The Cereal Systems Initiative for South Asia (CSISA) is a regional initiative to sustainably increase the productivity

of cereal-based cropping systems, thus improving food security and farmers’ livelihoods in Bangladesh, India
and Nepal. CSISA works with public and private partners to support the widespread adoption of resource-
conserving and climate resilient farming technologies and practices. The initiative is led by the International
Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT), is jointly implemented with the International Food Policy
Research Institute (IFPRI) and the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), and is funded by USAID and the
Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation.
www.csisa.org

Email: [email protected]

Contributors: R.K. Malik1, Ashok Yadav2, Virender Kumar2, Ajay Kumar1, S.P. Poonia1, Andrew McDonald1,
Alwin Keil1, David Kahan1, Ajoy K. Singh3, Ashok K. Singh3, Anurag Ajay1, Shantanu Dubey4, U.S. Gautam4,
Anjani Kumar5, Suryakant Khandai2, Pankaj Kumar1, Anurag Kumar1, Vipin Kumar2, Madhulika
Singh1, Prabhat Kumar1, Ram Dhan Jat1, Shahnawaz Rasool Dar2, Sudhanshu Singh2, J.S. Mishra6,
Pardeep Sagwal1, Deepak Kumar Singh1, Wasim Iftikar1, Nabakishore Parida1, Moben Ignatius1 Cynthia
Mathys1 and V. Dakshinamurthy1.

1 International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT). 2 International Rice Research Institute (IRRI).
3 Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR). 4 Agricultural Technology Application Research Institute
(ATARI) Kanpur. 5 ATARI Patna. 6 ICAR-RCER Patna.

© 2018 This publication is a product of the Cereal Systems Initiative for South Asia (CSISA) and copyrighted
by the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) and International Rice Research Institute
(IRRI). This work is licensed for use under a Creative Commons Attribution Non Commercial Share Alike 4.0
License (Unported).

CIMMYT and IRRI encourage fair use of this material with proper citation or acknowledgement. The designations
employed and the presentation of the material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion
whatsoever on the part of the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) and International
Rice Research Institute (IRRI) concerning the legal status of any country, person, territory, city, or area, or of its
authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. Where trade names are used, this does
not constitute endorsement of or discrimination against any product by CIMMYT and IRRI.

This publication was made possible through the support provided by the United States Agency for International
Development and the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. The contents and opinions expressed herein are those
of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of USAID or the Gates Foundation.

Published in May 2018

Table of Contents
PART I: CONCEPTS, AGRONOMIC MANAGEMENT AND OPERATIONS

Session I Introduction and training objectives 01

Session II Integrating zero tillage concepts 07

Session III Agronomic management practices 15

Session IV Parts of zero till seed-cum-fertilizer drill and functions 23

PART II: SERVICE PROVISION AS A BUSINESS OPPORTUNITY

Session V Introducing concepts – fixed and variable cost components 37

Session VI Profitability calculations – scenario analysis 45

Session VII Introducing concepts – opportunity cost, risk, & competition 57

Session VIII Expanding business portfolio 61

Session IX Record keeping 63

ANNEX I PRE-EVALUATION FORM 66

ANNEX II POST-EVALUATION FORM 67

ANNEX III FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS 69

PART I SESSION I
Concepts, Agronomic
Management and Operations Introduction and
Training Objectives
 Introduction
Zero tillage (ZT) technology plays an important role in the sustainable intensification of rice–wheat
cropping system and adoption of better-bet management practices, such as timely crop establishment,
in India. Nearly two decades ago, ZT was first introduced to help farmers reduce tillage costs and
advance the planting time of wheat and other Rabi crops. In successive years, ZT marked the evolution
of the concept of conservation agriculture in rice–wheat cropping systems. ZT now offers significant
opportunities in cropping system optimization for greater system productivity, especially in the eastern
Indo-Gangetic Plains of India. As the majority of farmers in rice–wheat cropping systems still burn
the residues of the rice crop to enable their rapid disposal before wheat sowing, recent advances in
ZT makes it possible to sow wheat successfully into heavy residues and facilitate the use of residues
as mulches for weed suppression and moisture conservation. One example is the Happy Seeder
that can seed wheat in heavy residue mulch of up to 8 to 10 t/ha without any adverse effect on
crop establishment. The success of ZT depends on the creation of service providers in the system,
who face cash flow risks and are unable to afford costly machines, to have access to ZT technology
through custom-hiring.

This manual has been prepared by drawing on and leveraging the collective wisdom of diverse
stakeholders including farmers and manufacturers. An attempt has been made to instill confidence
among trainees and master trainers in the technology and among service providers about the
business logic. ZT technology is financially attractive and creates demand among farmers. It will be a
viable business proposition for tractor owners to purchase machines and take up custom services for
smallholders and relatively resource-poor farmers. For building a successful and sustainable business
model, tractor-owning farmers can be persuaded to purchase ZT drills available on subsidy. Past
experience shows that more than 60% of ZT adopters did not have tractors or ZT machines.

Skills, knowledge and coordination with partners including the Department of Agriculture (DOA) and
state agricultural universities (SAUs) are essential prerequisites for facilitating accelerated adoption
of the technology. Extension material needs to be developed to show how the technology operates and
saves cost.

This training manual aims to cover critical topics in the principles and operation of ZT technology.
It will also provide guidance to service providers (SPs) on cost and returns analysis, and benefits of
starting a business enterprise for ZT custom-hire services. This training is designed for agronomy
experts, business development professionals and senior staff from Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs), the
Department of Agriculture, non-governmental organizations and the private sector.

2 Zero Tillage Wheat www.csisa.org

 Training Objectives
By the end of the training, participants should be able to:

• Understand the benefits, challenges and • Demonstrate simple profitability

operation of ZT technology. calculations to plan a ZT-based business
and evaluate its performance.
• Tell how ZT helps in the intensification of
cropping systems. • Understand the importance of keeping
business records as a basis for profitability
• Explain the role of custom hiring services
calculations and learn what kind of
through private service providers.
information is needed.
• Understand the basic business concepts
underlying custom-hire services for
zero tillage.

Key Messages
• The productivity advantages of ZT wheat • Improves soil quality and water retaining
result from earlier planting (and thus capacity by adding organic matter. As
avoiding terminal heat damage during crop residues decompose, this creates an
the grain filling stage), control of Phalaris open soil structure that lets water in more
minor, a major weed of wheat, better easily, reducing runoff.
nutrient management and water savings.
• Helps reduce CO2 emissions and mitigate
• Other advantages include improved the adverse effect of global warming.
soil and water conservation, increased
• ZT use leads to reduction in air pollution
use of land through intensification of
by minimizing crop residue burning.
cropping systems, reduced labor and
energy requirements, reduced equipment • Improves the biological diversity of soil
inventories, reduced wear and tear on that increases the number of beneficial
tractors and equipment, and greater insects and keeps many insect pests in
environmental benefits. check.

• ZT reverses the loss of soil organic matter • Establishing the wheat crop through zero
that happens in conventional tillage. tillage can be undertaken as a business.

• Provides excellent seed-soil contact and

hence facilitates uniform emergence of
seeds.

www.csisa.org Zero Tillage Wheat 3

 Duration
The course is designed to span three days including classroom and hands-on training. The site of the
training should be close to a farm for the demonstration of a ZT machine.

Duration
Session Topic
(minutes)

Day 1: ZT Introduction and Benefits

I Introduction and training objectives 90

Integrating zero tillage concepts, residue management, trade-offs and

II 120
sustainable intensification of cropping systems

III Agronomic management practices 120

Day 2: ZT Operation

IV Parts of the ZT seed-cum-fertilizer drill and their functions 120

V Practical exercises with a ZT seed drill in the field 120

VI Discussion about field problems and their solutions 90

Day 3: Service Provision as a Business Opportunity

Introducing concepts: Fixed and variable cost components and their

VII 100
calculations

VIII Profitability calculations: Scenario analysis 120

IX Introducing concepts: Opportunity costs, risks, competition 60

X Expanding the business portfolio 30

XI Record keeping 30

Open discussion 60

Key Considerations for this Training

• The facilitator should start the training by first conducting a theory session in the class room.
Content given in this manual could be used in conducting this session. Explain each topic slowly
and clearly and encourage participants to ask questions.

• The facilitator should briefly introduce himself/herself and other resource persons present.

4 Zero Tillage Wheat www.csisa.org

 • The facilitator should then ask the participants to introduce themselves and explain their current
tillage practices, listing them in order of preference. After completion of each topic, the facilitator
should conduct a Q&A round and clarify any doubts.

• The facilitator should discuss the following topics during the training:

- Local cropping systems and the ecologies in which participants are working.

- Optimal transplanting time for rice and sowing time for wheat to help participants understand
the importance of timely sowing in the intensification of cropping systems.

- The present yield levels of different crops to indicate what yields can be achieved through the
intensification of cropping systems and by advancing sowing times.

- Explain why system productivity is more important than the productivity of an individual crop,
as well as the system productivity based on the duration of varieties and seeding of crops in rotation.

- Critical factors in the adoption of ZT so that questions can be answered as part of the training.

- Potential future subsidy trends on ZT machines in relation to other tools and implements for
mechanization.

- Availability of machines in the state/area, the existing system of custom-hire services, and
maintenance and repair facilities.

• Custom-Hire Services.

Training Requisites

PROJECTOR LAPTOP POWER POINT

PRESENTATION

WHITE BOARD MARKERS FLIP CHARTS

www.csisa.org Zero Tillage Wheat 5

SESSION II
Integrating Zero
Tillage Concepts
 Introduction
The facilitator should start this classroom session by giving the participants a verbal overview of
conventional tillage, zero tillage, and conservation agriculture. Participants should be encouraged to
think about crop residue management and to raise queries, which should be clarified during the session.

By the end of this Session, Participants should

be able to:

Understand the reasons Explain the advantages Explain the agronomic

management practices
why they should adopt of establishing a crop
required for establishing
zero tillage technology using zero tillage wheat and other crops

Conventional Tillage
Conventional tillage is used to soften the soil and prepare a seedbed that allows seeds to be placed
easily at a suitable depth into moist soil, using seed drills or bullock-drawn Indian plough or manual
equipment. This results in uniform seed germination. Generally, this method involves plowing or
intensive (i.e., numerous) tillage operations.

Photo 1: Seeding under conventional tillage

8 Zero Tillage Wheat www.csisa.org

 Residues from the previous crop are incorporated, along with any soil amendments (fertilizers, organic
or inorganic) into the soil. Crop residues, especially loose residues, create problems for seeding
equipment by raking and clogging.

Tillage gives temporary relief from compaction using implements that can shatter below-ground
compaction layers formed in the soil (see Photo 1). Implements like rotavators create serious problems
such as soil compaction, water stagnation and the yellowing of wheat leaves after the first irrigation.
The use of rotavator also leads to farmers using broadcast sowing, which is a harmful agronomic
practice as it does not lead to proper crop geometry. Overall, tillage consumes large quantities of
fossil fuels, adds to the cost of cultivation, emits greenhouse gases (mostly CO2), delays the planting
of crops, leads to a decline in soil organic matter, leaves the soil bare and loose – eventually leading
to soil erosion – disrupts the root channels of the previous crops and results in more wear and tear of
agricultural machines.

Zero Tillage
Zero tillage (ZT) can be defined as the placement of seed into the soil by a seed drill without prior land
preparation. A common definition of zero tillage (i.e., no-till) specifies that 30 percent of the soil surface
should be covered by crop residues at the time of planting. Zero tillage improves the total productivity,
meaning the efficiency of labor and capital used.

A tractor-drawn ZT seed-cum-fertilizer drill is the core of the technology (see Photo 2), allowing
wheat seed to be sown directly into unploughed fields with a single pass of the tractor, often with
simultaneous basal fertilizer application, especially phosphorus. It can also be used for planting other
crops like lentil, chickpea, mustard, green gram, rice and maize.

Photo 2: Direct drilling of wheat in a combine harvested field.

www.csisa.org Zero Tillage Wheat 9

ZT technology has also been successfully used under small-scale farming conditions using a
two-wheel tractor.

ZT technology is a more sustainable and environment friendly management system for cultivating
crops, especially in South Asia, where sustainable intensification is key to the success of smallholder
farmers. It can enable farmers to achieve sustainable agricultural production.

Why Adopt Zero Tillage?

Farmers in South Asia will have to produce more food from less land by making more efficient use of
their natural resources and with minimal impact on the environment. That seems possible by adopting
methods such as zero tillage, which allows for the intensification of cropping systems and saving of resources
The sequence of events leading to zero tillage adoption in India is given in the table (history of zero tillage).
 History of Zero Tillage
Time Developmental stages

18000 B.C. Planting by stick, earliest version of zero tillage

6000 B.C. Draught animals replaced humans in the ploughing process

3500 B.C. Plowshare a wedge-shaped implement tipped with iron blade loosens the top soil

1100 A.D. Mold bold plough

Mid 1800 Still mold bold plough

Early 1900 Tractors

1940s – 50s Less tillage, herbicides like 2, 4-D & Atrazine to manage weeds

1960s No-till seeders developed (First no-till farmer was Harry Young in Kentucky, USA)

Late 1970s ICI promoted zero tillage to sell Paraquat

Late 1970s ZT was tried & tested in India and was at a dead end until the early 1990s

Mid 1990s and

ZT evolved and was adopted in India
Early 2000

Conservation Agriculture
ZT was a transitory step towards the evolution of conservation agriculture (CA). CA aims to conserve,
improve and make more efficient the use of natural resources through the integrated management
of available soil, water and biological resources, combined with external inputs. It contributes to
environmental conservation as well as to enhancing and sustaining agricultural production. CA has
now been used as a part of sustainable intensification for optimizing cropping system. The three key
principles of CA are: permanent soil cover with at least 30% of the soil surface covered with crop
residue (see Photo 3), minimal soil disturbance and crop rotations.

Photo 3: Direct drilling of wheat with 100 percent crop residue

www.csisa.org Zero Tillage Wheat 11

 Happy Seeder-Based ZT
Happy Seeder technology (see Photo 4) should be used along with the entire system of mechanization
to ensure good crop establishment, proper placement of fertilizer and the handling of crop residues.
Earlier, problems were encountered with combine harvester due to the inverted-T opener-based ZT
machines available in South Asia. To overcome these problems, a seeder-based ZT machine was
developed. Different options available are as follows:

• Stubbles can be partially burnt, as is presently done in most conventional farming systems.

• Happy seeders can also handle seeding wheat into 100% rice residue immediately after the
harvesting of rice.

• Combine harvesters can also be modified to chop the straw into small pieces and distribute
it evenly on the soil surface.

Photo 4: Happy seeder for direct drilling with 100 percent residue load.

Strip Tillage
In strip tillage, the soil is left undisturbed between harvest and planting, except for strips up to 1/3 of
row’s width (strips may involve only residue disturbance or may include soil disturbance). Planting or
drilling is accomplished by using disc openers, coulter(s), or rototillers. Other common terms used to
describe strip tillage are ‘direct seeding’ and ‘row-till’.

12 Zero Tillage Wheat www.csisa.org

 Surface Seeding
Surface seeding is the simplest method of ZT, involving the placement of seed onto the soil surface
without any land preparation. Farmers in parts of eastern India, Bangladesh and Nepal commonly use
this practice to establish legumes and oilseeds, and occasionally wheat. Wheat seed is broadcast
before or after rice harvest (relay planting/utera or paira cropping).

Reduced Tillage with Two- and Four-Wheel Tractors

Reduced tillage with a 12-horsepower, two-wheel diesel tractor prepares the soil and plants the seed
in one operation, even planting into anchored rice stubble on heavy soils. This system consists of a
shallow rotavator followed by a six-row seeding system and a roller for compaction of the soil.

An alternate definition is full-width tillage involving one or more tillage trips, which disturbs the entire
soil surface and is performed prior to and/or during planting.

Zero tillage differs from reduced tillage (RT) in the sense that the latter still retains some minimal tillage
prior to seeding, although this often still implies a significant reduction in tillage intensity compared to
conventional farming practices.

Conservation Tillage

ZT will be used to describe a system with minimum soil disturbance along with residues from the
previous crop in rotation. Conservation tillage is also used where there is minimum soil disturbance
with residue mulch. However, for the purpose of this training module, the term ZT will be used as it
represents the whole cropping system rather than a single crop, which is frequently used in the context of
conservation tillage.

Crop Residue Management

Crop residue management is a year-round conservation tillage management system beginning with
the selection of crops that produce sufficient residue. The system may include the use of cover crops
after low residue producing crops. Crop residue management includes all field operations that affect
residue amounts, orientation and distribution throughout the cropping system cycle. Retention of
crop residues improves organic carbon content, water-stable aggregates, bulk density,hydraulic
conductivity and soil biological activities. Residue management influences soil temperature, moisture
conservation and weed and pest management.

Residue retention assumes greater importance when cereals are grown immediately after other cereals
and with minimal cultivation. There is no direct evidence of deleterious effects due to phytotoxins
released during rice straw decomposition on the growth and yield of wheat in the Indo-Gangetic
Plains. There is a need to study the effect of surface retention of crop residues on the growth and
yields of crops in the rice–wheat system, particularly in the absence of puddling.

www.csisa.org Zero Tillage Wheat 13

 For facilitating ZT operations, the straw should be chopped into small pieces and evenly distributed on
the soil. These small pieces of straw will not interfere with the inverted-T openers and will leave stubble
mulch on the soil surface for residue retention.

Requisites for Zero Tillage

Zero tillage Seeds & Properly

machine fertilizers leveled field

Trained
Herbicides
operator

Various causes and effects of conventional tillage, zero tillage and conservation agriculture

Issues Conventional tillage Zero tillage Conservation

agriculture

Soil physical health Lowest Significantly improved Best practice

Soil compaction Used to reduce Reduces compaction Residue

compaction but can and proper
also induce compaction crop rotation
by destroying biological help reduce
pores compaction

Soil biological health Lowest Moderately better soil More diverse and
biological health healthy biological
properties

Water infiltration Lowest with clogging of Good water infiltration Best water
soil pores infiltration

Soil temperature Surface soil temperature Moderation of soil Best case

more variable temperature scenario for
moderation of soil
temperature

Timeliness Operations are Operations are Best case

frequently delayed optimized scenario for timely
operations

14 Zero Tillage Wheat www.csisa.org

SESSION III
Agronomic Management
Practices
 By the end of this Session, the Participants
should be able to:

Understand the better-bet Explain herbicide Understand irrigation

agronomic management management in wheat practices in wheat sown
practices to improve yield sown by ZT technology by ZT technology
using ZT technology

Important Agronomic Practices

Zero tillage technology is most reliable and use cases of this technology indicate precise placement of seed
and fertilizer, good seed and soil contact, uniform emergence and profound tillering leading to high productivity
at less cost (see Fig.1)

Time of Sowing Method of Sowing

• For high yield, wheat sowing should be done • Sowing should be done with the help of a ZT
between 1 and 15 November. machine as it saves both time and money.

• If sowing is not possible by 15 November, • If sowing is done after the field is tilled, there is
then it should be done at least before 25 yield loss as well as unnecessary investment
November, as each day’s delay beyond this date in tillage.
will result in a loss of 25-35kg kg/ha.

Wheat Varieties Seed Rate

• HD 2967, HD 2733, HD 2824, HD 2967 and • Seed rate of 40-45 kg per acre has to be
PBW 550 or varieties recommended by the followed when sown with a zero tillage
state agricultural universities. machine.

16 Zero Tillage Wheat www.csisa.org

 Precise placement of seed
and fertilizer

Good seed to soil contact

results into good rate and extent
of germination.

Uniform emergence will lead to

synchronized maturity.

Multiple tillering starting from

initial single seed.

Fig. 1: Emergence growth and development of wheat under zero tillage

www.csisa.org Zero Tillage Wheat 17

 Tiller counts
increased with time.

Late tillering stage and

jointing stage. Plant begin
elongating photo taken on
19 January 2018

Beginning of post anthesis

stage. Photo taken on
21 February 2018

Uniform growth, development

and synchronized maturity -
a win win situation

Fig. 1: Emergence growth and development of wheat under zero tillage

18 Zero Tillage Wheat www.csisa.org

 Pre-Sowing Herbicide Management
If weeds are present prior to seeding, these weeds should be killed by spraying pre-seeding non-
selective/burndown herbicides such as glyphosate @ 1.0 kg ai/ha [product dose 975 ml/acre roundup
or glycel using 100-150 liter water] or 1.0-1.5% by volume i.e. 10-15 ml roundup or glycel/liter of water
or 6-10 g Mera 71/liter of water about 2-3 days prior to wheat sowing. Note the following important points.

• If weeds are in patches, perform spot treatment to save time and costs.

• Spraying should be done using a multiple nozzle boom fitted with flat-fan nozzles. If a multiple
nozzle boom is not available, then a cut/flood jet nozzle with single nozzle boom should be used.
Do not use a cone-type nozzle for herbicide application.

• Pre-seeding herbicides should not be applied after wheat sowing.

Fertilizer Dosage (per acre)

• At sowing: 50kg DAP (used in the ZT machine), 32kg MOP, 10kg Zn (applied manually).

• At 1st irrigation: 42kg Urea (applied manually).

• At 2nd irrigation: 42kg Urea (applied manually).

• If wheat is sown after a pulse crop, the dosage of nitrogen may be reduced by 25%.

• If wheat is sown after 30 November, the fertilizer dose can be reduced by 25%.

Major Weeds Herbicides Active ingredient Product g/

(g a.i)/ha acre

Total (Sulfosulfuron + metsulfuron) 32 16

Mixed weeds Vesta (Clodinafop + metsulfuron) 64 160

Sulfosulfuron + carfentrazone 25 + 20 13.3 + 20

Leader/ Safal/ Fateh (Sulfosulfuron) 25 13.3

Narrow-leaved
weeds Topic (Clodinafop) 60 160

2,4-D Na Salt 400 200

Broad-leaved Affinity (Carfentrazone) 20 20

weeds
Algrip (Metsulfuron) 4 8

Note: Herbicide application should be done 30-35 days after sowing in 120-150 liter of water per acre using
a flat-fan nozzle.

www.csisa.org Zero Tillage Wheat 19

 In a Solanum sp. infested area, use sulfosulfuron + carfentrazone for mixed weed flora or carfentrazone
if only broadleaf weeds are present.

Irrigation
Experimental data have validated the usefulness of zero tillage in saving water in first irrigation
(see Photo:5)

1st IRRIGATION 2nd IRRIGATION 3rd IRRIGATION

20-21 Days after sowing (DAS) 40-45 DAS 60-65 DAS
(at crown root initiation stage) (at the time of tiller initiation) (at node formation)

4th IRRIGATION 5th IRRIGATION

80-85 DAS 100-105 DAS
(at the flowering stage) (at the milking stage)

Note: The field should be irrigated during the grain filling period in March to avoid terminal heat stress.

Photo 5: ZT saves water during first irrigation

20 Zero Tillage Wheat www.csisa.org

 Points to Note
• The sowing of wheat with a zero-till seed-cum fertilizer drill is best accomplished when soils have
3-4% more moisture than under the conventional method. Germination of wheat and other crops
is adversely affected if the soil is too dry. Conversely, the zero-till machine does not work well in
fields where moisture levels are too high (wheel slippage occurs) and under such situations, care
must be taken to prevent the blockage of seed and fertilizer tubes.

• Longer duration varieties such as HD 2967, having better vigor during early growth and profuse
tillering, cover the soil surface and are more competitive with weeds. Select cultivars with better
competing attributes.

• Due to better seed and soil contact the roots are very well anchored. This helps reducing lodging
in wheat (see Photo:6)

• There is no need for planking before or after planting crops with zero-till drill.

• Irrigation immediately after wheat sowing is not recommended. If needed, post-sowing irrigation
may be given a week ahead of the conventionally practiced irrigation schedule.

• When weed pressure is not a factor, soil tilling is not needed and reduced tillage (1-2 ploughings)
and cross-sowing methods do not provide any additional advantage over zero tillage. Rather,
these methods may reduce crop germination and yield as well as induce germination of P. minor,
besides increasing the cost of cultivation. The germination and emergence of wheat is not adversely

Photo 6: Zero tillage facilitates better anchoring of roots

www.csisa.org Zero Tillage Wheat 21

 affected even if rains occur just after sowing of wheat because crust formation does not take place
under zero tillage. However, crops planted with zero till in reduced till plots may bury seed deeper
and may adversely affect crop stand.

• Germination of P. minor is reduced by 30-40% if soil disturbance is reduced to the minimum, as in

the case with the zero tillage. P. minor seed generally fail to germinate if seed depth is > 5 cm.

• Non-selective herbicides should to be used only to knock down pre-germinated weeds including
P. minor (see Photo 7).

Photo 7: Spraying of non-selective herbicide

• Spraying of post-emergence herbicides should be accomplished at 2- to 3-leaf stage of P. minor.

• Broadleaf weed emergence in place of P. minor under long-term zero-till fields is expected.
However, it will be comparatively easy and cheap to control broadleaf weeds in wheat using
herbicides like 2, 4-D, metsulfuron or carfentrazone. Based on long-term permanent trials in places
like Haryana since 1997/98, it has been observed that there is no significant shift in weed flora to
date.

• Encouraging results for wheat sown with zero-till machines have also been realized under saline
and alkaline soils.

• Zero-till wheat sowing is possible in standing paddy stubble (just after harvest) without burning,
which not only adds residue to the soil to increase and improve its quality but also prevents
environmental pollution. If loose paddy straw is lying on the soil surface, it should be collected and
kept aside before seeding to avoid interruption of the seeding operation. It should be uniformly
broadcast as mulch after seeding.

• There is no need to increase the use of nitrogenous and phosphatic fertilizers in zero tillage. Keep
application rates the same as followed under conventional methods of planting.

22 Zero Tillage Wheat www.csisa.org

SESSION IV
Parts of Zero Till Seed-Cum
Fertilizer Drill and Their Functions
 By the end of this Session, Participants should
be able to:

Explain the different Calibrate zero tillage as Understand the repair and
parts of the zero tillage per the given operational maintenance procedures
machine guidelines related to zero tillage

Parts of Zero Till Seed-cum-Fertilizer Drill and

Their Function
With the significant increase in the adoption of zero tillage technology in several areas of the
Indo-Gangetic Plains, the zero till seed-cum-fertilizer drill has become a useful and important
agricultural machine for the farmers (see photo 8). All of the new models are improved version of
the traditional seed drill used by farmers for decades. Seed drilling is accomplished in a narrow
slit created by a zero till seed-cum-fertilizer drill.

Major Components and their Description

3
4

Driven gears
cover

8
8 9 Drive gears cover
6
2
7

1. Frame 2. Slit/furrow openers 3. Seed and fertilizer boxes 4. Seed adjustment lever
5. Fertilizer adjustment lever & indicator 6. Drive wheel 7. Power transmission unit
8. Depth-control wheels 9. Top link hitch point

Photo 8: Major components of the zero till seed-cum-fertilizer drill machine

24 Zero Tillage Wheat www.csisa.org

 A brief description of each of the above components is given below:

Frame
The zero-till drill frame is 200 × 60 cm. It is made of two mild steel angle irons (6.5 × 6.5 × 0.5 cm)
welded together to provide the desired strength and rigidity. This is true in a drill of 9 tynes but in 11-
tine drill, the length of frame is about 220 cm. Tynes are 20 cm apart (adjustable, see photo:9) and
provided in the frame to vary the spacing between furrow openers (see photo: 8). In new models, a
provision for fastening clamps (diamond/box types) has been refined to achieve desired line to line
spacing. The machine can easily be drawn by any 35 hp tractor. The height of the machine ranges
from 110 to 145 cm and weighs around 200 to 260 kg, even up to 350 kg in some models.

Plastic Tubes

Boots with
different
angles

Depth
adjusting
rod

Frame
Clamp for fitting
High Carbon
furrow opener steel bit
Steel Shank
Relief angle

Depth adjusting Rake angle

Bolts

Slit/furrow
working front opener
edge

Photo 9: Different components fitted on a machine frame

The zero till seed-cum-fertilizer drill has 9-13 inverted T-type slit/furrow openers (see photo:8)
depending on the model/brand. These can be spaced as needed for different crops. These T-type
slit/furrow openers, when attached to a tyne, opens a narrow slit 3-5 cm wide. The cutting portion of
the slit/furrow openers is made by using 8 mm thick high carbon bit welded to a mild steel plate (see
photo: 9). The working front edge of the slit/furrow openers has a piece of carbon steel (hardness 65
RHN) welded all around the nose, tip and sides to reduce wear and tear (see photo:9). In some drills,
manufacturers have provided chisel-type slit/furrow openers. The rake angle (see photo:9) is generally
kept at around 20 degrees in order to make a narrow slit with minimum of soil disturbance. The relief/

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 clearance angle of the slit/furrow openers is normally kept at 5 degrees. The relief angle (photo:8)
can be further adjusted with the help of the top-link (mounted with tractor) to vary seeding depth.
The furrow opener is welded to the mild flat steel shank (straight leg standard mounted with T-type
slit openers, see photo: 9). The blades can be of a “welded on” or “bolted on” or even “knock down”
type. The disadvantage of “welded on” blades is that they require a machine shop for replacement,
whereas, a farmers himself can replace the other two types of blades in new models. The quality of
material used to make the slit/furrow openers will ultimately determine the operational quality and
durability of the drill. Double boot (see photo: 9) with different angles is provided behind each furrow
opener to receive a tube (steel ribbon or polyethylene tube (hard type) with a minimum diameter of 25
mm) each from seed and fertilizer metering devices. This will help avoiding blockage during seeding.
The furrow openers are adjusted to make 3–5 cm wide and deep slits. The depth of seeding can be
adjusted by raising or lowering the depth-control side wheels. However, depth of seeding can also
be adjusted (independent of the depth-control side wheels) by raising or lowering the shanks of the
furrow openers (photo:9). The depth control can also be effected by three-point hitch hydraulics, in
addition to the depth-control wheels. The top link is used to level the seeder. The unlevelled machine
may otherwise lead to variable seeding depth in different rows leading to uneven seed placement.
Since the side link hydraulics often get damaged or become non-functional in most tractors, with the
farmers, it is advisable to use both the depth control wheels and the top link simultaneously.

Seed and Fertilizer Boxes

Trapezoidal seed & fertilizer boxes, made of mild steel sheet (2 mm thick), are mounted side-by-side on
the frame, fertilizer box in front and seed box (see photo: 10) in the rear. The boxes are generally 145
cm long and 28 cm deep sufficient to hold 50 kg DAP and 50 kg wheat seed at a time, respectively.
Box dimensions can vary but these generally depend upon the effective width of the machine and will
increase with an increase in the number of the slit/furrow openers. For example, in case of the 11-tyne
drill, the length of seed and fertilizer boxes will be around 178 cm.

Seed box
Fertilizer box

a b

Photo 10: Seed and fertilizer boxes

26 Zero Tillage Wheat www.csisa.org

 Seed Metering Device
A seed metering device has the following components (photo: 10):

1. Seed adjustment lever 2. Fluted rollers 3. Flow control tongue

4. Aluminium cup 5. Plastic tube 6. Seed boot

Fluted rollers (photo: 11a) made of aluminium facilitate the continuous seeding of crops where the
control of plant-to-plant distance is not needed (e.g., wheat, rice, mustard). Tooth size, depth of the
groove and the number of flutes depend on the seed size. For example, there are 10 flutes in each
roller for wheat seed. The rollers are fitted in a series on a shaft. Aluminium/plastic cups are fitted on
these rollers to regulate the seed rate. Below the fluted rollers are aluminium or plastic tongues to hold
the seed and check its free fall of seed (see photo: 11a &13). The tongues can be raised or lowered
depending on the size and texture (in the case of rice) of the seed. As the fluted rollers turn, they push
the seed over the edge of the seed cups attached at the bottom of seed metering box which funnels
the seed through the plastic seed tubes (photo: 9) to the slit/furrow opener through seed boots. Inclined
plate seed metering device has been provided for precise seed placement (see photo 11b).

Aluminium
cup

Flutted
rollers
Tongue

b
Seed metering
gears
Inclined plate

Seed box tilt

adjusting rod

Greasing
points
Seeds boxes

Photo 11a & b: Seed metering devices

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 A precise seed rate adjustment is obtained by sliding the fluted roller in or out with in the aluminium
cups. The more is the exposed area inside the cups of the fluted roller, the higher will be the seed
rate and vice-versa.

Calibration of the Seed Drill (in a laboratory)

i. Measure the diameter (D) of the drive wheel and calculate its circumference i.e. πD in meters.

ii. Measure the effective width of coverage (W) in meters of the drilling machine by multiplying
number of furrows and spacing.

iii. Then distance/length (L) to cover one hectare is calculated by dividing 10,000 m2 (area of one
hectare) by effective coverage (W).

iv. The distance (L) i.e. l/100th of a hectare will be equal to L/100 in meters.

v. To cover distance L, the drive wheel has to take ‘n’ turns i.e. = l/πD.

vi. Allowing 10% slippage of dry wheel in field condition, the distance can be covered in ‘N’ turns
i.e. = (n–0.1 n).

vii. Raise the seed drill so that drive wheel becomes free to be turned. Fill the seed box, set the
seed rate adjusting lever and rotate the wheel till seed starts falling on the ground. Put a chalk
mark on the drive wheel rim and again rotate the wheel for ‘N’ turns.

viii. Collect the total seed under the seed-drill and measure its weight. Thus, seed rate per hectare
can be calculated. Any change in the seed rate, if required, can be accomplished by adjusting
the lever and recalibrating the machine till the desired seed rate is obtained.

ix. Weigh the quantity of seed dropped from each opener and record on the data sheet to know
the variation in different rows, if any.

Example, say circumference of the drive wheel = 0.4 m

Width of machine = 1.85 m

As we know area of one hectare=10,000 m2

Then distance/length (L) to cover one hectare will be = (10,000/1.85)=5405.4 m

The distance (l) i.e. 1/100 of hectare will be = 54.5 m

To cover distance (l), the drive wheel has to take turns (n) = 54.5/0.4=136.25

Allowing 10% slippage, the distance (l) can be covered in ‘N’ turns (n–0.1n) = 123 (approx.). Put seed
and fertilizer in the boxes. Set the rate control adjustment lever as prescribed by the manufacturer. The
rest of the procedure will be similar as described above in steps vii-ix.

28 Zero Tillage Wheat www.csisa.org

 Calibration of the Seed Drill (in situ)
Step 1:

Measure the width of the seed drill by placing one end of a measuring tape at the middle of the first
tyne and the other at the middle of the last tyne and note the width in a notepad. Add 20cm (row-to-
row spacing) to the width of the seed drill to arrive at an effective width of the seed drill (or multiply the
number of tynes by row spacing to arrive at an effective width of the seed drill).

Step 2:

Adjust the seed metering indicator in the appropriate delivery notch. The major changes in the seed
rate are achieved by changing the seed rate gear (driven gear).

Step 3:

Take the seed pipes out from the boot of the furrow openers and tie a polybag at the end of each
outlet. Before tying up polybags make sure that seed flow has started. This can be attained either by
rotating the drive wheel manually, keeping the drill in an up-standing position or by moving the drill to
a point 4-5 feet behind the marked starting point.

Step 4:

In the case of the fluted roller type/groove roller type mechanism, fill the seed box at least up to a
level that the seed metering system is fully covered with seed while operating it. For the inclined plate
metering system fill the seed in each hopper to about 1/3 to 1/2 of the inclined plate to prevent the
over-dropping of seeds. The seed rate can also be varied in the inclined plate system by adjusting the
inclination of the seed box through grooved blades attached downside (6-8 holes). For example, the
seed box adjusted at the third and fourth hole from the downward end of the grooved blade will drop
rice seeds at approximately 10 and 8 kg per acre, respectively.

Graduated seed rate adjustment

scale

Seed rate adjustment lever

Moveable rod Moveable rod

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 Step 5:

Measure a 20 m distance starting from the front end of either the back or the front set of the furrow
opener and mark the point where the same set of furrow touches a 20 m distance.

Step 6:

Run the tractor in a straight line to cover 20 m distance. Drive the tractor slowly (limited to 3-5 km/hr).

Step 7:

Keep checking whether the seed is falling freely in the poly bags or not.

Step 8:

Measure the weight of seed collected in each bag separately and compare. The weight should be
similar in all pipes. If not, check the metering system, particularly the tongue (fluted roller), brush
(inclined plate) and seed pipes again.

kg (4000 X Total weight of seed (g))

Step 9: Seed rate =
( acre) (Effective width of seed drill (m) X 20m X 1000)
Step 10:

If this seed rate is not equal to the desired seed rate then go to step 2 and change the seed rate setting
accordingly and follow the full procedure again until the desired rate is achieved.

Fertilizer Metering Device

The fertilizer metering device (photo: 12) has the following components:

1. Bottom of the fertilizer box with diamond- shaped holes 2. Scale 3. Fertilizer setting lever
4. Plastic / Aluminium cup 5. Agitators (Photo: 13) 6. Fluted roller (Photo: 13) 7. Fertilizer
metering shaft (sometimes coated with plastic to avoid rusting, see photo: 14).

Bottom of fertilizer box

with daimond shape holes Fertilizer setting lever Fertilizer rate controlling indicator

Plastic cup

Drive Wheel
length
adjustment bolt Lugs

Photo 12: Fertilizer metering device in zero till machine

30 Zero Tillage Wheat www.csisa.org

 Flutted roller

Agitators

Photo 13: Flutted roller and Agitators

The fertilizer metering device generally used in drills is of hole mesh type (gravity-cum forced feed type)
arranged on a shaft (Photo: 12). Sometimes it is called an agitator-type fertilizer metering device. In
the bottom of the fertilizer box, diamond-shaped holes are made. The quantity of fertilizer is changed
by adjusting the size of these holes. Star-shaped agitators (Photo: 13) are provided to avoid the
bridging of fertilizer and to feed fertilizer continuously through the holes. The fertilizer setting handle/
lever (Photo: 12) with scale is provided to adjust the required quantity of fertilizer. The fertilizer passes
through the hole, into a funnel, to deliver fertilizer into the slit/furrow opener through boots and pipes.

Rotating-type Fertilizer Metering Device

In other machines, the fertilizer box delivers the material to a cup fitted with rotating cells (Photo: 14).
The rotating cells pick up the fertilizer granules (small or large) and deliver them to the fertilizer tubes.
This mechanism has the advantage of handling small- or large-sized fertilizer granules such as urea
super granules (USG), and places them at desired soil depth. Deep placement of USG in rice culture is
known to improve efficiency by 20%. Also there is no free flow of fertilizers on turnings of the tractor at
field corners. The rotating cell-type fertilizer metering device (Photo: 14) has the following components:

Fertilizer Lever/
tank Shaft Levelling
screw

Funnel &
Rollers/cup Boot
Tube

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 In the cell-type fertilizer metering device, cells are fitted in separate compartments to allow fertilizer
placement as required in each row, or in some selected rows only. Fertilizer can be increased or
decreased by lifting or lowering the fertilizer tank, respectively, or by changing the sprocket wheel.
Fertilizer is simply metered by a series of cups on a roller and fertilizer level as well. However, calibration
of the machine in the laboratory or in situ for setting the required rate of fertilizer can be accomplished
with procedure similar to the one mentioned earlier under the heading “Calibration of seed drill (in
laboratory)” and “Calibration of seed drill (in situ).”

Plastic cups

Seed pouring mechanism

Handle

Fertilizer
leveling screw

Fertilizer & seed

box holding rod

Gear
assembly
Cells / cups

Cups
rotating
rod

Rotating
rollers Photo 14: Rotating-type fertilizer metering device

Power Transmission Unit

The power required to operate seed and fertilizer metering devices is provided by a floating-type
lugged drive wheel 40 cm in diameter and 10.5 cm in width through a chain and sprockets (Photo:15).
However, the size of the drive wheel may vary in different models. Fourteen lugs each of 3 cm height
at an angle of 900 are provided on the drive wheel to avoid slippage. Wheels are of iron closed-type
or with rubber on them for better traction. This ground wheel or drive wheel is mostly attached to
the frame in front, it may be also on the backside or inside the machine. Traction can be adjusted
through a groove and spring as desired. Attachment of the drive wheel on the front side of the frame
sometimes creates a problem in the free movement of the wheel due to soil or stubble blockage or
due to its location being very near the hook of the tractor. A motorcycle roller chain of 12.50 mm pitch
with 14 or 37 teeth on the mild steel sprocket is provided for power transmission from the drive wheel
to the seed and fertilizer metering devices. Power from the ground wheel is transmitted to a shaft (1:1)
(Photo:15) mounted on the front of the frame. From this shaft power is transmitted to seed and fertilizer
metering shafts (2.5:1) through the chain sprocket arrangement. However, the size of the roller chain
and sprocket can vary in different models as per requirements. An idler has been provided to tighten
or loosen the chain for its smooth running.

32 Zero Tillage Wheat www.csisa.org

 Transmission
(driven) unit
(Idler, sprockets,
Lugs Roller Chain &
Drive Wheel Shaft Gears)

Photo:15 Power transmission unit

Depth-control Wheels
Two wheels (one on either side of the drill), each 40 cm in diameter (Photo:16) and made of mild steel
sheet (closed type), or in some models made of rubber, are provided to set the required seeding
depth. The size of these wheels may vary in different models. With the help of depth adjusting screws
(Photo:16), these wheels can be raised or lowered to increase or decrease the depth of seeding.
Seeding depth in the case of wheat varies from 3-5 cm. However, it can be adjusted as per one’s
requirement. If there is a large amount of loose straw in the field, these depth wheels can jump due
to lumps of straw. If this happens, the depth control wheels can be removed and depth control be
maintained with the tractors’ hydraulics.

Depth adjusting
screw

Depth adjusting rod

Depth control side wheel

Photo 16: Depth control wheels

www.csisa.org Zero Tillage Wheat 33

 Hitch Points
The drill has three standard hitch points; two lower and one upper (Photo17). The machine is attached
to tractor through these three hitch points with the help of link pins. The top link hitch point also helps
in levelling the machines.

Hitch points

Photo 17: Hitch Points

Iron or Wooden Platform or Stand

An iron or wooden stand or platform is also attached to the rear of the frame. One person can either
stand or sit on this platform while the machine is in operation to keep watch that the seed and fertilizer
are running properly through the respective plastic tubes without any blockage. This is a precautionary
measure and not a requirement, per se. It may be mentioned that this practice enables the sitting
person to remove the raked residues as well. Therefore, it is advisable to follow this practice.

34 Zero Tillage Wheat www.csisa.org

 Usage and Maintenance of Machine
• Ensure all nuts and bolts are tight.

• Clean seed and fertilizer boxes properly.

• Prevent folds in the plastic pipes for fertilizer and seed.

• After sowing, remove seed and fertilizer from the boxes.

• Do not use Urea and other powder form fertilizer in the fertilizer box.

• Adjust the depth control wheel to achieve the proper seed depth.

• Park machine in the shed to avoid rusting.

• Remove pipes after the sowing season to increase durability.

Zero Tillage Multi-Crop Planters

Multi-crop planters are available for the direct drilling of several crops including wheat, rice, maize,
green gram, chickpea, lentil, mustard and barley without any preparatory tillage. Multi-crop planters
have precise seed metering systems using inclined rotary plates with variable groove numbers and
sizes and its thickness for different seed sizes and spacing for various crops. The same multi-crop
planter can be used for planting different crops by simply changing the inclined plates. As in the case
of ZT machines, the inverted T-type furrow openers are used in zero tillage multi-crop planters. The
cutting portion of furrow openers (point of share) is made of 8 mm thick high carbon bits welded to a
mild steel plate. The working front edge of the furrow openers has a piece of carbon steel (hardness
65 RHN) welded all around the nose, tip and sides to reduce wear and tear. This mechanism ultimately
decides the operational quality and durability of the planter.

The dimensions of seed and fertilizer boxes can vary depending upon the effective width of the
machine and will increase with an increase in the number of furrow openers. For example in the case
of the 9-tyne planter, the length of the seed and fertilizer box will be around 160 cm. While the fertilizer
box has the same mechanism as the ZT machine, the following components are important in the seed
box of multi-crop planters:

1. Seed box: Used to store the seed in the planter.

2. Inclined metering plates: These rotating plates have grooves that guide the seed and drop it
into the cups. There is a three-gear system to achieve the desired seed rate. To fine-tune a
nearly exact seed rate one needs to correct the inclination of the seed box with the help of bars
with holes.

www.csisa.org Zero Tillage Wheat 35

 3. Seed rate adjusting strip/Seed-metering strip: An iron bar that has holes in it. By changing the
hole, one can change the rate of the seed to be planted in the field. The seed rate is written on
the strip with the corresponding holes.

4. Seed Cups: These cups receive seeds dropped by the inclined rotary plates and then dispense
the seeds to the seed delivery pipe. These seed cups must be smooth and free from any
obstacle from the inside to ensure the unobstructed delivery of the seeds.

5. Seed delivery pipe: It is used to take the seed from the cups to the seed boot.

6. Seed boot: Seed boot finally drops the seed into the slit in the soil opened by the furrow opener.
The seed-metering strip is mounted on the seed box. It is attached to the seed box in such a
manner that the seed box is tilted when there is an adjustment on the system. It is a strip of iron
on which equally spaced holes have been drilled. The holes connect the strip to the seed box
with nuts.

Operational Guidelines Under Field Conditions

The seed and fertilizer should be placed at uniform depths and uniform quantities in all of the furrow
openers without causing any damage to the seeds. The fertilizer should not come in contact with the seed.

This can be achieved by carrying out the following operational procedure:

• Employ the standard hitching procedure for mounted implements. Reverse the tractor to attach
the zero-till machine. Attach both links by adjusting the length of the right and left arm, the top link
and stabilizer chain after centering the equipment.

• After the equipment is hitched to the tractor make the preliminary adjustment and carry out daily
maintenance.

• Now fill the seed and fertilizer boxes to 3/4 of its capacity, calibrate/set the machine for the required
seed and fertilizer rates and ensure that the seed and fertilizer are clod free.

• Lift the machine and rotate the drive wheel to ensure that the seed and fertilizer are falling freely
from the metering device to the seed tube into the furrow opener.

• Take the machine to the field; select the point from where the operation will be started. As the
tractor enters the field, lower the machine using the position control lever.

• Check that the drive wheel touches the ground fully; if not, lengthen the top link. However, during
this process, the levelling of machine should not get disturbed. Continue driving the tractor for
about 10 meters and stop again. Check the drop of seed and fertilizers. Also check the penetration
of furrow openers. If the desired depth has not been achieved adjust the position control lever of
tractor hydraulic or machine depth-setting wheels until the desired depth of planting is obtained.
Repeat the above sequence of operations at the other end of the field to assure highest efficiency
or output from the machine.

36 Zero Tillage Wheat www.csisa.org

PART II SESSION V
Service Provision as a
Business Opportunity Introducing Concepts -
Fixed and Variable Cost
Components and Their Calculation
By the end of this Session, Participants should
be able to:

Do simple profitability Understand the importance

Understand the basic of keeping business records
calculations in order
business concepts as a basis for profitability
to plan the ZT service
underlying custom-hire calculations and learn
business and evaluate its
services for zero tillage. what kind of information is
performance.
needed.

Basic Business Concepts

The main purpose of a business is to make a profit. Profit is the difference between the revenue
received from the custom-hire services offered and the costs incurred by operating the machines.
Costs fall into two categories: fixed and variable. The attainable revenue depends on the amount of
work that can feasibly be undertaken in the time window available and the charge rates that can be
sustained. In this session, different components that need to be considered when calculating the profit
of a (ZT) hire service business are explained, followed by a practical example with variations.

Fixed and Variable Costs

Mechanized custom-hire services have two basic types of costs: fixed and variable. Fixed costs do
not change. No matter how many customers and/or acres are being serviced, the fixed costs remain
largely the same. Variable costs change (vary) with the volume of services offered, such as fuel and oil
as well as labor for operating the machine. If more service is provided, the variable costs increase. If
less is provided, variable costs decrease.

To calculate machine operating costs, consider the following factors:

 Depreciation: the
decrease in the value Interest on Miscellaneous
of the machine until the capital invested charges for storage,
machine is either worn in the machine insurance etc.
out, obsolete or sold

Running costs Repairs and

Labor
(e.g., fuel, oil) spare parts

As mentioned before, these costs can be divided into fixed and variable costs.

Fixed Costs
When machinery is bought it is a capital investment. Often, money has to be borrowed to finance
the investment, and interest will likely have to be paid on the loan. Even if the owner finances the
machinery from his own savings, interest will still need to be included in the profitability calculation.
This will be discussed in more detail in Session VII: ‘Opportunity cost,’ below. Any shelter or storage
that the machinery needs is also included in this category. Interest on capital, charges for machine
storage and insurance are also largely independent of the amount of annual use. Because these costs
are unavoidable and do not vary with the amount of usage, they are called fixed costs. Each of these
major items is elaborated below:

Depreciation
The custom-hire service business involves money invested in machinery and as such the value of the
investment will decline to a re-sale or scrap value at the end of its useful life. This reduction in value is
known as depreciation and is represented by an annual value.

Depreciation is most simply calculated by subtracting the resale or scrap value from the purchase
price of the machine and dividing the result by the number of years of useful life:

Purchase price (Rs.) - Scrap value (Rs.)

Annual depreciation (Rs.) =
Useful life (years)

www.csisa.org Zero Tillage Wheat 39

 Interest
Interest on capital is another fixed cost item. Whether the investor uses savings or borrows money to
procure a machine, there is a cost known as the interest rate. Of course if a businessperson uses his
own savings there will be no need to pay the interest on a loan. But on the other hand neither can he
invest that money in another way that will earn him interest. So in both cases there is a cost, although
in the second case it is a lost opportunity and so is called an opportunity cost. The money used to
invest could obtain a return if invested in the bank (see Session VII: ‘Opportunity cost’).

Usually the interest rate (i) used in an annual cost calculation for machinery is the rate that would have
been charged if a loan had been given. This rate will vary by locality. Although many business people
may obtain loans at rates lower than the normal commercial rates, the commercial loan rate is usually
used to estimate interest charges.

Interest charges are made on the average capital investment. Calculation of the annual charge
assumes that the average annual capital investment is half the sum of the purchase value plus the
scrap value, multiplied by i:

Purchase price (Rs.) + Scrap value (Rs.)

Annual interest charge (Rs.) = ×i
2

To illustrate this with an example, if you purchased a machine for Rs. 50,000, which had a scrap value
of Rs. 10,000 at the end of its useful life, the ‘average’ capital invested in the machine would be Rs.
30,000. If you deposited this Rs. 30,000 in a bank account you would earn interest, but since the
money is invested in the machine, there is an opportunity cost. In the calculation, it is important that
the interest rate in percent is divided by 100, i.e., it is written as a decimal fraction, for instance: 10%
= 10/100 = 0.10. In the example, the opportunity cost of the capital invested in the machine would be
accounted for by an annual charge of 30,000 Rs. × 0.10 = Rs. 3,000.

40 Zero Tillage Wheat www.csisa.org

 Other Fixed Costs
There may be some other fixed costs associated with machinery use that will need to be investigated
and quantified for specific circumstances. For instance, items can include insurance against theft or
loss, or shelter for the machine when not in use.

Variable Costs
Variable costs are those costs that change with the volume of services provided. Variable costs
increase as the service business expands to serve more customers and the number of hours of
operation or acres covered increase. Variable costs include fuel, lubricants, labor of machine operators,
replacement of worn-out parts and routine repairs and maintenance. These costs vary with the amount
of use of the machinery.

Fuel
The calculation of fuel costs is straightforward. You probably have a good idea of how much fuel your
tractor consumes for different activities. For ZT services using a 35 – 40 hp tractor, a fuel consumption
of 4 liters per acre is a reasonable estimate. This figure would be multiplied by the cost of fuel per liter
to get the total fuel cost per acre.

Maintenance and Repairs

Agricultural machinery maintenance and repair costs fluctuate considerably from machine to machine
because of different working conditions, operators’ skill level, care for regular servicing and quality
of the make and model. The cost of maintenance and repair also varies according to the life of the
machine. Repair costs increase with usage and age of the machine. Maintenance costs are related
to regular servicing, including, for instance, engine oil changes, lubrication of other moving parts and
replacement of filters, tyres and brake pads.

A simple method of assessing average annual repair and maintenance costs is to estimate them as a
percentage of the initial cost of the machine divided by the useful life of the machine; e.g., the annual
repair cost of a ZT drill can be estimated as:

Purchase price (Rs.) × Estimated repair cost share (%)

Annual repair cost ZT drill (Rs.) =
Useful life (years) × 100

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 In addition to the repair of the ZT drill, repair costs of the tractor also have to be accounted for. For a
tractor and ZT drill that are used with average intensity, it is reasonable to assume that 25% of their
initial value will be spent on maintenance and repair across their entire useful life. However, a tractor is
used for multiple purposes, not only for ZT service provision; in order to estimate the repair costs that
can be attributed to ZT service provision, we multiply total annual repair costs by the time share that
the tractor is used for ZT services:

Purchase price (Rs.) × Estimated repair cost share (%)

Annual ZT related repair cost tractor (Rs.) =
Useful life (years) × 100

Time share tractor is used for ZT services (%)

x
100

For example, let’s assume that a tractor is used for a total of 1,000 hours per year. Among many other
activities, it is used for ZT service provision on 80 acres and, on average, it takes 75 minutes (= 1.25
hours) to service one acre. Then, the total time taken for ZT service provision is 100 hours (80 acres *
1.25 hours/acre), which is 10% of the total tractor operating time. Therefore the annual repair costs of
the tractor would have to be multiplied by 0.10 (= 10%/100) to estimate that part of the repair costs
that should be attributed to ZT service provision. As a general formula, this calculation can be written
as follows:

Acres serviced per day × Days of service

provision × Service time per acre (hours)
Time share tractor is used for ZT services (%) = x 100
Total time of tractor use per year (hours)

Labor
Labor is needed to operate the tractor and ZT drill, and the rate can vary depending on demand
and the operator’s experience and skills. Importantly, similar to the interest on capital calculation
above, labor costs need to be included in the profitability calculation even if you operate the machinery
yourself. The reason is that opportunity costs are again incurred because you cannot do anything else
at the same time that would earn you some income (see Session VII: ‘Opportunity cost’).

Setting the Hire Charge for the Service

How much will farmers be prepared to pay for your service? Setting hire charges at the right level is
very important. If the price charged is too high, demand for the service may drop. It may also be that
someone else is able to provide the service at a lower cost. If the price charged is too low, it may mean
that not enough money is made from the business to cover the costs. While the price will depend on

42 Zero Tillage Wheat www.csisa.org

 what people are willing to pay, as a businessperson you will have to check that it at least covers all
the costs. Check the costs carefully, both fixed and variable, to see whether it is possible to reduce
any of them. Cutting costs must not result in a lower quality of service. If this happens, fewer people
would want to receive the service in the next season. The charge rate needs to be correctly estimated
to start with, but may have to be revised as you gain more experience and information under your
local conditions.

Expected income can easily be overestimated when planning the business. It is important to be
realistic and not too optimistic about the volume of expected business. Volume is likely to grow over
time as the business matures. When the business starts up, a benchmark figure for charge rates will
be those which other service providers close to your locality are charging, as it will be difficult to break
into a market by offering services at a higher rate. Some flexibility in hire rates can/should be allowed,
as shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Some factors that can affect hire rates for custom mechanization services

Lower rates may result from: Higher rates may be needed because:

• Informal arrangements between family • High draught work demanding more fuel
members and friends and time

• Close proximity of the customer to the • Poor conditions in the field, such as:
business location rocks, tree stumps, steep slopes, irregular
shape

• The operator’s wish to keep the • Small jobs in conditions of low field
equipment in work and recover at efficiency
least part of the fixed costs (plus
variable costs)

• The use of older equipment which • Use of novel machinery giving a superior
may be fully depreciated end result

• Discounts for customers demanding • Use of highly skilled operators providing

large amounts of work improved customer satisfaction

Revenue, Gross Margin and Net Profit

Multiplying the hire charge per acre by the number of acres serviced equals the revenue of the service
business. Deducting all variable costs (but not fixed costs) results in the gross margin. The gross
margin should cover all of the fixed costs; any remainder is the net profit that the businessperson
makes. If the gross margin is just large enough to cover the fixed costs, but the net profit is zero, the
business breaks even.

www.csisa.org Zero Tillage Wheat 43

 Hire charge per acre × number of acres serviced = Revenue

minus Variable costs

= Gross margin

minus Fixed costs

= Net profit

If the gross margin is negative, it means that the revenue does not even cover the variable costs,
and the businessperson loses money with every acre serviced. Such a business should be stopped
immediately! If the gross margin is positive, but net profit is negative, it means that the business
contributes to recovering the fixed costs, but does not generate a profit. Such a business is not
profitable and therefore does not make sense economically.

However, a farmer may decide to invest in a ZT drill (or any other machine) mainly for use on his own
farm. Cost savings in his own cultivation and a possible yield benefit will ultimately recover the initial
investment cost and therefore make the purchase of the ZT drill worthwhile. This cost recovery can
be accelerated by providing ZT services on a small scale (e.g., by servicing some friends or relatives
only). As long as the gross margin of this small-scale service provision is positive, some contribution
will be made to recovering the investment in the ZT drill. This makes economic sense, even if the ZT
services alone are not enough to generate a net profit, but the investment becomes profitable by using
the machine on one’s own farm as well.

The purpose of this training, however, is to look at ZT service provision as a self-sustaining business
opportunity, one that generates a profit on its own, irrespective of whether the machine is used on
the service provider’s own farm. Our goal is therefore not only to attain a positive gross margin, but a
positive net profit!

44 Zero Tillage Wheat www.csisa.org

SESSION VI
Profitability Calculations - Scenario
Analysis
 Example Calculations
We will now apply the concepts introduced in session 5 in an example profit calculation for ZT services.
Using the information provided in Table 2 (given below), we will go through an initial scenario (‘base
scenario’) in detail and then see how profitability changes if we modify the base scenario. In particular,
we will explore the effects of expanding the area serviced and of receiving a subsidy on the purchase
price of the ZT drill.

Table 2: Example values for profit calculation - Base scenario

Basic ZT service data

1 Number of acres serviced per day 3

2 Number of days of service provision per year 25

3 Service fee charged per acre (Rs.) 800

4 Time taken to service one acre, incl. average travel time to 1.50
reach field (hours)

Fuel and labor

5 Fuel consumption per acre (liters) 4

6 Fuel cost per liter (Rs.) 58

7 Wage rate per day (Rs.) 300

Tractor data

8 Purchase price tractor (Rs.) 550,000

9 Scrap/resale value tractor (Rs.) 150,000

10 Repair and maintenance cost tractor (%)* 40

11 Useful life of tractor (years) 10

12 Use of tractor per year (hours) 1,000

ZT drill data

13 Purchase price ZT drill (Rs.) 55,000

14 Scrap value ZT drill (Rs.) 4,000

15 Repair and maintenance cost ZT drill (%)* 25

16 Useful life of ZT drill (years) 5

17 Subsidy on ZT drill (Rs.) 0

Interest rate

18 Interest on capital (%) 10

*Percent of purchase price over the entire life of the machine

46 Zero Tillage Wheat www.csisa.org

 Auxiliary Calculations
To make the following profit calculation very clear and straightforward, we will first calculate two values
that we will plug into our profit calculation later on. These values are shown in Italics.

1. Number of acres serviced per year = 3 acres/day x 25 days = 75 acres.

2. Proportionate use of tractor for ZT services = (75 acres/year x 1.5 hours/acre) / 1000 hours/year =
0.1125 (= 11.25%).

Profit calculation (on a yearly basis)

Total revenue (Rs.) 60,000 = 75 acres x Rs. 800/acre

Variable costs (Rs.)

Fuel 17,400 = 75 acres x 4 liters/acre x Rs. 58/liter

Hired labor 7,500 = 25 days x Rs. 300/day

Repair & maintenance ZT drill 2,750 = Rs. 55,000 x 0.25 / 5 years

Repair & maintenance tractor 2,475 = (Rs. 550,000 x 0.40 / 10 years) x 0.1125

Total variable costs (Rs.) 30,125

Gross margin (Rs./acre) 398 = (Rs. 60,000 – Rs. 30,125) / 75 acres

Fixed costs (Rs.)

Depreciation ZT drill 10,200 = (Rs. 55,000 – Rs. 4,000) / 5 years

Interest on capital ZT drill 2,950 = ((Rs. 55,000 + Rs. 4,000) / 2) x 0.10

Prop. depreciation tractor 4,500 = ((Rs. 550,000 – Rs. 150,000) / 10 years) x 0.1125

Prop. interest on capital tractor1 3,938 = ((Rs. 550,000 + Rs. 150,000) / 2) x 0.10 x 0.1125

Total fixed costs (Rs.) 21,588

Net profit (Rs.) 8,288 = Rs. 60,000 – Rs. 30, 125 – Rs. 21,588

Net profit per acre (Rs./acre) 111 = Rs. 8,288 / 75 acres

Net profit per day (Rs./day) 332 = Rs. 8,288 / 25 days

Break-even area for this scenario 54 = Rs. 21,588 / Rs. 398/acre

(acres)

1
While the depreciation of the tractor and related interest on capital are fixed costs, the share that can be attributed to ZT
service provision is proportionate to its use for this activity.

www.csisa.org Zero Tillage Wheat 47

 Interpretation: The first important value to check in the above calculation is the gross margin, which
is usually shown on a per-acre or per-hectare basis. We can see that it is positive (398 Rs./acre),
meaning that all the variable costs and at least part of the fixed costs are covered. Next, we check
the net profit, which amounts to 8,288 Rs. This indicates that ZT service provision in this scenario is
a profitable business (even if the ZT drill was not used on the service provider’s own farm), as both
variable and fixed costs are fully covered and some profit is generated. By dividing total net profit by
the number of acres serviced, we see that per acre, a net profit of 111 Rs. is attained. Likewise, we
may want to know how much the service provider earns per day of ZT service provision, which is 332
Rs. Whether ZT service provision is an attractive business under this scenario depends on how much
the service provider could earn from alternative activities during the same time of year (see Section 3
‘Opportunity cost’). Net profit per day may be the most suitable measure to compare the profitability
of alternative activities. Finally, the break-even area indicates that, in this scenario, 54 acres need to
be serviced for the gross margin to fully cover the fixed costs. i.e., from the 55th acre onward, profit
is generated.

Variant 1
Description: Same as base scenario, but the farmer receives a subsidy of Rs. 30,000 on the purchase
price of the ZT drill; referring back to Table 2, this change concerns item no. 17:

Subsidy on ZT drill (Rs.) 30000

The resulting profitability values are as follows (variable costs not shown; they remain the same as in
the Base scenario):

Gross margin (Rs./acre) 398

Fixed costs (Rs.)

Depreciation ZT drill 4,200

Interest on capital ZT drill 1,450

Prop. depreciation tractor 4,500

Prop. interest on capital tractor 3,938

Total fixed costs (Rs.) 14,088

Net profit (Rs.) 15,788

Net profit per acre (Rs./acre) 211

Net profit per day (Rs./day) 632

Break-even area for this scenario (acres) 35

Interpretation: The subsidy decreases the fixed costs associated with the ZT drill and therefore
increases net profit substantially to Rs. 15,788 overall and Rs. 632 per day.

48 Zero Tillage Wheat www.csisa.org

 Variant 2
Description: Same as Base scenario, but the farmer services 4 acres per day instead of 3 (item no. 1
in Table 2; we reset the ZT drill subsidy to 0 for this variant):

Number of acres serviced per day 4

The resulting profitability values are as follows:

Total revenue (Rs.) 80,000

Variable costs (Rs.)

Fuel 23,200

Hired labor 7,500

Repair & maintenance ZT drill 2,750

Repair & maintenance tractor 3,300

Total variable costs (Rs.) 36,750

Gross margin (Rs./acre) 433

Fixed costs (Rs.)

Depreciation ZT drill 10,200

Interest on capital ZT drill 2,950

Prop. depreciation tractor 6,000

Prop. interest on capital tractor 5,250

Total fixed costs (Rs.) 24,400

Net profit (Rs.) 18,850

Net profit per acre (Rs./acre) 189

Net profit per day (Rs./day) 754

Break-even area for this scenario (acres) 56

www.csisa.org Zero Tillage Wheat 49

Interpretation: The change from 3 to 4 acres per day (i.e., from 75 to 100 acres serviced in total)
affects both the variable and the fixed costs. The fixed costs attributed to ZT service provision increase
because the time-share for which the tractor is used for this activity increases from 11.25% to 15.0%.

Despite the absolute increase in fixed costs, they are now distributed across a larger number of acres,
leading to a decrease in fixed costs per acre; therefore, the net profit per acre increases by 70% from
Rs. 111 to Rs. 189, and the net profit per day increases even more (by 127%) from Rs. 332 to Rs. 754,
leading to a total net profit of Rs. 18,850 rather than Rs. 8,288 in the scenario.

Note that the one-third increase in area serviced (from 3 to 4 acres per day) leads to a more than
proportionate increase in profitability: total profit increased by 127%, and even the profit per acre
increased by 70%!

Note also that the area increase in this variant enhances total net profit much more than the Rs.
30,000 purchase subsidy on the ZT drill presented in Variant 1 (Rs. 18,850 versus Rs. 15,788).

Variant 3
Description: Same as base scenario, but the farmer manages to service 5 acres per day instead of
3; because of the longer working hours, he increases the wage of the tractor operator from Rs. 300
per day to Rs. 350 per day; because the area serviced increases substantially from 75 acres in the
base scenario to 125 acres in Variant 3, the maintenance and repair costs of the ZT drill are likely to
increase: we change this cost from 25% of the purchase price (across the entire life of the machine)
to 35%:

Number of acres serviced per day 5

Wage rate per day (Rs.) 350

Repair and maintenance cost ZT drill (%) 35

 The resulting profitability values are as follows:

Total revenue (Rs.) 100,000

Variable costs (Rs.)

Fuel 29,000

Hired labor 8,750

Repair & maintenance ZT drill 3,850

Repair & maintenance tractor 4,125

Total variable costs (Rs.) 45,725

Gross margin (Rs./acre) 434

Fixed costs (Rs.)

Depreciation ZT drill 10,200

Interest on capital ZT drill 2,950

Prop. depreciation tractor 7,500

Prop. interest on capital tractor 6,563

Total fixed costs (Rs.) 27,213

Net profit (Rs.) 27,063

Net profit per acre (Rs./acre) 217

Net profit per day (Rs./day) 1,083

Break-even area for this scenario (acres) 63

Interpretation: The net profit per acre increases by 15% (from Rs. 189 to Rs. 217) compared
to Variant 2; more importantly, by servicing an extra acre per day, net profit per day increases
substantially by another 44% from Rs. 754 to Rs. 1,083 despite the higher wage paid and the
higher repair and maintenance cost of the ZT drill.

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 Variant 4
Description: Same as Variant 3, but the farmer is able to provide ZT services on an extra
5 days per year:

Number of days of service provision per year 30

The resulting profitability values are as follows:

Total revenue (Rs.) 120,000

Variable costs (Rs.)

Fuel 34,800

Hired labor 10,500

Repair & maintenance ZT drill 3,850

Repair & maintenance tractor 4,950

Total variable costs (Rs.) 54,100

Gross margin (Rs./acre) 439

Fixed costs (Rs.)

Depreciation ZT drill 10,200

Interest on capital ZT drill 2,950

Prop. depreciation tractor 9,000

Prop. interest on capital tractor 7,875

Total fixed costs (Rs.) 30,025

Net profit (Rs.) 35,875

Net profit per acre (Rs./acre) 239

Net profit per day (Rs./day) 1,196

Break-even area for this scenario (acres) 68

52 Zero Tillage Wheat www.csisa.org

 Interpretation: With this additional expansion of the area serviced, the fixed costs per acre are further
reduced compared to Variant 3. This leads to an increase in the net profit per acre (Rs. 239 instead of
Rs. 217) and an increase in net profit per day (Rs. 1,196 instead of Rs. 1,083).

Variant 5
Description: Same as Variant 4, but the farmer receives a subsidy of Rs. 30,000 on the purchase price
of the ZT drill; including the subsidy is realistic under the current policy conditions:

Subsidy on ZT drill (Rs.) 30,000

The resulting profitability values are as follows (variable costs not shown; they remain the same
The resulting profitability values are as follows (variable costs not shown; they remain the same
as in Variant 4):

Gross margin (Rs./acre) 439

Fixed costs (Rs.)

Depreciation ZT drill 4,200

Interest on capital ZT drill 1,450

Prop. depreciation tractor 9,000

Prop. interest on capital tractor 7,875

Total fixed costs (Rs.) 22,525

Net profit (Rs.) 43,375

Net profit per acre (Rs./acre) 289

Net profit per day (Rs./day) 1,446

Break-even area for this scenario (acres) 51

Interpretation: Compared to Variant 4, the subsidy on the ZT drill lowers the associated fixed costs
and therefore enhances profitability further to Rs. 289 per acre and Rs. 1,446 per day.

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 Variant 6
Description: Same as Variant 5, but the farmer services six acres per day, which can be viewed as the
maximum which can be achieved under ‘average’ conditions; we assume that an additional bonus of
Rs. 50 per day is paid to the tractor operator to compensate for the long working hours, bringing his
wage up to Rs. 400 per day; furthermore, due to the intensive use of the ZT drill, we assume that its
useful life is reduced from five to four years:

Number of acres serviced per day 6

Wage rate per day (Rs.) 400

Useful life of ZT drill (years) 4

The resulting profitability values are as follows:

Total revenue (Rs.) 144,000

Variable costs (Rs.)

Fuel 41,760

Hired labor 12,000

Repair & maintenance ZT drill 4,813

Repair & maintenance tractor 5,940

Total variable costs (Rs.) 64,513

Gross margin (Rs./acre) 442

Fixed costs (Rs.)

Depreciation ZT drill 5,250

Interest on capital ZT drill 1,450

Prop. depreciation tractor 10,800

Prop. interest on capital tractor 9,450

Total fixed costs (Rs.) 26,950

Net profit (Rs.) 52,538

Net profit per acre (Rs./acre) 292
Net profit per day (Rs./day) 1,751
Break-even area for this scenario (acres) 61

54 Zero Tillage Wheat www.csisa.org

Interpretation: In this ‘maximum scenario’, the net profit per acre increases to Rs. 292/acre, and total
net profit amounts to approximately Rs. 52,500.

Lessons from the Example Calculations

The first important point to make is that the gross margin per acre is very similar across all the presented
scenarios, ranging from Rs. 398 in the base scenario and Variant 1 to Rs. 442 in Variant 6. However,
the gross margin must not be mistaken for the profit made per acre since it does not account for the
fixed costs.

Only when we include the fixed costs in our calculations do we get a realistic picture of how much we really
‘earn’ from a business – and that’s when the differences between the presented variants become
apparent.

The provision of ZT services becomes more and more profitable – not only overall, but also per acre
- the larger the area serviced. This is called ‘economies of scale’ in economics and is due to the fixed
costs being spread across a larger number of acres. Even paying a higher wage to a tractor operator
and spending more on maintenance and repair of the ZT drill (see Variant 3) will be worthwhile if it
enables you to increase the area you service. The subsidy on the ZT drill adds to the profitability, but
even if the subsidy were reduced or removed in the future, purchasing a ZT drill with the main purpose
of providing custom-hire services can be an attractive investment. The attractiveness of the investment
is relative, depending on the profitability of potential alternative income-earning activities that could be
undertaken during the same period of time (see below).
SESSION VII
Introducing Concepts - Opportunity
Cost, Risk & Competition
 Opportunity Cost
Another cost that is often overlooked but is important in economics is opportunity cost. Because
resources (land, labor and capital) are limited, when a decision is made to use them for one activity,
they are not available for an alternative activity. As a simple example, if a farmer decides to grow wheat
during rabi season, he cannot grow maize on the same plot at the same time. Therefore, the net profit
that the farmer could have made by growing maize is an opportunity cost of growing wheat – just
as well as the net profit that the farmer could have made by growing wheat is an opportunity cost of
growing maize.

Opportunity costs of labor – the time spent on one activity rather than another – are specific to each
person because their ‘opportunities’ depend on their skills, qualification and location. Especially for
farmers, opportunity costs also vary across the year, depending on the stage of the cropping season:
at times when you need control the weeds in your crop, your opportunity cost of doing something else
(e.g., helping a friend to repair his house) would be quite high, because you are likely to suffer a yield
loss if you don’t control weeds at the right time (a loss in yield equals a cost). But once you have done
the weeding on your own farm and there is nothing pressing to do, your opportunity cost of helping
your friend would be much lower.

Similarly, if a farmer decides to provide ZT services at the beginning of the rabi season, he cannot use
his tractor (and his time, if he does not hire an operator to do the service provision) for alternative uses
at the same time. Therefore, in order to judge whether ZT service provision is an attractive business for
the farmer, he needs to evaluate the profitability of ZT service provision against alternative uses of the
same resources at the same time, i.e. the tractor, operator time and the capital invested in the ZT drill.

However, ZT service providers usually use the ZT drill on their own farm –they possess a tractor
anyway for their own farm operations. Therefore, the capital is invested in the machinery irrespective of
whether they provide custom-hire services. Under these conditions, providing ZT services allows the
farmer to use his machinery more productively, leading to a quicker recovery of the capital invested.
Conversely, if no ZT services are provided, the ZT drill would just sit idle once the farmer has completed
his own sowing. The opportunity costs of providing ZT services are particularly low if the farmer has
limited options of using his tractor for other income-earning activities at the beginning of the rabi
season (apart from the operations on his own farm).

Risk
In any business, risks can affect both the expected revenue and the level of expenses. As a result,
profits are always uncertain to some extent. In the case of ZT service provision, risks are very low since
service providers have made the largest part of the capital investment – the purchase of a tractor - for
their own farm purposes. The capital investment in the ZT drill is relatively moderate, and even lower
under the current subsidy policy; therefore, even if a farmer invested in a ZT drill for the sole purpose

58 Zero Tillage Wheat www.csisa.org

 of providing ZT services, and the demand for his services dropped, the potential loss for the service
provider would be limited. Usually, however, the service provider uses the ZT drill on his own farm
too, and ZT is a risk reducing practice as it reduces costs and saves time as compared to tilling the
soil before sowing. The time saving means that wheat can be sown earlier than with soil tillage, and
it therefore reduces the risk of the crop being affected by heat stress (see Part I). When the farmer
benefits from investing in the ZT drill on his own farm, there is no risk involved in engaging in ZT
service provision (as long as the gross margin is positive, as explained above). On the contrary: since
farming is inherently a risky business, engaging in ZT service provision is a risk reducing strategy that
can be used to compensate for potential losses in the service provider’s own farm operation. Thus,
a farmer’s investment in a ZT drill contributes to reducing the risk involved in his own farm operation,
and engaging in ZT service provision reduces the risk further by providing a stream of income that is
independent of the service provider’s own farm.

Competition
Competition is an important part of your business environment, potentially affecting the demand for
your services. However, as explained above, the risk of losing money is very low in ZT service provision
(even if the demand for your services decreases due to increasing competition (See Photo 18), as long
as the service charge covers all variable costs), and it is non-existent if you use the ZT drill on your
own farm. However, as a business person, you want to make full use of the opportunity to earn extra
money from providing custom-hire services, and competitive advantage is what keeps your business
model strong over time and competitors at a distance. In order to have a solid and durable business
model you must always work on having some form of meaningful competitive advantage. Competitive
advantage is the sum of all the aspects of your business model that make the services you offer more
attractive to your customers than the services that your competitors offer.

Photo 18: Showing the competition between service providers

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 You need to understand your competition, and this should be part of your marketing strategy. By
understanding the strengths of your competitors you can learn to improve your business. For instance,
what discounts do they give and receive? What services do they offer their customers (including
beyond ZT)? What gaps are there in the services that are presently available to farmers in your area (see
Section 4)?

New competitors can enter the market at any time. How can you gather ‘competitive intelligence,’
which is not easy to come by? Here are some hints:

• Ask your customers; they are your eyes and ears. Don’t only ask them about your competitors, ask
your customers to evaluate the services you offer; how content they are with the quality, timeliness
and rate charged. What suggestions do they have for you to improve your services?

• Visit the customers of your competitors. Find out their perceptions of and preferences for the
services they receive.

• Talk directly with service providers outside your area of operation, since they are no direct
competitors, they may not see you as a threat and may give you information and advice.

• Network with friends and family members to kick-start your business; once their friends and
neighbors see the result of your services, they may be interested in becoming your customers as
well.

• Make sure your machines (both tractor & drill) are in good working condition well before sowing
season. Also, ensure that the operator is properly trained, equipped and committed.

• Keep your eyes on early vacating/fallow plots in your locality and stay in touch with concerned
farmers to begin the operation well in advance. An early demonstration of your service would
attract the attention of other farmers. Better select initial sites that are either easily accessible or
frequently visited by the community.

• Knowledge of basic wheat agronomy under ZT might give you an edge over your competitors. Try
to set a dialogue around potential gains of ZT with basics like planting time, varieties and irrigation.
Go beyond providing the mechanical service.

60 Zero Tillage Wheat www.csisa.org

SESSION VIII
Expanding The
Business Portfolio
 Once you become engaged in providing custom-hire services for ZT, you may become interested in
providing other kinds of agricultural services as well. While details of additional potential services are
beyond the scope of this training course, Table 3 below lists potential services that can be provided at
different times of the year. Expanding your service portfolio may enhance your competitive advantage
as you may serve as a ‘one-stop-shop’ for your customers. Depending on the nature of the business
opportunity, expanding your service portfolio can also serve to reduce risk further by diversifying your
income sources, especially during those times of the year when your opportunity costs are low (see
Section 3 for details on the concepts in Italics).

Table 3. Opportunities for service provision during the year

Months Potential services (required machinery in brackets)

January Paddy threshing (using axial flow thresher), herbicide spraying in wheat, rice shelling
(using tractor-operated sheller)

February Paddy threshing, maize planting (using multi-crop planter), land levelling (using laser
land leveller), rice shelling

March Zero tillage sowing of green gram, maize planting, rice shelling, land levelling

April Wheat harvesting (using reaper-cum-binder ,), straw collection (using straw reaper
after combine-harvesting), wheat threshing (using axial flow thresher), land levelling

May Land levelling, zero tillage sowing of rice (direct-seeded rice (DSR)), preparing mat-
type nursery & sale of rice seedlings, herbicide spraying in DSR

June Zero tillage sowing of rice, land levelling, preparing mat-type nursery & sale of
rice seedlings, rice transplanting (using mechanical transplanter), maize planting,
herbicide spraying in DSR & sale of herbicides

July Rice transplanting, maize planting, herbicide spraying in paddy & maize, sale of
herbicides

August Rice transplanting, herbicide spraying in paddy & maize, sale of herbicides

September Pesticide spraying in paddy & maize

October Zero tillage sowing of mustard, land levelling, sale of wheat seed, paddy threshing

November Zero tillage sowing of wheat & mustard, sale of wheat seed, maize planting,
herbicide spraying in wheat, sale of herbicides, paddy threshing, rice shelling

December Zero tillage sowing of wheat, sale of wheat seed, herbicide spraying in wheat and
maize, sale of herbicides, rice shelling

62 Zero Tillage Wheat www.csisa.org

SESSION IX
Recordkeeping
Records are a critical part of a successful and profitable business. Without records, businesspeople
cannot evaluate, diagnose or properly plan their business. Records do not have to be sophisticated or
complex, but they do have to systematically record some key pieces of information.

How can Records Improve Your Business?

1. Records show you how your business is performing.

Your records help you identify problems before it is too late. Use your records to find out if
something is wrong, if costs are too high, if customer numbers are falling, etc.

2. Records help you plan for the future.

Records show how well your business did in the past and how well it is doing now. When you know
your strengths and weaknesses, you can properly plan for the future.

Table 4 is a template that can be used to record the information necessary to calculate the
total revenue and fuel and labor costs of service provision, on a daily basis. By aggregating the
information across all days with ZT service provision in a given year, the values of items 1 through
7 listed in Table 2 (session 6) can be calculated for your business based on Records A and B in
Table 4. This information needs to be supplemented with data on the fixed costs associated with
ZT service provision, as listed in items 8 through 18 in Table 2 (refer to page 46). You can then
perform a profitability calculation for your own ZT service business, as outlined in session 6.

As there are opportunity costs of time, the purpose of Records C in Table 4 is for the businessperson
to get an idea of the time spent on ZT service provision, which is not directly accounted for in the
profitability analysis.
 Table 4. Logbook for zero tillage (ZT) services

Date of sowing: _____ /_____ /_________

A. Records per customer

S. No. Name of customer Village Area serviced Fee charged Time spent for
(Farmer) (Acres) per acre doing the sowing
(Rs.) (Minutes)

B. Records per day of ZT services

Total travel time spent to reach your customers’ fields that day (minutes): __________

Total fuel used for ZT service provision that day, including travel to/from your __________
customers’ fields (liters):

Fuel price paid (Rs./liter): __________

Total wage paid to tractor operator that day (Rs.): __________

C. Time not accounted for in the profitability assessment

Time spent that day by the service provider or any member of his/her family in the __________
field without any charge (minutes):

Time spent by the service provider for organizing the appointments with customers __________
of that day (minutes):

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 Annex I: Pre-Evaluation Form
Extension agents, farmers and service providers’ training pre-evaluation form:

Venue: _________________________________________________________ Date: _________________

Name of participant: _________________________________________________________________________

Profession: _________________________________________________________________________________
Please put tick (√ ) mark on the correct answers Total time: 10 minutes

Question Please tick the correct answer

What does zero tillage Sowing crop by zero Sowing crop by Both
technology mean? tillage machine after zero tillage machine
tillage without tillage

Which methods of wheat Zero tillage method Conventional tillage Both methods
establishment incur higher cost? method incur same cost

Is surface seeding of legumes Yes No Don’t know

& oilseeds a type of zero tillage
technology?

What is zero tillage machine in Placing wheat seed at Placing DAP fertilizer Both for seed &
wheat sowing used for? desired depth at desired depth fertilizer

What is the turbo seeder used Land preparation Chopping crop Planting wheat in
for? residue residue rich field

Zero tillage method in wheat Saving cost of cultivation Realizing higher yield Both
enables farmer in?

What should be the time for 1 – 15 Nov 16 – 30 Nov 1 – 15 Dec

wheat sowing to harvest best
possible yield?

Which crops can be planted Rice & wheat Maize & mung bean All four crops
by a multi-crop planter?

Which of this cost is Driver’s/Operator’s fee Fuel cost of tractor Depreciation

considered as fixed cost in on zero tillage
zero tillage service business? machine

Which of this cost is Depreciation on tractor Fuel cost of tractor Depreciation

considered as variable cost in on zero tillage
zero tillage service business? machine

66 Zero Tillage Wheat www.csisa.org

 Annex II: Post- Evaluation Form
Extension agents, farmers and service providers’ training pre-evaluation form:

Venue: _________________________________________________________ Date: ________________

Name of participant: _________________________________________________________________________

Profession: _________________________________________________________________________________
Please put tick (√ ) mark on the correct answers Total time: 10 minutes

Question Please tick the correct answer

What is conservation Minimum soil Permanent soil Minimum soil disturbance,

agriculture? disturbance (Zero cover (Mulch) permanent soil cover & crop
tillage) rotation

What is sustainable Modern agriculture Incorporate Agriculture being endured and

agriculture? with zero tillage the residue of maintainable over a long period
previous crop

Soil biological health Lowest with Significantly Best maintained with conservation
frequent tillage improves with agriculture
zero tillage
Why is soil organic Tillage oxidizes soil Tillage builds up Soil organic matter builds up on
matter reduced in organic matter & organic matter the soil surface
tillage? causes its loss

Which is the best Crop rotation Zero tillage with Zero tillage without residue
practice to moderate residue
the soil temperature?

Which practice leads Operations can be Timeliness of Timeliness of operation is best with
to timely sowing of delayed by frequent operation is zero tillage combined with early
wheat? tillage optimal under vacation of field by preceding crop
zero tillage

Which practice Frequent tillage Zero tillage Zero tillage and early wheat sowing
helps in reducing the
population of Phalaris
minor?

www.csisa.org Zero Tillage Wheat 67

What is the function To increase or To decrease the To increase the depth of seeding
of depth-control side decrease the depth depth of seeding
wheels in zero tillage of seeding
machine?
Which fertilizer should Urea DAP SSP
not be used in the
fertilizer box of zero
tillage machine?

What is the most Number of acres High service Providing service for several years
important factor to service per day charge but less
increase zero tillage coverage
business profitability of
service providers?
 Annex III: Frequently Asked Questions
1. How can we obtain high yields in a zero tillage system?

• The field should be properly levelled, weed free and must have adequate moisture at the time
of wheat sowing.

• The drill should be properly calibrated.

• Depth of sowing should be maintained at 4-5 cm.

• All tynes should be adjusted at the same spacing.

2. What should one do if the residue of previous crop has lodged?

• Remove the loose and lodged residue from the field after the rice harvest.

• If not removed, it may create serious problems for the planting operations of a drill fitted with
inverted T openers.

• Wherever possible it is better to use happy seeder to overcome residue raking problems in
combine-harvested areas and where the previous crop has lodged.

• Farmers may use a chopper to facilitate easier planting.

3. Do wheat yields increase with zero tillage?

• Field surveys in Bihar have shown a yield increase of 19.4% due to zero tillage as compared to
the conventional method. Whether comparing total operational cost or final yield, zero tillage
always realizes higher profits for the farmer.

• ZT wheat sowing increases the duration of wheat by facilitating early sowing.

• Seeding must be done on time.

• This technology typically enhances yield, provided there is proper time management.

4. What is the magnitude of the productivity loss due to late planting of wheat?

• On average in Eastern UP, wheat is sown in the first week of December, and in Bihar, it is sown
in the second or third week of December.

• In Punjab and Haryana, wheat sowing starts from 25 October while in eastern ecologies wheat
sowings start from 20 November.

www.csisa.org Zero Tillage Wheat 69

 • Delayed planting can result in yield losses of 30-35 kg/ha/per day in northwest Indo-Gangetic
Plains and 50-65 kg/ha/day in the east.

• Recent data suggest that in eastern UP and Bihar, it is better to plant wheat starting from
November 1 and finish sowing within November.

5. How can ZT help farmers avoid late planting of wheat and other winter crops?

• Sowing of wheat and other winter season crops is often delayed because of the previous
crop – late transplanting of rice due to long-duration rice and sun drying of rice in the field for
threshing.

• Wherever possible use medium-duration rice varieties or hybrids.

• Avoid sun drying in the field, for this use an axial flow thresher after stacking rice in one place.

• Transplant long-duration rice varieties before July 15.

• If a tractor is used in rice cultivation, it should not create ruts in the field.

6. What is surface seeding and can wheat be planted if the rice soils are too wet?

• Operation of a tractor in wet fields spoils the level of the field and creates ruts. To avoid late
planting of wheat and other crops after the rice harvest, it is best to go for surface seeding
under such situations.

• If the soil moisture is relatively low compared to the optimal for surface seeding (soil moisture
generally glistens on applying pressure), it is advised to toss the seed and to irrigate to avoid
any planting delay.

7. How does late irrigation for mitigating heat stress help to sustain wheat yields?

• High temperatures can shorten wheat’s grain filling period, hasten maturity, and reduce the
harvest index and grain yield in wheat.

• In order to overcome the potentially adverse effects of heat stress, it is usually beneficial to
irrigate wheat during the grain filling stage.

• Many farmers, however, do not apply this last irrigation for fear of crop lodging.

• This is where zero tillage can help farmers because there is little or no lodging in zero tillage
fields.

70 Zero Tillage Wheat www.csisa.org

 • When combined with early sowing, late irrigations for wheat are even more useful.

• Experience shows that in case of rains in February or early March (if no hailstorms occur), there
is no lodging in zero tillage fields. In conventional till fields lodging is quite common.

8. What’s the difference between full-tillage farming and no-till farming?

Full-tillage farming is the conventional approach to farming and involves cultivating the topsoil
prior to sowing new crops. This can require many passes to totally break down the soil to
create a soil bed for sowing.

No-till farming involves one pass over the soil with minimal soil being disturbed.

9. No-till philosophy

No-till combines key components that improve soil quality, water use efficiency and crop yields.
These components include minimum soil disturbance, full residue retention, permanent soil
cover and diverse crop rotations. High quality no-till is required to deliver the full agronomic,
economic and biological benefits. No-till reaches its greatest efficiency during the ‘maintenance
phase’ which can take 20 years to achieve.

10. For how long should farmers practice zero tillage?

Experience from places like Haryana show that zero tillage in wheat in the rice–wheat cropping
system, sorghum–wheat cropping system and bajra–wheat cropping system can continuously
be practiced for 20 years. In Ara, Buxar, Rohtas, Maharahganj, Champaran and Kushinagar in
Bihar and Eastern UP, many farmers have implemented zero tillage for more than 8 years.

11. What is the impact of long-term zero-till wheat on soil physical properties and wheat
productivity under the rice–wheat cropping system?

Work conducted in Haryana showed that ZT increased soil organic carbon significantly to a
depth of 0.10, 0.15 and 0.25 m in sandy loam, loam and clay loam soil, respectively, indicating
its build up to deeper depths with increase in fineness of soil texture. Carbon stock in the top
0.4 m of soil increased by 19%, 34.7% and 38.8% over conventional tillage in 15 years in sandy
loam, loam and clay loam soil, respectively. The corresponding carbon sequestration rates
were 0.24, 0.46 and 0.62 Mg/ha/year.

No-till/zero tillage has been reported to increase soil aggregates, reduce soil erosion rates and
increase soil organic matter across a range of soil types, cropping systems and climates. Few
agricultural practices provide similar opportunities to deliver positive benefits for farmers, society

www.csisa.org Zero Tillage Wheat 71

 and the environment. The potential benefits of no-till are not being fully realized, however, in
large part because no-till is rarely practiced continuously and many fields suitable for no-till are
still conventionally tilled.

12. What will be the status of weeds under conservation agriculture technologies like
zero tillage? Can zero tillage lead to increased weed pressure?

• The weed spectrum is closely tied to tillage, cropping systems and the growth of each crop in
the cropping system.

• Zero tillage helps advancing the sowing time and increases the the growing cycle of wheat
grown in rotation with rice. will equip both crops with more productive and efficient use of
resources.

• There are three indicators of how ZT will impact weed flora . In relative terms, wheat will compete
better than weeds but in the rainy season crops the use of pre-seeding herbicide may help to
create competition in favor of crops.

• Phalaris minor population is reduced in zero tillage and its population reduces further if ZT is
practiced as part of early sowing.

13. What are the salient features of the zero tillage drill?

• Inverted T-type slit opener with lower rake angle of 500 for easy penetration in untilled soil and
tearing of rice stubble.

• Hard-surfaced (Hardness 65 RHN) openers for reduced wear and draft, and higher life
expectancy of over 250 h.

• Tubular steel frame and adjustable clamping system for lateral positioning of slit/furrow openers.

• Two lateral adjustable depth control wheels and a free floating central wheel for power
transmission to metering systems.

• Available in 9, 11 and 13 tyne configurations for different power sources at an attractive price
band of Rs 40, 000 to 60,000.

• If a multi-crop drill for the sowing of lentil, pea, mustard, green-gram and coriander etc. is not
available then a ZT machine can sow these crops.

14. Why is zero tillage technology sustainable for India?

• Reduces seeding time by about 6 days on small farms to over 17 days on large farms.

72 Zero Tillage Wheat www.csisa.org

 • Saves diesel for various field operations by an average of over 45 lit/ha in NW India and 25
liters/ha in Eastern UP and Bihar.

• Saves water during the first irrigation. Moreover, in conventional tillage, heavy irrigation can
result in nitrogen losses severe enough to show deficiency symptoms after the 1st irrigation,
which could require additional nitrogen application to correct the problem.

• Based on data from CSISA the increase in average yield of ZT wheat in places like Bihar by
19.4%.

• Saving in cost of cultivation by over Rs 3900/ha.

• Most farmers are satisfied after adopting ZT technology in wheat.

15. What is the effect of zero tillage on pathogens in the rice–wheat cropping system?

Research in Haryana indicated that the population of soil fungi was greater in conventional
than zero-till fields at crown root initiation (CRI) and dough stage of wheat, while no uniform
trend was observed in paddy. Fusarium species, D. rostrata and Penicillium species were the
predominant fungi in the rhizosphere of wheat and rice. The population of F. moniliforme was
more in conventionally sown wheat fields than zero, while it was more or less same in paddy.
F. moniliforme, F. pallidoroseum, D. oryzae and D. rostrata were found pathogenic on paddy and
A. triticina and B. sorokiniana on wheat. Studies show that therewas no significant difference
in the incidence and severity of major diseases of rice-wheat sequence in the Haryana state .

16. What is the effect of zero tillage on the insect spectrum?

Twenty-four on-farm sites sampled in Haryana ( data published in 2005) every two weeks
during the regular growing season of rice recorded 61 species of insects and spiders. The
number was considerably less in the wheat crop. The spectrum of insect fauna particularly
in and around the no-till wheat field at all sites appeared substantially rich in beneficial fauna,
the rice stubble providing cover to a variety of spiders, ants, earwigs, lady beetles and bugs.
This beneficial fauna was also observed to take refuge in grasses and other weeds growing on
the bunds of wheat fields or nearby wastelands. Albeit their number generally declined under
low temperatures, it increased gradually over the seasons. The no-till sites with rice stubble
shaved off or burnt in situ harbored a lower number of natural enemies than those with stubble
intact. This fauna in wheat fields sown with conventional or raised-bed methods was, however,
almost absent. The yellow stem borer of rice, Scirpophaga incertulas and pink borer, Sesamia
inferens were the main hibernating pests in soil stubble. Wherever there was some incidence of
armyworm in eastern UP or Bihar, it could be controlled easily by insecticides

www.csisa.org Zero Tillage Wheat 73

 17. How are the terms resource-conserving technologies (RCTs) and conservation
agriculture terminologies used?

Resource-conserving technologies refer to those practices that enhance resources or input use
efficiency, including zero or reduced tillage practices, which save fuel and improve plot-level
water productivity, and land leveling practices that help to save water.

In contrast, conservation agriculture practices will only refer to the RCTs with the following
characteristics:

• Soil cover, particularly through the retention of crop residues on the soil surface.

• Sensible, profitable rotations; and

• A minimum level of soil disturbance, e.g., reduced or zero tillage.

18. How much water savings result from zero tillage?

Savings of natural resources should be looked at on a command-area basis rather than at the
farm level. Zero tillage may save only 5% water but the savings at the command area level could
be higher compared to a technology which has the potential to save 30% water but which was
only adopted on 1,000 ha.

19. How should we evaluate conflicting reports about zero tillage in the literature?

We are taking a broad approach to collecting literature from countries where cropping intensities
are different, 100% in many cases. Most published work before the 1990s says zero tillage
does not work. But the availability of new machines and herbicides changed the whole scenario
in favor of zero tillage.

Zero tillage could be much more useful in the Eastern Indo-Gangetic Plains where the yield
gains are higher than in northwest India. The reasons are quite different for different ecologies.
Broad conclusions that we derive for publications may not really add practical value. We need
to segregate the work done in USA, Brazil, Australia, Africa and South Asia and look at the
differences. In the Eastern Indo-Gangetic Plains, the yield gains are more than in the Western
Ingo-Gangetic Plains, but if you look at profits, zero tillage works in both systems.

20. What about zero tillage vs. strip till drills?

Strip till can make a difference, but how much? In India the slow pace of adoption in the initial
years was because it took some time to resolve which of the two was better. By the time
research teams concluded the results, more farmers adopted zero tillage than strip tillage.

74 Zero Tillage Wheat www.csisa.org

 21. Why has zero tillage adoption required a change in mindset among farmers?

The vast majority of Indian farmers are psychologically in favor of conventional tillage for almost
all crops. This philosophy has been passed on from one generation to the next. Most growers
and more specifically the older ones still believe that “the more you till the more you grow.
These arguments are often used to support age-old perceptions and to convince their children
to opt for more field preparation before any crop is sown. This mindset still holds so firmly that
it looks like you are betraying the public when you even suggest such radical techniques like
zero or no-tillage. However, training is changing some of these perceptions. Availability of good
quality machines and new herbicides have made it possible to change the mindset of farmers
and scientists.

22. Why is zero tillage so special for the rice-wheat cropping system?

The management practices employed in one crop will have a bearing on the performance
of the other crop in the rotation. The rice–wheat cropping system has a distinct identity and
the respective successes of rice and wheat are deeply interdependent. Both crops are so
interdependent that commodity approach for research on these crops is meaningless.
Since each crop influences the other crop, we need to take into account the management
options available for both rice and wheat. The evolution of zero tillage and then its subsequent
acceleration through the EIGP has led to the optimization of the cropping system as a whole.

23. What does crop rotation mean?

Crop rotation is the systematic planting of different crops in a particular order over several
years in the same growing space. This process helps maintain nutrients in the soil, reduces soil
erosion, and prevents plant diseases and pests. When a single crop is grown on one field for
many years in a row, the crop will cause the depletion of particular nutrients from the soil. This
depletion of nutrients leads to poor plant health and lower crop yield.

With crop rotation, particular nutrients are replenished depending on the crops that are planted.
For example, a simple rotation between a heavy nitrogen-using plant (e.g., cereals) and a
nitrogen-depositing plant (e.g., pulses) can help maintain a healthy balance of nutrients in the
soil. This is because the same type of crop planted repeatedly in the same area keeps draining
the land of the same nutrients needed for that plant's growth.

Crop rotation also prevents plant diseases and pests by exchanging crops that may be
susceptible to a particular disease or pest with a crop that is not susceptible. Second, certain
pests can reach levels that are hard to control when they learn to make a home near a field that
always has the same type of crop.

www.csisa.org Zero Tillage Wheat 75

 24. How does zero tillage affect sowing time in Bihar and eastern Uttar Pradesh?

Farmers in the EIGP lose valuable time during a short window – one or two weeks – between
the harvesting of paddy and planting of wheat. If wheat sowing is delayed beyond the optimal
time (ideally by November 25), yields plummet at the rate of 30 kg per hectare per day. The
problem is particularly acute in Bihar and eastern UP where long-duration rice variety MTU 7029
is planted. Paddy harvesting is extended up to late December in this area, forcing farmers to
raise short-duration wheat varieties (100–120 days as against the usual 145–150 day varieties).
This results in a yield difference of over one tonne per hectare.

25. Why did it take so long for zero tillage to be adopted in India?

Zero tillage research, which was at a dead end in 1996, was taken up using a farmers’
participatory approach. Farmers have long believed that frequent tillage is a must for high
yields. The consensus on zero tillage was hard to reach. The farmers’ participatory approach
adopted under National Agriculture Technology Project (NATP) proved to be an accurate guide
to its subsequent adoption by farmers in India. The surge in this innovation has continued
with glaring advantages shown in the Eastern Indo-Gangetic Plains through implementation of
CSISA, supported by USAID and Melinda & Bill Gates Foundation, since 2009. In addition to
the accelerated adoption of zero tillage, another reform championed by this project has been
farmers’ participatory process.

26. To what extent can zero tillage lead to a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions?

Zero tillage practices have been reported to reduce greenhouse gas emissions through
decreased use of fossil fuels in field preparation and by increasing carbon sequestration in the soil.

76 Zero Tillage Wheat www.csisa.org

International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT)
Km. 45, Carretera. México-Veracruz, El Batán, Texcoco CP 56237
Edo. de México . Mexico
www.cimmyt.org

International Rice Research Institute (IRRI)

DAPO Box 7777, Metro Manila 1301, Philippines.
www.irri.org

International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI)

1201 Eye St, NW, Washington, DC 20005 USA
www.ifpri.org