O¢ Pon " foo res i A Energy rom Biomass — : tt [2 'rako ateorrby sy B 31) @ Mert D systerin L @ | (Biomass and Bio-conversion) Brome (OAUTH LO EE Biomed ed B ofl oF Pestespes : (MUA ob), eostan | oT GN core ®& ust ack a i ee fyears to Torm biomass] < cause plaint life renews eC nec learly signifies; biomass means organic ach to harness solar energy means harn¢ Ow sea) &) Cla firarteon we) Type mast (wood ard agriculture bydeonpees ieee a © Rye we Hye Prckebcds — i 0 Creal 5 as" P oackex9 TYME BCU Hr pw — r bulky and contain large amounts of | water GO to 90 per cent). Thus, i 313ee saevinie ouUrces of Binergy esas ioneort them oe ngdstaneanaconsanrgy nce ake place close to ae tetas oder bs auch as sugarcane and is crop are non-woody plan uid or gaseous fuels Cizset) rlantssuh ax cultured hybrid poplar, syeamare oe ler eucalyptie, and other hard woods. Current recone focuses on the screening and identiffeation of spy rotation growing arid on thi‘opti tion, harvesting, and con’ ion, @ Animaland human Waste aré indirect, for“combustion ‘and othy) Pesduced while retaining'the fertilizer value ot Aquatic crops are grb submerged and pmorgent marine algae, and of idirect crops from iwhich methane Reka sed in the plastic industry) ean ne manure.” or methune is Fane Materials. This gag jagtes auch as cornusks, leaves, ultry droppings, pigdung, ima about 100 crore tonnes of fresh, lung. ; Sathags, Nosti of eat cusses excreta and se of wet dung canbe produced, Produce methane gaa hectares of J Bihar, Assi “ ‘even for the of fresh dung eva: pee ef Plant will cook a Production will be: i Eetween Ta ae bio-gas can also: Ghatiswet, or hasam thatis wet, more appropriate to convert wot orgunie maven im fuels by a wet process like digestion or fermen. (euete derived from biomass are easi whereas raw biomass is alten wet and of inconsis| which they can be introduced. Refined have high calorific values, and can be stored foi age By contrast, untreated biomass rea‘ water and rots] ‘Table 7.1. The Heat Content of Various Fuels Fuel Heat Content Unit (approximate) Gas Hydrogen 2 Solid asa Gun. i straw and refuse are being sna increasing scaloin mang countries to provide useful es hhurnt on an increasing seale in many PGIB Non:Conventional Sou is about 239 of total 1 wood accounts for Social forestry prog on waste lands, and (8) reforeat energy consumed in the schemés (a) mixe, mn of degraded forests Energy from Biomass 319 was concerned with re wood, It was also argued ful of a valuable resource Ids, Anaerobic diges- since the fe Upto 1990-91 over 14 lakh famity size biogas plants have been setup in the country by DNESonly. Assuming 85 percent functionality of these planteTor only 80 per cent ofthe year, it is estimated that there ic meter gas equivalent fuelwood per year, valued at Rs. 152.7 crores per these plants are producing 183.6 lakh tonnes of ied at Rs. 152 crores, Thus the benefits sare ulready in excess of Rs. 300 crores er year. National programme on iinproved chulhas (NPIC) continues to eversachieve the targets since inception. The cumulative numbers of improved chulhas installed all over the country are around 100 lakhs at the end of 1990-91, which are expected to result in saving of 42 lakh tonnes of wood alent per year valued at Rs. 168 crores per annum verous benefits for the environment of rural houses and men's welfare, due to the reduction in black smoke. mass programme energy plantation projects have and power generation together with good potential for rural employment. Very encouraging results have been obtained in production of fast growing biomass in arid areas. The department of non-conventional Projects worth § MW aggregate electrical application systems been taken up with gasifiers and stirling of biomass. Upto engines systems installed in the engines for gensuration of energy the year 1988-39, 374 nuinbers of yasifiers st totalling about 4 MW capacity have already been country. 7.2. Biomass Conversion Tesinotogied XC ; A jtide ‘variety of conversion technolojfes is available for manufacturing premium fuels from biomass (eve table 7.5) simple and Well understand like digestion and fern. gasification have been tested in large pilot pl L and are now beingEnergy from Biomass 321 ae preducts. Domesticirefuse, for example, can be dried and bi provide heat or eotvertod into low calorific value yas by ‘pyrolysis (heating without ait). Alternatively, it ean be stirred into a olurry and digested to yield methane liquid and gaseous fuels stich as methanol and methine can be manufactured by several different route. and from a varioty of feedstocks. ‘The choice of, nt to Premium Fuels Methane Ethanol Hydrocar- Methane- Methanol or Higher Alcohols Hydrocar- bon liquids Substitute Diesel (6 process is determined b Further Treatment ‘Stéain reform ing and/or shift reaction distillation Esterification Fractional Fractional - distillation forms: (1) direct combustion, such as wood waste and bagasse (sugar. cane refuge), (OF tharmachemieal conversion, and (2) biochemical con. gas’ ermochemical conversion takes two forms fastian, Jasifiéation Jakes place hy heat limite xvren to produce Tow Technologies ‘Fuel gas? Fuel Methane* orific value (10-25 MJ/m*), srsion| heating value gas. The latter may be used as fuel liquefaction by converting it to methanol (in'thyl alechol CHjOH), or ethanol (ethyl alcohol CHjCH2OH) or it may be converted to high medi figestion involves the microbial digestion of biomass. (An anaerobe is a micro-organism_that can live and grow without air or oxygen, it gots its oxygen by the decompositira of matter containing i) Tt has sate used on animal manure but it also Liquid ~s id ols i Mixture of oils Vegetable oil Principles Products” Gases "Si pproligaeous possible withtother fiomass. (fhe process takes place at low temperature + upto 65°C, and requires a mBlsture content of at least 80 per cent. It generates a gas consisting mostly of CO and methane (CH, with minithum impurities such as hydrogen sulfide. The gas can be burned direeily or upgraded to synthetic natural gas by removing the CO, and the inipurities. The residue may consistaofprateinrichsludge that can be used as animal feed and liquid effluents that are biologically treated by staitdacsl techniques and returned to the.soil. Fermentation is tho ‘breakdown of complex molecules ia ergoniic compourd under the influence ofa ferment such as yeast, pacteria, enzyines, etc Fermentation is a well-established and widely : ‘used ‘technology far the conve ‘of grains and sugar crops into 7 saieoodag yeutso ethanol, About 500 jnillion gal ethanol per year by 1985, were produced gee ood [orson | Pretec reitty the Seectorlts gain. It is intended for mixing ‘Table 7.2. Biomass Conve ~ Solids ,Char. 7 igh calorific value (30-45 MJ/m'). Oil Extraction gent iquefigation-: Stedim-fasification Fermeatati Chemical Reduction Gasification: Bey : a= low calorific value (5-10 MJ/mn'), 5 ‘Conversion Li Hy222 Non-Cénventional Sources of Energy Thi by fefmen- Vd a process that rolysis of an abundant being consi former, Gigestion takes much Tonger. The natural decay i desptpposition'tan be speeded up by using a thermally with a stirrer unit and heating system. ae Collect fn the digester tank above the sluiry and can be pip continuously, At optimum temperature (35°C) complete deco: inimel of liuman faces takes around 10 age eee ‘cally on tho nature ofthe waste-pig ina a (Fermentation) As ct the fermentation of sugar hours of fermentation the br9) this can readily be re residuos fim plant rp par cane bagasse hav provide the heat. Sui Stocké iiclude crustied suse cane and heat, frit ots rane alsobetianulsctie irom vegetablestarches and cellulose, inaize, whoet grain: of potatoes, for example, must be und OF Pulbed and then cooked with enzymes to ‘aW, Tequire harsher pre id hydrolysis with hot acid. One tonne of 8 of alcohol; a tonne of grain, 350 estimated 260 to 540 litres. After fermentat ated, tonne of wood, a the residue froin grains rescue ty from Biomass 323-~ and is a useful ion steparequice ah molecular sieves an soon be pos to produce a greater net energy gain (Citemtcar reduction Phemical reductio of the wet biomass conver: animal wastes or plant cell nalicaline catalyst in the on monoxide at temperatures between 250°C and 2 conditious the organic material is converted into a Is with a yield approaching 50%. Ifthe pressure is reduced temperature increased, the product is a high calorific value gas. 2.Dyy Processes 01S MBE ide satt oners-ichfns eam by produ y vous eS, matter like straw a: ‘hips. fed into a reactor vessel or retort iu pulverised or shred in the al-ence of air. (Air Would cause the products uf pyrolysis ).As the temperature rises the cellulose and lignin break dows substances which are driven off leaving a char residue is process has been used for centuries to produce chazoal ‘The end products of the reaction depend critically on the condi- ‘ions employed at lower temperatures—around 500°C—organi: liquid Predominate, whilst at temperatures nearer 100°C a combussble mixture of gases results, (‘wood alcohol’) non-aque phase consists of oi crude products can be burnt (with some difficult by usually more profitable to up-grade them to premium fuels by conveational refining techniques : Other pyrolysis products include fuel gis —esseatially carbon monoxide and hydrogen and carton chae. Ths gas is generally burnt to maintain the fetperature of thereastor ; the char caabemanufastured into briquotts Tor use a3 solid fuel]324 Non-Conventional Sources of Energy ea Pyrolysis ean also be carried out in the presence of small quan- tities of oxygen (gasification), water (‘steam gasification) or hydrog. °) blow small quantities of air or oxygen in increase the temperature to over 100°C. to burn. Fuel gas from air-blown gasifiers (around 5 MJ/m')and may contain upto 40% in yields of 80-85% can be expected. yeaa carte vate (19-20 cert nt subattute natural geo seers ea vie procenes, Mathanel yells af around 20% achieved from biomass. _ ‘gus.,The hydrogen can be added el from carbo: suggest (hat steain gosification Net energy yields of 55% can be achieved as tho'technology is developed. pressure (300-400°C and 100 atmospheres) ‘steam react with eallulese to produce hea Many countries are actively. jing commercial processes for biomass liquefaction and gasificati ion) jonron the earths tie reac} Radiant energy of sun is absorbed |. However, photo-synthesis coneepts are less gy of solar energy conversion in plants icity would he ahout 0.3% cotnpared to 10% for nhoto-voltaic eel Energy from Biomass 325 med with Tereleass das follows a Jorophyll— (HgCO); * Os + Chlorophyll iealeneragr) (In the second. Zompourd to COz to form st inthesis are ss production = SS aeaseaoe ‘onventional Sources of Energy An Introduction to Energy Sources 37 able energy app for interzystional conventional energy use. keep abreast of these develophents, A further point is that cost-eff ‘ency-ranging from no-or low-cost measure ir in boilers, shutting down equipment when requiring medorate enpital investment, replacements or cogeneration uni and economic fousibility of renowablo as systems. Improvements in the offieiency of with a variety of enerny supply technolo, recognized when assessing tho rel conventional energy oystenia ef (0 the Implementation of renewable energy renowable energy projects in the developing int there are a number of barriers to the effective development end widespread diffusion of these systems. Among thre stexperience, lack of clear ning, separate and completely uncoordinated orp responsible eu, for a modern technological civilization. However, harness these gigantic natural flows of energy to perl depends largely on tho economic feasibility of the required conversion in comparison with fossil fuel options and the ex: ications affect food production, climate J NM Advantages of renes 2 . ons-are ‘supply: . we these advantages developing countries over the short tos jit Renewable eneriy is an indigeneous rescurce available in considerable quantities to-all developing nati siple, of having a significant loc (te use of renewable energy c aud generate local eesploymnen designed, manufactured, assembled na wveral renewable of e financially and econoraically compl Set nee pins nly Toston, where trical power or transporting conventions] weitendowed with bose, hydroor soot, comparison witit conventional supply energy efficiency —{#) Skeptical attitudes towarde renow Part ofthe energy planners end a lack of qu manufacture, market, operate and maintai (8) Inadequ: tance activi 1.6. Prospect of Renewable Eneryy Sources ‘he one ‘new! source of energy that promises to replace oil and the amount of energy. hydrocarbon: captured using turbines, colar gs, wind and water ‘ed. Other advantages of modular chery converters and include easy in adding new capacity, Jess risk in compariso: lumpy’ investments, lower interest o borrowed capital because o jmes and reduced transmnis- sion and distribution costs-er dispersed rural locations,925 Non-Conventionat Sources of Enericy Energy from Bior etigth (400-700 A") to produce photosynthesis | Final nt trapped enerey = 0.6% 922 3 between 400 to 700 A* only a | ed in photo: += 5.52% of insol gives only a specific case, However i wotosynthetic efficiencies have been quoted from 0.1 ainly because of two reasons : ion in efficiency fram pian Wve been observed, creasing biomass is by supplying addi- oven if'a particwlar crop matures in 3 month: i stored is prosented as a fraction of the to months, On the other hand some eficies insolation received only in the duration of mnaturation of a part 1SSTS an Important store of CO,) om firotorsynthesis: by plants. animal releases COzinto the water. Thinnest vag "Tsuatiy- ss a ealorit if sh hat the'enray received by a surface at sea level ae oa nye yee Recep from the Tentioned ani to pyr Ge mateo sat plant ai ‘ably ad ition} Biogas technology is concerned to micro- . es vous \ agareatureswhichare micronenic nai organisins. They are called bact ia, fungi, virus ete. Bacteria again can(7 sontuined in cellalosicbiommass are broken di Energy from Biomass 329 328 Non-Conventional Sources of Eneriy be classified into two typen beneficial bars Compost making production of i Where organic acids as formed above are beneficial bacte: ng organisms) 1 £03 is generated. This gas is known as Shrough fermentation or bio-digeation of a n produces CO; traces of other gases along with a decomposed nase. Aer tion is used when the main aim is to render to recover the complex organic molecule is broken down to sugar, a ‘and aznino acids by acid producing bacter tuted to pra As als containing a large amount of erganie ma other micro-organisms under anaerobic referred to ae anaerobic digestion oz Sienna aa sky \t —ailfieaan SHITE The fa he f down tes seonly 107% es, These acide ay be estion process ie TOMETETTOE eve 8 been processed to fuel, whereas drying put would have taker a further 40 M3 per kg of cold of 95% aqueoJ $50 Now-Conventional Sources of Energy the long time involved, and 60% conversion is common. Gns yield is about 0.2 to 0.4m° kg dry digestible cfabout 5 kg dry di Ie is generally considered that three ranges of tesiperature favour particular types of bact. roceeds more rapidly than at Digestion at higher temperature ver temperature, with gas yield rates Goubling at about every 5°C increase. The temperature ranges are (1) Paicrophilic, about 20°C, (2) mesophilic, about 36°C and (3) ther- mophilic, bout 55°C. In tropical countries unheated digesters are likely tobe at average ground temperature between 20 and 30°C. Cessequently the digestion is psicrophi In colder climates the digesters part of the biogas output, and a sempe bechosen, Few digesters operate at 55 material rather than produce excess biogns with retention times being at least 14 days, ve to L: heated, probably by using of about 35°C is likely to less the purpose isto digest ‘The biochemical pracesses occur in three stages, each facilitated by distinct sets of anaerobic bacteria: - Insoluble Diodegradablé materials, eg. cellulose, polysac- charides und fats, are broken devn t acids. This occurs in about a day at 2 2. Acid forming bacteri luble carbohydrates and fatty an active digester. Produce mainly acetic and propionic ‘cid. This stage lik¢wise takes akout one day at 25°C. 3. Methane forming baeteria slo Hi, and perhaps HS. Hy may play an-essen bacteria (e.g. clostridium) are distinctive in pros ly, in about 14 days at 25°C, complete the digestion to ~ 70% CH, ~ 30%: COp with trace nounts of and indeed some ducing Hz as the final product, i ‘The methane forming bacteria are sensitive to pH, and condic tions should be mildly acidic (pH 6.6 to 7.0) 6.2, Nitrogez should be present at 10% phosphorus at 2%. A golden rule for successful maintain constant conditions of temperats established taauit these conditions. When comparison of methane percenta matterras dane for example cording. 7 waste scum, Ghen best result was observed tethane pereentage fotind in dairy waste Viegas was only 68 percent Advantages of unaer Bentages of anaerobic digest 1. Calonfie value of gas. One of the msi tion of Biprodict the bogus wich hee ie dig biogas while in come ind certainly not below pHi mass of dry input, and 1 digester operator jure and sui ‘spaterial, As aresult a suitable population afbacter isto e from different organic ‘oultry dropping end dai nm. There are number ef in benefits is the produc. calor value and ean Energy from Biomass — ———— reduce steain or hot water ro Gapertat or cay therefore, be ust at gas cae jn dairy industries ener Bena ee no problem of £29 ‘uso, 20 there is : es ee lInbent coe. aon of organi B Cree i sludge production. Th in forge mae methane and carbon dioxi sludge. 9, Stable sludge. I on for their insta storage or supply, de results in 2 sm: wunicipal digestion # vee & nonvputrescable ad proportion of the gas in the cas jon was to Pr in meny cases only & Toten sedge a . Low running cost. There is no ee aus renee pinta digestion ronan ine arabic system eto adour, Sinee the oyatem ie Com ight odour of hydrogen sulphide 2 wwever ifthe gas is burnt the problem will not ar opted anaerobic sludge cen be pres eae hout appreciable deterisre- ‘Tarng digestion, The only slight presents in gas. Ho 6. Stabil a b ‘unfed for a considerable period of time with tion. ction, Work has shown that passage of the 7. Pathogen redu of pathogens press=* effluent through the digester réduess the numb fo reducing subsequent disposal problems. : 6. Value of sludge. The ceses where serobie sludge ts eset y the resultant sludge has a higher nitrogen content civnz seaeaSing value ava fertilizer. Ip has also been reported shidge acts as a soit conditioner. 3 : ement. As aconsequence of the lev prods e nutrient requirement is al: sumption of ool, Itbiogas is used instead of coal in boilers, t the air pollution 7.5, Factors Affecting Biodigestion or Generation of if TheCoowing are the factors that alfect generation of boges (D) pli or the hydrogen-ion concentration (yt sre (8) Total solid content of the feed material404 Non-Conventional Sources of Energy lepend on t Such as chemicz lati contents, calorific value, size distribution ead ic characteristics, On tho contrast, a flvidisedbed gasife and any biomass (including sewage sludge; pulping eluents c be gasified using this type of gasifie value of biomass is not a constraint. Besi because of high heat roleaso rates as well material (sand) or limestone or catalyst). These aid heat transfer and talytic or gas clearing action. Tho bed material is kept in fluid Fising column of the gaa. Normally the operating tempera- thin th of 750—950°C, so that initial deformation temperature the ash zones do not get heat snd this prevents clinkerin Advantages of fh (i) Fuel flexibility and type of fuel with calorific varue ronging from 800 to 8000 keal/kg can be used, (i) Good heat storage capacity. The bed has a very high he sure combust duc jure ifthe gasifier had to cutoff, it would be possible to restart the gasifigr even after 6 hrs time without going through the starting procedure, Such a high heat tion of flame sensing device and the azeo the same, Quick start up, jo) High combustion elliciency (0) High output rate. Consistent rateof combustion, Uscge uf fuel wich high i) Rapid response to fuel (is) Because ofthe low temsperature combustion corrosioncauaed byalkeli compounds in osh significantly reduced, ture content. put changes, RET Energy from Biomass 405 Te Chemistry of the Gasification Process 7 Tom produes guste Io i T I flow packed | oe namely the oxidat the reduction zone. The final gas composition relies en the water-gas shift reaction CO + H;0— CO, + Hy Frou Inouszmies S ANO cHutKS) cessists eeneenemnn vt 2 Uf IEEE 7 ‘The process is call the chemically bound énergy of the #6 into the gas; As already stated, Pyrolysis (destructive distillation) converts organic wastes to char, tar and oils, and gas. Here gases preduced are CO, CO; and H;. Tho organie planta which aro used i called pyrolysis plants and veseel in which this take pyrolyzer. In the figure (7.24.6) four separals zones are shown ive. Drying, pyrolysis, oxidation and reduct main reactions are: C+02+8.79 No = 3. Exothermie re evolved in the reac presence of flowing carbon, over 90% nf CO; temperatures above 900 1d occur in the reactor bed 20 +02 +3.79N; = 3.79, +260 4124.9) action 228,300 kJike atom of carbon. mn of producer gas formed under 100% conversion conditions assuming acarben feed based onthe sheve equa be 34.5% carbon monoxide and 65.5% nitrngen by volun. value of 3 formed is 4359 kJ/av at STP. Based on the above, in 2 kg atoms of earbon is 790,800 kd and of this 223,200 kJ are evolved as sensibie heat (see equation 7.24.2), consequen'ly, 567,500 kJ are availablein the producer gas as potential heat in 6.79 ke moles of producer gas. The potential cold ges efficiency is therefore approximately 12%. Energy from Biomass 07 le in the solid fuel by introduetion in thefeed equation (7.24.4) bel itn important function of th reduction zone temperature to teaction which has a higher ect teimperature of 900°C and abovs LeFl0 = CO +H, endothermic renction 130,000 kJ/kg atom of carbon, ce iy termed “wet-gasification” and has the added advent Tfoppingthe tamperatures in tke immediate vicinity ofthe hearth and on of elinker. ‘This reaction 7.24.4) is very important in producer gas genera van enrich tbe gas manufactured with hydrogen, thusentaae rife value, The other reaction with carbon/steara o¢cu lower temperature and predominates between 600—G00"C + 2H,0 = CO, + 27a] e combustion zone is to raise tho jon energy. This reaction requires (1258 atom of eurbon, thougheen wnone-oide highly Coun fuel ges dltribution for public wae [eosmo=co+H, | 06 Exothermic reaction 42,1 3100. ‘sit can be seen from the above equations, the presence of in the biomase-feed effects the quantity of the gas preduced an efficiency of jet also the bydrory! groups present in other compounds in the biomaes practical proble residues oulficie Equation Further factors affecting gus iness, particle size and chemical compos403 Non-Conventionol Sources of Energy ; Energy from Biomass 409% the after-treatment of the gas is also very important that the carbon! « g ‘monoxide leaving the reduction zone should be cooled rapidly to below ¥ g z 600°C aa its breakdown, to soot predomi h temperatures 2 = z ‘This cooling down of the hot gases reduces the deposit of soot and is os 3 g called “Freezing the equilibria”, EE 2 = Other reactions which cccur in the char at temperature of about ao £ EF 2 500°C are e £8 88 C+2H, = CH, (7.24.7) { { t Endothermic reaction 76,000 hfs mole of carbon CO +H,0 = CO, + Hz (7.24.8) Endothermie renction 42,000 kifkg mole of CO. 7 TH. Applications of the Gasifier ‘The gasification technology has tremendous potential in terms ofits applications asthe process outputscan beconvertad intolectrical, mechanical and/or heat energy. ‘The potential applications ofthe gavifier can be analysed based a on the total energy requirements in a particular application. ‘ ore} POWER Small Size Gasifiers. (upto 10 kW) Normally this eategory of gasifiers shall find opp! rural areas, especially for providing shaft line power to agri pumps, processing machiniry und agricultural—processing Eee fs machineries like Thrashers, straw choppers, ete. o S é ton 10 HP pump usod for irig 7 z 5 such pumps ranges from 600 ta 1200 hours per year w 8 : 5 10 to 15 hectares of land. In such app ¢ annual feed require- ', & rent of the gasifor shall range from 5.5 to 11.0 MT por year. = zs fee. requirement is vory nominal as this quantity of biomass ean easily be & sees ace available from one or two hectares only. P+ gwsges ¢ #2 E ees’ Infact, ahigh yielding crop lito maize can produce as large 256 “3 © gees to B tonnes of residue per hectaro and if this resid se g E2E8s easily fuel 8 ectae stem. 35 z S ily fuel a 15 9 20 heetar a 5 i Medium Sizo Gasitiers (10 KAW—60 R1) i ‘This eatogory of gasifiers can easly mest the shaft Line power 5 . requirements of various rural industriee like sax mills, carpentary af workshops, mechanical fabrication shops as well as small rice mills 7 = ‘They can aleo find extensive applications as a decentralised source of . clectrical energy in milk chilling centres, primary health coverage 7 a and for rural elecirification. =412 Non-Conventional Sources of Ener cy "The cost of fuel supply isaleo important, biomass reseurces may become costlier in future. (2) Capital Costs and Economics. it isimportant toevaluate how sosifers compete against other technologies. The task is difficult since Both the capital costs as well as economics of not only gasifiers but also of other competing systems can be highly location and application specific. In considering econoinice, operating costs, capacity |, present charges for energy, ome impartant factors. ly various co of energy supp! Technology Developnent. In gasifiers, the following three eed further techni lopment. (0) Bridging end jamming associated with handling of feed ther inside or outside gasifiers. Lack of proven gas clean up systems, which results in tar ‘hin apm roll ia frequent overoul ofthe satem Tac of dota toeeryet prover melifestioe in ale fl az the engines. nt typas of engines and (6) Safety. Producer gas is a poisonous and explosive. Henco, pro arrangement as well as safety devices need systems, expecially when gasifiers are instelled in . systems alee need provision to divert the cas to stack in an emergency shut dawn. Z ‘The larges'systems also need overerank, ture, low coo need Energy from Biomass 413 a he isk in the new technology that bras been trated tobe significantly Tes ve OF E20% the gusification system suppli seat is worthy and there is no ent jz not need=d. Sopesssigg biatiass for fuel from sewane418 Non-Conventional Sources of Enerey and othano, are produced that may be burnt to give about of ‘ry material, let ) Hydrogenation with CO and steam. As above, but: O and etoam to about 400°C and 50 ntusspheres, Ayn is extracted from the resulting products that may be used ve a fa catalyst is needed to produce reactions ofthe following form CO+H,0-— CO, +H, ColHaO)y + (n 4 1) Hp—- nH,0 + HICH),H 7.) whore the lattor reaction implios the conversion of carbohydrate material to hydrocarbon oils. The energy conversion efficiency is about 65%. (8) Acid and enzyme hydrolysis. Cellulose is the mojor con: stituent (80% to 60%) of plant dry hydrolysis and hence fermentation by miero-organi can be fermented, is porsi products may als (4) Conversion of coconut oils to est: oxaznplo of many chemical processes becom fuols. About 50% of the white ‘ment’ of c extracted by squeczing and rolling. Substai e.g. the ‘philippines’ annual produ cil may be used diregtly in di justment to the ction system, but toxic fumes are produced, nd the {fuel solidifies below 23°C . Reaction with 20% by volume of ethanol or methanol produces volatile easters and glycer jelengine fuels than the oil, and the glye trade exists in this oil, is 10° Uyear. is higher F yegetable [AX trom the catalytic reaction of Hy and CO at 3 A arcane 2il, + CO— ‘The gases are the compen hes obtained from gasification ofbigimass. ethanol maybe used asa liquid fuel n petroleuea engines with an energy density of 23 MU per 7.28, AMernative Liguid Pu Ethanol, C;H,0H, is produced natural organism from sugarsunder acidic conditions, pH 4to5. Thisalcobolic pe Biomass 419 ‘The most common :nicro organism, the yeast Sacchar Poisoned by C,H;OH concentrator Ereater 100 and ne is 10%, and 50 higher conceatrat 98% are produced by distilling and fractionetin 4, the veinaining constant boiling point mice . Anhydrous ethanol is produced commer. n with eolvents of the sugars cess beat are ‘The sugars may be obtained by the following routes : ) Diretly from sugareanc eae pore fing motor vehicles as a aster. Alcohol—sasoline blends, i water from the aleoliol, have 0 be used for beating and 4 Ps, OF h water, which makes accidental fires eas ol az a bile fa tp cons Electricabgeneral itesEnergy from Biomass 421 go. Alcohols contain oxygen, wheres heating values for the alcohels ate fuels with that of ethanol jing temperati he not. The heatin tan for the petroleum the petroleum fuels § g gig significantly lower 1 es a ge cercpout two thires that of gasoline. > os BB 23 ; Neteristies of alcohols, fas 852 ‘able 7.28.1. Liquid fuel char: 2 oof 232 ou iecel and gasoline 2 | I ae Gasoline Diesel Methanol Ethano! Buta £ g 3 ne CB ns £ ay es a Beltingpaie 2 * 106" 259 331 q FE ba ge : g ES a3 oa 28 389 64 21d 281 a ae ge ge ies as if cial advantage 3 rd 28 Es The wide boiling range of gasoline offers a spe a ee eal the lores boing components ‘are suficiently volatile to allow engiso & 2 a seeee Uw femperatures: Unimodified engines powered by pure Inethaol or ethanol will not start below 10-15°C, ‘The presence cf oxygen in the aleohole gives them compatibility with water, gaso q one] field and this w-eans that less air is required for combustion. The 8 4 Slechels have an affinity for water sufficiont to draw it from the air,a 3 § 5B therecteristic that can cause probleins in their unprotected use and 3 a i storage a a Uh: Justrial soi | 4 Bthanol has greeter potential for use as an industrial s 4 ‘andchemicel than ns a liguid fuel. For example, about half the ethansi a intheU.S.A. isused as. colvent. Printing inks, shellacs, varnishes, 7 gen cellulose ceasing, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals and some foods, ' = we ethanol in varying amounts. Paints, brake fluids, lubricants, a : fe herbicides, pesticides and explosives, all ethanol at some point in theiz 4 35 les uantaetre: é EE $e : . | 38 Bs ‘or use as\a chemical feedstock, ethanol is dehydrated to ene. By using a fixed or fluidised catalyst bed at about 300°C, a yield of 8590 percent can be obtained (about 1.70—2.0 ¢ ethans! produces 1 ¢ of etliylene). Ethanol has also: been used to produce acetaldehyde which is a precursor for acntie acid, acetic anhydride, DDT ethyl hexanol and butadience. The bulk of these chemi . as now based on athanol. £ A : Fermentation ethanol may hi ae gtk a. ‘srmentation ethanol may have the vest future as g substrate ei. Ba: 43 for single-cell proteih production, Ite advantage in « et aaa eed 23 ee on, Its advantage in this use include a6 aes 3 Peerage allt ease of storage and handling ; non-oxiit Bs Be at a aibstzate or CO substrate 5 miscibility with water | Zz - igen dem: Tbh cel een demand srelatively low temperature fermentation42 Non-Conventional Sources of Energy OE Stage. There are about 340 kmown thermal areas in India, each repre: seated by hot/warm spring. About 113 spring area, discovered so far wer is available. 46 of these systems are of ch could generate 1838 MW for a Period of30 years, 58of these are of intermediate temperature type (00" which could bo considered for power generation using binary ‘vapour cycle and other are of low temperature type below 90°C. Till now only one pilot plant is ia operation in puga vailey, in Jammu and Kashmir, having 20. MW capacity. Another pla Parvati Valley, Hithachal Pradesh is under construction. A 7.5 tonne capacity’ cold storage pilot lint based on geothermal energy was installed at Manikaran, Himachal Pradesh, A. kw pilot power plant is under fabrication at the National Aeronautical Laboratory, Ban ‘This plant will run on geothermal energy which will be recovered from the hot springs at Manikaran in Himachal Pradesh. Plans are being made to undertake further roeoarch axid development studies i ion of thia energy 50 ‘poultry farming, mushroom cultivation, space heat- ing ia possible in this Country on fairly large scale. can bo seen that while geothermal energy is not the sought after sole and long range solution to our energy preblems, it neverthe: less represeats a not insignificant in a careful and {another term "tho alternative energy sources” evyable energy sources are sonzmed because ly ingxhatstible, and are free for the tak nergy bas practi energy density, and is ec technologies, Geothormal earth's interior is and will, in the process of cooling for the indefinite future, Hened, geothermal energy from the earth’s interior is almost as inexhaustible as solar or wind energy, so long as its sources are actively sought and economically tapped. 8.2, Estimates of Geothermal Power mates vary very widely. Hou Tough estimate, For a depth of 3 kms, the tot fields is approximately 8x 107" Joules and for: stored energy is estimated to be about 4 107 c energy stored in hot springs is about 10% of the above quantities. Ifthe above energy is extractod from a 3 kan belt with 1% thermal energy recovery factor at a uniforin rete of over a 0.vear period, therinal nower af 0. CW Geothermal Energy 449, a thermal electric conversion effziency of 20 i Power. For the estimate based on a 19 ke ie power of 80 GW is profetc s Is and India much less. f Sta ae 7 : Sbatengesin gates ed Jbaving a temperature gradient af 75% elds may further be classified into three types Iyper-thermal Fields ¢ boiling They produce dry saturated steam or s, ‘above atmospheric. ‘mal Fields ‘spable of producing hot water at temperatures above 84, Geotherniid Sources SY (or kinds) of geothermal resources have Cc) Byeicthermabcantecine ERD ‘These are gain subclassified as Vopour-do ated or dry steam fields. -dominated system or wet steam fields, and Hot-water fieids, {2 Ceopsssuptaesouree? ‘9 PetioaereeFer Hot doy (HDR 48) Walcanoes LZ anes EE hidathermal convective systems are Next ==444 Non-Conventional Sources of Energy aA Hydrothermal Systems, Hydrothermal systems are these'in sshich water is Yeated by contact with thehot-rock, as explained earlier. Vapor-do: vaporized into steam that reeches the surface in a condition at about 200°C nnd rarely above 7 ke/em? (8b the most suitable for use in turbo electriepasticr plants, with ‘however, suffer problems siini.ar to those encountered by the presence of corrosive gases and ‘The Geysers plant in the United States, and Larderello in Italy, are both vapor-dor iquid-domiriated Systems. In these systems the hot water jreulating and trapped undergrow 5 to.315°C, When tapped by wells ej leit te wee owe nat teThe drop in pressire, usually to 7 partially flash to a'two—phase-mintere of Sominated: It contains elatively large eancentration of diszalve ranging between 3000 to-25,000:ppin and sometimes higher. Power these eoliabeenuse they precipitate niin pipes flow and heat transfer. more plentif-than vapour-domi require the letarexteasion of technology. (2) Geopresaired Systéins!;These resources occur in large, deep sedimentaiy busine. (Chet reeervoirs contain méderately high ine) ubider Very high pressure. They are of ‘amounts of ethane CH, (natural ‘tapped in much, ratum of perme- 400 to 9000 m. ity of 4to 10 per cent and is oRen referred to as brine cea are quite lnxge : they could he zed fer the rer and the recovery of natural gas\f suitable eeSology eauld be developed ad if edivitval reservoir prodhctvity tnd longevity prove tobe adequate. (3) Hot Dry Rocks. (or Petroth2r hot solid rocks occurring at moderate dj 5). These are very Geathermal Energy 445 ___ ‘absence of ground-water or the ‘and recovering face. The known temperatures of HDR vary is energy, called petrothermal energy,] ofgeothermal enerey of any type jeothermal resource. Much of the mpermeable as stated ing cold water, steam} for use at the suri between ~ 150 to 290°C. Thit represents by far the largest resource agitaccounts for large per cent of the atmoddrate depths, butt is largel ler tg extract thermal energy out of it, water will have tobe ‘Land back out to the surface. It is necessary for the heat Treneport mechanism that a way be found to render the impermeable rock into a permeable structure with a large heat-transfer surface. A Jory because of the low thermal large. surface is particularly necess: conluctivity of the rock. Rendering the rock permeable is to be done by fractiring it. Fractyring methods that have been considered inv \g wells ints the rock and then fracturing by {agma Flesources. These consist of partially or completely molten rock, peratures in excess of 650°C, which may be encountered at moderate depths, eapecially ia recently active voleanie ee eee ern ange geothermal dnergy content, 6 rmmere, the vere peratures nological problem. ) The geothre ‘These, are wet reservoirs at moderate depths containing stea andlor hot water under pressure at temperatures upto about 380°C. ‘These systems are further subdi eailag tom tether sa or hot water is the dominant pro sent only a small fraction of the potenti only ofies that have been ut temper ‘Theheat by convee! nn of the water in a porous medium). Th pee