diode and photo diode referring to the material used and construction.
2. Explain the working principle of photo diode.
3. Name some specific applications of photo diode.
4. What is Transducer? What type of transducer that photo diode belongs to.

Experiment: 8 Construct and verify working principle of Astable multivibrator using IC 741

Aim: To verify the working principle of astable multi vibrator

Components No. Value

IC 741 1
Resistor 3 1k, 100k, 470k
Battery /power supply 1 5V
Capacitor 1 0.1uF
LED 1
Circuit diagram:

137 Basic Electronics and Communication Engineering (21ELN14/24)

Observation

To note LED on/ off alternately which refers to square wave generation.

Student activity

1. Observe the output waveform across capacitor and at the output of OPAMP using CRO.
2. List applications of astable multivibrator circuits.
3. Try to operate a stepper motor by connecting it in place of LED of the circuit.
4. Explain how duty cycle of output square waveform of AMV can be modified.

Experiment: 9 To operate a small loudspeaker by generating oscillations using IC 555

Aim: To operate a loud speaker by generating oscillations using a timer circuit.

Components No. Value

IC NE 555 1
Resistor 2 10k, 50k (drb)
Battery /power supply 1 5V
Capacitor 3 0.01uF, 1uF/15v
Speaker 1 8ohm, 0.5W

138 Basic Electronics and Communication Engineering (21ELN14/24)

Circuit diagram:

Observation:

To observe that the speaker generates sound proportional to oscillations developed by the circuit.

Student activity

1. What type of transducer that loud speaker belongs to.

2. Explain the working principle of loud speaker
3. Write internal block diagram of 555 IC
4. List the major applications of timer IC.

139 Basic Electronics and Communication Engineering (21ELN14/24)

 Subject Code – 21ELN14/24

Model Question Paper - I with effect from 2021 (CBCS Scheme)

USN

First/Second Semester B.E Degree Examination

Basic Electronics & Communication Engineering
TIME: 03 Hours Max. Marks: 100
Note: 01. Answer any FIVE full questions, choosing at least ONE question from each
MODULE

Module-1 (Power Supplies, Amplifiers, Operational amplifiers, Oscillators) Marks

Q.01 a With neat block diagram explain the working of a DC power supply. Also
7
mention the principal components used in each block.
b Mention advantages of negative feedback in amplifiers circuits. With relevant
7
equations and diagram explain the concept of negative feedback.
c With circuit diagram and waveform show how operational amplifier can
6
work as a comparator.
OR
Q.02 a With neat circuit diagram and waveforms explain the working of bridge
8
rectifier.
b Write a note on frequency response characteristics of an amplifier circuit,
6
clearly mentioning the half power frequencies.
c List and explain conditions for sustained oscillations. Determine the
frequency of oscillation of a three-stage ladder network in which C=10 ηF and 6
R=10 kΩ.
Module-2 (Logic Circuits, Data representation, Shift registers, Counters)
Q. 03 a Discuss the design of a 3-bit asynchronous up-counter. 6
b With a neat block diagram show how typical input and output blocks are
7
connected to a microcontroller unit.
c With the help of a timing diagram explain how D-type bistable circuit works. 7
OR
Q.04 a Design a full adder using two half adders and an OR-gate. 8
b Design a 4-stage shift register using J-K bistables. 7
c Write a note on different data types mentioning the bit size and range of
5
values supported.
Module-3 (Embedded Systems, Sensors and Interfacing, Actuators, Communication
Interface)
Q. 05 a Explain the working, principle of operation and applications of stepper
8
motor.
b Write a note on classification of embedded systems. 6
c Bring out the main features of UART and USB. 6
 Subject Code – 21ELN14/24
OR
Q. 06 a Give the classification of transducers with examples. 6
b Bring out the differences between RISC and CISC, Harvard & Von-Neumann. 6
c Define ‘Actuator’ and briefly describe the following actuators - relay, Piezo-
8
buzzer
Module-4 (Analog and Digital Communication)
Q. 07 a Describe the blocks of the basic communication system. 6
b Define the following terms: (i) Modulation (ii) Carrier communication system
6
(iii) Baseband communication system with neat and suitable waveforms.
c Explain the following with the help of waveforms. (i) PAM (ii)PWM (iii)PPM
8
(iv) PCM
OR
Q. 08 a Define sampling theorem and explain when aliasing can happen. Also mention
6
the different ways in which aliasing can be avoided.
b Define the following terms: Multipath, Constructive and destructive
10
interference, Coherence time, Coherence bandwidth, Delay spread
c Define an antenna and discuss different types of antennas. 4
Module-5 (Cellular Wireless Networks, Wireless Network Topologies, Satellite
Communication, Optical Fiber Communication, Microwave Communication)
Q. 09 a Draw the schematic diagram of a cellular telephone system and define its basic
6
components.
b Explain the optical fiber communication system with a block diagram. 6
c With the help of diagrams, discuss the following types of network topologies:
8
Ad-Hoc Network Topology, Infrastructure Network Topology
OR
Q. 10 a With the help of architecture figures explain the evolution from GSM to LTE. 8
b List the requirements identified for the 4G technology. 4
c Draw the block diagram showing the basic elements of a satellite
8
communication system and briefly explain them.
 Subject Code-21ELN14/24

Model Question Paper-II with effect from 2021 (CBCS Scheme)

USN

First/Second Semester B.E Degree Examination

Basic Electronics & Communication Engineering

Max. Marks: 100

Note: 01. Answer any FIVE full questions, choosing at least ONE question from each MODULE.

Module -1 (Power Supplies, Amplifiers, Operational amplifiers, Oscillators) Marks

Q.01 a Explain the working of Bi-phase Full wave rectifier circuit with neat diagram. 8
b List and describe the main types of amplifiers. 7
c Describe the working of a single stage astable oscillator using an opamp. 5
OR
Q.02 a Explain the operation of a simple shunt Zener voltage regulator. 7
b Sketch the circuit of each of the following based on the use of operational 8
amplifiers
(a) comparator (b) a differentiator (c) an integrator (d) Inverting Amplifier.
c With circuit diagram explain the following: Voltage Doubler, Voltage Tripler 5
Module-2 (Logic Circuits, Data representation, Shift registers, Counters)
Q. 03 a Design a 3-to-8 Decoder and show its implementation using basic gates. 8
b Construct a logic circuit that will produce a Logic 1 output whenever two or 7
more of its inputs are at Logic 1.
c With the help of truth table explain full adder using logic gates. 5
OR
Q.04 a Explain Input and output states for a J-K bistable using clocked operation. 8
b With the help of a neat diagram explain the 4-bit shift register operation and 7
types.
c With a neat block diagram explain the arrangement of a microcontroller 5
system with typical inputs and outputs.
Module-3 (Embedded Systems, Sensors and Interfacing, Actuators, Communication
Interface)
Q. 05 a Compare Embedded systems and general computing systems. Also provide 8
major application areas of Embedded Systems.
b Explain the different configurations of 7-segment LED Display. 6
c Describe the matrix keyboard interfacing and UART. 6
OR
 Subject Code-21ELN14/24
Q. 06 a Define ‘sensors’ and give its classification with examples. 6
b With relevant diagrams explain the operation of Relay, push button and Piezo- 8
buzzer.
c Explain the following external communication interfaces: USB, wi-fi 6
Module-4 (Analog and Digital Communication)
Q. 07 a Define and explain SNR, Noise Figure, channel types, amplitude modulation. 8
b Present the architecture of a wireless communication transmitter and its 6
modulation scheme QPSK with waveforms and constellation diagrams.
c Discuss the various Multiple Access Techniques used in cellular network. 6
OR
Q. 08 a Describe the classification of RF (Radio Frequency) spectrum with 8
applications in communications systems.
b Explain different types of radio wave propagation with a neat diagram. 6
c Write short notes on: Forward Error Correction, Automatic Repeat Request 6
Module-5 (Cellular Wireless Networks, Wireless Network Topologies, Satellite
Communication, Optical Fiber Communication, Microwave Communication)
Q. 09 a Define the terms cell & cluster in a cellular system and explain the cellular 6
concept in wireless mobile networks.
b Discuss 3G technology with specific emphasis on CDMA. 6
c Bring out the features of FM transmitter, FM receiver and repeaters in 8
microwave communications.
OR
Q. 10 a Define the following terms with respect to GSM system: Mobile Station (MS), 6
Base Station Subsystem (BSS), Network & Switching System (NSS)
b With the help of a block diagram explain the generalized configuration of a 8
fiber – optic communication system.
c Based on orbits, discuss the different types of satellites. 6