Sensory Reception

Chapter 12
• As mentioned in the first half of the unit, sensory receptors are specialized
cells or nerve endings that detect specific stimuli and translate them to
messages in sensory neurons.

• When the cerebral cortex receives this information it is called a sensation. Our
perception of it results from how the cerebral cortex interprets it.

• Sometimes the brain will filter out stimuli that are redundant or insignificant.
This process is called sensory adaptation (ie. when you become accustomed to
a smell or a watch on your wrist).

• What happens if these receptors fail? Blindness. Deafness. The inability to

taste or smell. Immunity to pain.

• Four main groups of sensory receptors are:

• Photoreceptors (sensitive to light energy)

• Chemoreceptors (sensitive to certain chemicals)

• Mechanoreceptors (sensitive to mechanical forces from some form of

pressure)

• Thermoreceptors (sensitive to temperature)

Receptor Category Examples Stimulus
Photoreceptors
Vision Rods and cones in the eye Visible light

Chemoreceptors
Taste Taste buds on the tongue Food particles in saliva

Smell Olfactory receptors in the nose Odour molecules

Osmotic pressure Osmoreceptors in hypothalamus Low blood volume

pH Receptors in carotid artery & aorta Blood acidity

Mechanoreceptors
Hearing Hair cells in the inner ear Sound waves

Balance Hair cells in the inner ear Fluid movement

Body position Proprioceptors in muscles, tendons & joints Muscle contraction & movement

Touch/pressure/pain Receptors in the skin Mechanical pressure

Thermoreceptors
Temperature Heat & cold receptors in the skin Change in radiant energy
Photoreception (The Eye)
• The human eye is a fluid-
filled ball about 2.5 cm in
diameter and is divided
into three layers: the
sclera, the choroid and
the retina.

• The external layer is

called the sclera. It’s
white and provides
protection and support
for the eye. Light enters
the eye through a clear
section of the sclera
called the cornea. As it
has no blood vessels, the
cornea receives all its
oxygen from the
atmosphere dissolved
through tears.
• The intermediate layer is called the choroid. It contains pigments that
prevent the scattering of light in the eye by absorbing stray light rays.
As well, it contains blood vessels that provide nourishment for the
eye.

• At the front of the choroid is the iris, which regulates the amount of
light coming into the eye. The opening in the middle of the iris is
called the pupil. Each person’s iris is unique.

• Behind the iris, the choroid thickens and forms the ciliary muscles
which allow the lens to change shape (focuses the light). Ciliary
muscles are attached to the lens via suspensory ligaments.
• In 1985, one of the most famous
photographs ever published graced
the cover of National Geographic.
The photo of a young Afghan
refugee (The Afghan Girl) has been
called a modern Mona Lisa.

• Years later, photographer Steve

McCurry wanted to find out what
had become of her.

• Based on iris comparison, he was

able to determine that The Afghan
Girl is indeed Sharbat Gula.

• She had not been photographed

since 1984 and only agreed to be
photographed again without her
burka (ie. unveiled) because her
husband told her it would be
proper.
• The innermost layer of the eye is called the retina, which contains
the two types of photoreceptors (rods are sensitive to light intensity
and cones help identify color).

• These photoreceptors send impulses to the CNS via the optic nerve.
The point at which the optic nerve attaches to the retina is called the
blind spot.

• Cones are packed most densely at the back of the retina in an area
called the fovea centralis (in the middle of the macula).
• The eyeball is filled with fluid inside of it.

• Fluid in front of the lens is called the aqueous humour. It helps to

keep the shape of the cornea and provide oxygen/nutrients to
surrounding cells. It is produced and drained from the eye daily.

• Fluid behind the lens is called the vitreous humour. It helps to

maintain the shape of the eyeball and support surrounding cells. It’s
also responsible for eye floaters.
• So how does the eye focus what we see?
• Light rays are refracted in an inverted
fashion (ie. upside down and in reverse) onto
the retina through the cornea, lens &
humours.
• Because the lens is flexible, it can change shape to focus on objects at various
distances very quickly. This reflex is called accommodation.

• When viewing objects that are near, the lens becomes rounder (increases its
curvature). This is due to ciliary muscles contracting and the suspensory ligaments
relaxing.

• When viewing objects that are farther away, the lens becomes flatter (decreases its
curvature). This is due to ciliary muscles relaxing and the suspensory ligaments
tightening.
• Once the image has reached the retina, the
photoreceptors take over. When not exposed to light
both rods (sensitive to changes in light) and cones
(sensitive to color) release inhibitory
neurotransmitters that inhibit nearby nerve cells.

• Rods contain a light-absorbing pigment called

rhodopsin. Once light hits it, rhodopsin breaks apart
into two parts - retinal (a vitamin A derivative) &
opsin (a protein). This causes the rods to stop
releasing inhibitory neurotransmitters.

• Cones are highly concentrated near the centre of the

retina at the fovea centralis. They undergo a similar
process to the rods, except the pigment is called
photopsin.

• Once rods and cones stop releasing inhibitory

neurotransmitters, they send impulses to bipolar
cells/neurons which, in turn, pass the signal to
ganglion cells. The axons of the ganglion cells form
the beginning of the optic nerve. Once in the optic
(cranial II) nerve, the signal is sent to the occipital
lobe of the brain.
Cone

Rod
• Once in the optic nerve, the signal
proceeds to the optic chiasm,
where the nerves from both eyes
come together and cross to the
opposite side of the brain.

• Once in the brain, the signal is sent

to the occipital lobe of the brain
where it enters the primary visual
cortex where the information is
interpreted.

• Because humans have forward-

facing eyes, we have binocular
vision. This allows the brain to
perceive depth and three-
dimensional images.
• Despite the complexity of our eyes, we can still be fooled by simple
optical illusions using color, light and/or patterns. This boils down to
our brains which have evolved to encounter certain natural stimuli.

• Information gathering by the eye is processed by the brain, creating

a perception that, in reality, does not match the true image.

• Here are some examples of them…

 Eye Disorders
• Glaucoma results when aqueous humour doesn’t drain from
the eye properly. This increases pressure inside the eye,
which causes blood vessels to rupture.

• Without oxygen and nutrients, retinal cells deteriorate and

the optic nerve can be damaged. This can result in blindness
if not treated.
• Cataracts occur when the protein structure in the lens
breaks down. This causes the lens to become opaque and
prevents light from passing through it.

• Lens can be surgically replaced to restore normal vision.

• Astigmatism occurs when the curvature of the cornea
becomes irregular. This prevents light rays from being
bent properly, causing them to not meet at the proper focal
point (ie. the retina).
• People with 20/20 vision are able to see a size 20 letter from roughly 20 feet away.

• Individuals that are nearsighted have a condition called myopia. Their lenses are
elongated, causing the image to focus in front of the retina. This makes it difficult to
see objects far away. Glasses worn to correct for myopia are concave.

• Individuals that are farsighted have a condition called hyperopia. Their lenses are
compressed, causing the image to focus behind the retina. This makes it difficult to
see objects close up. Glasses worn to correct for hyperopia are convex. Some
individuals will choose to have laser eye surgery to correct the problem.
• Colour blindness is an inherited condition where certain cones
(usually red and green) are defective. This conditions occurs more
often in males than females.

• Probably the most famous test for this condition is the Ishihara test,
which was introduced in the early 1900s. How does colorblindness
occur and how can science help those suffering from it?
Chemoreception (The Tongue)
• When we eat food, specialized chemoreceptors on the bumps of the tongue
(papillae) called taste buds provide us with a sense of taste (gustation).

• Taste buds sensitive to each taste (ie. sour, sweet, salty & bitter) are located on
different regions of the tongue. Based on this, why are some people more tolerant
to spicy food than others?
• Gustatory (taste) cells within the taste bud depolarize in
response to particular tastes and generate action potentials.
These impulses travel to the brain via several cranial nerves.
Chemoreception (The Nose)
• Chemoreceptors in the upper nasal cavity can distinguish over 10 000 different
odours. This provides our sense of smell (olfaction) and these receptors are called
olfactory cells.

• Airborne chemicals combine with the receptor ends of these cells to create an action
potential. Impulses are then transmitted directly to the olfactory bulb of the brain.
From there they are sent via the olfactory (cranial I) nerve to the cerebrum.
• It’s important to
note that smell
and taste are
closely linked.
Someone who
doesn’t have a
sense of smell
will be unable to
taste even with
fully functional
taste buds.

• 80-90% of what
we perceive as
taste is actually
due to smell.
Chemoreception (Water & pH Balance)

• As discussed in Biology 20, chemoreceptors sensitive to water pressure

(osmoreceptors) play a major role in kidney function. Most are located in the
hypothalamus. When blood plasma becomes too concentrated (ie.
dehydrated), osmotic pressure increases causing osmoreceptors to send
impulses to the pituitary gland to release the hormone ADH. This causes
more water to reabsorbing back into your blood in the kidneys (ie. reducing
the amount of urine produced).

• Chemoreceptors sensitive to pH play a major role in controlling our breathing

rate. The central pH chemoreceptor is located on the surface of the medulla
oblongata and detects pH and CO2 (which chemically combines with water to
form H2CO3) changes in the cerebrospinal fluid. Peripheral pH
chemoreceptors are also located in the aorta and the carotid artery. A drop in
pH will cause impulses to be sent to the brain, resulting in an increase to your
breathing rate (ie. the contraction/relaxation rate of the intercostal muscles
and diaphragm).
Mechanoreception (The Ear)
• Sound causes particles around the source to vibrate and move, which are
detectable as sound waves.

• Mechanoreceptors in the ear convert the energy of sound waves into the
electrochemical energy that the brain perceives as sound.

• The ear is divided into three regions: the outer ear, the middle ear and the
inner eye.
• The outer ear consists of two
sections:

• The pinna or auricle is the

external ear flap that collects
and enhances the sound.

• The auditory canal carries

sound toward the middle
ear. It is lined with
specialized sweat
(ceruminous) glands
produce earwax. These,
along with hairs, prevent
foreign materials/pathogens
from entering the middle
ear.
• The middle ear is an air-filled
space that starts with the
tympanum or tympanic
membrane (ie. eardrum).

• When sound waves reach the

tympanum, it converts them into
mechanical motion and transmits
that to the ossicles.

• The ossicles are the three smallest

bones in the body and help to
amplify the sound as it travels
toward the inner ear. The ossicles
(in order) are called the malleus
(hammer), incus (anvil) & stapes
(stirrup).
• The middle ear is connected
to the pharynx by the thin
Eustachian tube. This
allows air pressure to
equalize between the outer
and middle ear (ie. your
ears “popping” when at
altitude).

• The stapes is connected to

the wall of the inner ear by
an opening called the oval
window.

• The inner ear consists of

three interconnecting
structures: the cochlea, the
semicircular canals & the
vestibule.
• The cochlea (latin for
“snail”) is fluid-filled,
therefore the vibrations
of the stapes at the oval
window will be
converted to pressure
waves.

• A cross-section of the
cochlea shows that it’s
divided into three main
types of chambers: the
vestibular chamber
(scala vestibuli), the
tympamic chamber
(scala tympani) & the
cochlear duct (scala
media).
• The organ of Corti located in
the scala media and is the organ
of hearing. It’s base is
comprised of a basilar
membrane. It anchors hair cells
that have thin projections called
stereocilia. These projections
embed themselves into the top
membrane of the organ of Corti
called the tectorial membrane.

• Pressure waves make the

basilar membrane move up and
down, which causes the
stereocilia to bend against the
tectorial membrane. This
causes an action potential to be
created, which is sent to
adjoining neurons.
• The hair cells in the organ of Corti are not just able to
distinguish the amplitude (intensity) of sound but its
frequency (pitch) as well.

• High frequency sound most strongly stimulate the

shorter hair cells closest to the oval window. Low
frequencies stimulate the longer hair cells farther down
the length of the cochlea.

• Depending on which hair cells are stimulated, the brain will

interpret it as a different pitch.

• As hair cells are stimulated, they create action potentials

which are transferred to the cochlear division of the
vestibulocochlear (cranial VIII) nerve. From there, the
signal is sent to the auditory cortex in the temporal lobe
of the cerebrum.
• The round window allows the pressure
waves to exit the cochlea, helping to
equalize its pressure.
• The remaining portions of the inner ear are responsible for balance and
coordination.

• The vestibule provides gravitational equilibrium. It’s made up of the utricle

and the saccule, which contain calcium carbonate granules called otoliths.

• When the head moves back and forth gravity moves the otoliths, which, in
turn, put pressure on some of the hair cells in the vestibule. This cause
neural impulses to the vestibular division of the vestibulocochlear (cranial
VIII) or auditory nerve to be sent to the cerebellum indicating the position of
the head.
• The semicircular canals contain mechanoreceptors that provide rotational
equilibrium. They are comprised of three loops arranged in three different
planes.

• Each canal ends in a bulge called the ampulla, which contains stereocilia covered
in a jelly-like covering called a cupula.

• When the head rotates, the fluid inside the semicircular canals moves and bends
the stereocilia which provides the cerebellum with rotational information.
 Ear Disorders
• Hearing loss can occur from two main methods:

• Nerve deafness results from nerve damage, such as

damage to the hair cells in the cochlea.

• Conduction deafness results from damage to the outer

and/or middle ears (ie. eardrum and the ossicles).

• Repeated and/or sustained exposure to loud noise destroys

stereo cilia and the resulting damage is permanent. Any
noise higher than 80 dB is capable of doing this. A typical
iPod/iPhone at maximum volume can reach volumes of
over 100 dB when wearing headphones.

• What does hearing loss sound like?

• Conduction
hearing loss can
be easily
corrected with
hearing aids.

• Nerve hearing
loss may require
a cochlear
implant like the
one shown to the
right.

• Researchers are
currently looking
into ways to
regenerate
damaged
cochlear hair cells
Mechanoreception (Proprioceptors)
• Proprioceptors are
involved in
coordination and are
found in muscles,
tendons and joints
throughout the
body. They send
information about
body position to the
body.

• A couple of
examples is the
muscle spindle
(provides info about
changes in muscle
length) & the Golgi
tendon organ
(provides info about
changes in muscle
tension).
Mechano & Themoreception (Touch)
• Different receptors on the skin are sensitive to different stimuli including light, touch,
pressure, pain and temperature.

• Although there are roughly 4 million receptors on the skin, they are not evenly distributed
across the body. Many are concentrated in the fingers, lips, tongue and genitals.