Female reproductive system
• More complex than male
reproductive system
• Release of ova & hormones
display cyclic swings
• Tissue influenced by sex
hormones undergo cyclic
changes (e.g menstrual
cycle)
• Reproductive potential
ceases at menopause
Female reproductive system
Composed of:
• Gonads
– Ovaries
• Reproductive tract
– Fallopian tubes
– Uterus
– Vagina
• External genitalia
– Vaginal opening
– Labia Minora/Majora
– Clitoris
• Accessory glands
– Vestibular glands
Oogenesis Chromosomes
in each cell
Oogonium 46
Stages (diploid number;
single strands)
Mitotic proliferation
prior to birth
46
Primary (Arrested (diploid number;
oocytes in first doubled strands)
meiotic
division)
After puberty, one primary oocyte reaches 46
maturity and is ovulated about once a month Enlarged
primary oocyte (diploid number;
until menopause ensues doubled strands)
(First meiotic division
completed just
prior to ovulation)
Secondary 23
First oocyte (diploid number;
polar body doubled strands)
Meiosis (Second meiotic
division
completed
after fertilization) 23 (haploid number;
single strands) from
Second
ovum plus
polar body 23 (haploid number;
single strands) from
Mature sperm for diploid
ovum fertilized ovum with
46 chromosomes
Polar bodies
degenerate
Oogenesis
• Before birth (~5 months gestation)
− Oogenesis begins
− Oogonium begin meiotic division to form primary
oocytes (46n)
− Primary oocyte remain in meiotic arrest until they are
prepared for ovulation
• At puberty
− one primary oocyte becomes enlarged
• Before ovulation
− the primary oocyte completes its 1st meiotic division
(23n)
− secondary oocyte is produced (23n)
• At ovulation
− Sperm entry into the secondary oocyte is needed to
trigger 2nd meiotic division
Loss of female gametes
• Before birth (~5 months gestation)
− ~ 7 million Oogonia produced
− Primary oocyte becomes surrounded by a single
layer of granulosa cells which forms primary follicles
− Primary oocytes not incorporated into follicles
destruct by apoptosis
• At birth
− ~2 million primary follicles are left
− No new ooctyes or follicles appear after birth
• At puberty
− ~300 000 primary follicles
• During adult years
− ~400 primary follicles will mature
• Menopause
− No primary follicles left
Structure of ovaries
Consists of:
• Cortex: outer region
− Consists of ovarian
follicles
• Medulla: inner region
complex
− Consists of blood
vessels and nerves
Ovarian cycle
Consists of two phases:
• follicular phase
− dominated by presence of maturing follicles
− secrete oestrogen which help produce
mature follicle
Ovulation separates these two phases
• luteal phase
− characterized by presence of corpus luteum
− secrete oestrogen and progesterone which
helps prepare uterus for implantation
• Average cycle lasts 28 days
Follicular phase
1
4
Follicular phase
1. Primary follicle contains primary oocyte surrounded by single layer of
granulosa cells
2. Granulosa cells proliferate into many layers
• Granulosa cells produce zona pellucida
• Granulosa cells differentiate to form thecal cells
• Thecal cells produce androgens which are converted to oestrogen
by granulosa cells
3. The antrum forms
4. The antrum continues to grow which develops into a secondary
oocyte
• Secondary follicle develops into a mature follicle (Graafian follicle)
• Graafian follicle contains the secondary oocyte
Ovulation
5
5. When ovulation occurs, Graafian follicle raptures
•Releases oocyte into the fallopian tube
Luteal phase
6 7 8
Luteal phase
6. Raptured follicle develops into a corpus luteum
7. The corpus luteum continues to grow
• secretes progesterone and estradiol (oestrogen)
that prepare the uterus for implantation
8. If fertilization does not occur, the corpus luteum
degenerates and the cycle starts from step 1 again
Ovarian cycle
2 1
8 7
3
4 5 6
Hormonal regulation during
follicular phase Kisspeptin
(onset of puberty)
Hypothalamus
GnRH
Anterior pituitary
FSH LH
Ovary
Inhibin Granulosa cells Theca cells
Rising Androgen
Oestrogen
Hormonal regulation during
follicular phase
Oestrogen
Hormonal regulation during
follicular phase
1.GnRH stimulates LH and FSH from anterior pituitary
2.FSH stimulates the granulosa cells and antrum in the ovarian
follicle.
3.LH stimulates the thecal cells in the ovarian follicle which produce
androgens
4.Androgen diffuses from the thecal cells into the adjacent granulosa
cells
5.On stimulation, the granulosa cells convert androgen into
oestrogen.
6.Part of the estrogen is secreted into the blood, where it exerts
systemic effects.
7.Local oestrogen, along with FSH, stimulates proliferation of the
granulosa cells.
8.Oestrogen inhibits GnRH and FSH
9.Inhibin produced by granulosa cells inhibit FSH
Hormonal regulation during
ovulation
Hypothalamus
GnRH
Anterior pituitary
FSH LH
Ovary
Inhibin Graafian follicle
↑↑↑ (peak)
Oestrogen
Hormonal regulation during
ovulation
Oestrogen
Hormonal regulation during
ovulation
1. The oestrogen concentration reaches its peak at
~day 14.
2. Oestrogen at the peak causes positive feedback
effect increases GnRH, FSH and LH secretions.
This drastically increases LH concentration.
3. This surge in LH triggers ovulation.
4. Granulosa cells will still be producing inhibin
which will continue to selectively inhibit FSH
Hormonal regulation during
Luteal phase
Hypothalamus
GnRH
Anterior pituitary
LH FSH
Ovary
Corpus luteum
Progesterone Oestrogen
Hormonal regulation during
Luteal phase
Oestrogen
Hormonal regulation during
Luteal phase
1. LH surge during ovulation stimulates the
development of the corpus luteum.
2. The corpus luteum produces progesterone and
oestrogen.
3. Progesterone and oestrogen inhibit LH & FSH
secretion via negative feedback.
4. If pregnancy does not occur, the corpus luteum
dies and progesterone and oestrogen secretion
decreases
Uterine cycle
Circulating levels of oestrogen & progesterone in the
ovarian cycle induces changes on the uterus giving rise to
the menstrual or uterine cycle
1. Menstrual phase: characterized by discharge of blood
and endometrial debris
2. Proliferation phase: flourishing of the endometrial cells
3. Secretory phase: formation of secretory glands and rich
blood supply
Uterine cycle
Oestrogen
Menstrual phase Proliferative phase Secretory phase Menstrual
phase
Uterus
Uterine cycle
Menstruation phase (days 1-5)
• First day of menstruation starts new cycle.
• Progesterone and estrogen levels fall.
• Triggers release of uterine prostaglandin which causes
vasoconstriction.
• Blood supply disrupted and endometrium degenerates.
• Shedding of the inner lining (endometrium) of the
uterus.
Proliferative phase (days 6-14)
• Occurs due to high oestrogen concentration during the
late follicular phase.
• The rising levels of oestrogen causes the endometrium
to thicken and it also promotes the growth of the
endometrial glands.
Uterine cycle
Secretory phase (days 15-28)
• Corpus luteum secretes large amounts of progesterone
and estrogen.
• Progesterone converts endometrium to vascularized,
glycogen-filled tissue.
• If fertilization and implantation do not occur corpus
luteum degenerates and cycle repeats.
Functions of oestrogen and
progesterone during the ovarian
and uterine cycles
Oestrogen Progesterone
Stimulates follicle Prepares a suitable
maturation environment for
Stimulates growth of the nourishment of
endometrium and developing embryo
myometrium
Controls GnRH, LH and Inhibits GnRH, LH
FSH secretion and FSH
Other functions of
oestrogen and progesterone
Oestrogen
Stimulates the growth & maintenance of the entire reproductive system
Establishes secondary sexual characteristics
Essential for fertilisation
Contributes to breast development during gestation
Develops sex drive
Helps with lubrication
Non-reproductive effects
Increases bone density (increases osteoblast activity and decreases
osteoclast formation)
Closes the epiphyseal plates
Inhibits acne formation (decreases sebum production)
Plays a vasomotoric role
Other functions of
oestrogen and progesterone
Progesterone
Suppresses contractions of the uterus
Promotes the formation of a thick
mucus plug in the cervical canal
Essential for milk production
Increase in body temperature after
ovulation
Test your
understanding
Ovulation occurs with peak
concentrations of _________ secreted
into the blood.
a) estrogen
b) FSH
c) LH
d) progesterone
e) prostaglandins
Test your
understanding
Ovulation occurs with peak
concentrations of _________ secreted
into the blood.
a) estrogen
b) FSH
c) LH
d) progesterone
e) prostaglandins
Test your
understanding
What hormone(s) is secreted by the
corpus luteum?
a) FSH
b) estrogen
c) progesterone
d) LH
e) both estrogen and progesterone
Test your
understanding
What hormone(s) is secreted by the
corpus luteum?
a) FSH
b) estrogen
c) progesterone
d) LH
e) both estrogen and progesterone
Test your
understanding
What hormone causes the endometrial
glands to fill with glycogen and endometrial
blood vessels to become more numerous?
a) estrogen
b) progesterone
c) FSH
d) LH
e) chorionic gonadotropin
Test your
understanding
What hormone causes the endometrial
glands to fill with glycogen and endometrial
blood vessels to become more numerous?
a) estrogen
b) progesterone
c) FSH
d) LH
e) chorionic gonadotropin
Test your
understanding
Woman in the late Woman in the luteal
follicular phase of a phase of a normal
normal ovarian cycle ovarian cycle
Hormone 1 Low High
Hormone 2 High Low
Hormone3 Rising High
1. Identify and explain the concentrations of hormone 1 during the different
phases of the ovarian cycle
2. Identify and explain the concentrations of hormone 2 during the different
phases of the ovarian cycle
3. Identify and explain the concentrations of hormone 3 during the different
phases of the ovarian cycle
Test your
understanding
Woman in the late Woman in the luteal
follicular phase of a phase of a normal
normal ovarian cycle ovarian cycle
Hormone 1 Low High
Hormone 2 High Low
Hormone3 Rising High
1. Identify and explain the concentrations of hormone 1 during the different
phases of the ovarian cycle
Progesterone (1). During the follicular phase of the
menstrual cycle, progesterone concentration is low (1).
Progesterone increases during the luteal phase of the
menstrual cycle to prepare the uterus for implantation (1).
Test your
understanding
Woman in the late Woman in the luteal
follicular phase of a phase of a normal
normal ovarian cycle ovarian cycle
Hormone 1 Low High
Hormone 2 High Low
Hormone3 Rising High
2. Identify and explain the concentrations of hormone 2 during the
different phases of the ovarian cycle
Luteinizing hormone (LH). The rising concentrations of oestrogen
stimulates the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary gland to produce
GnRH, LH and FSH respectively. This increases the concentration of
LH during the late follicular phase (1). The concentrations of LH are
low during the luteal phase due to the high concentrations of
oestrogen and progesterone which inhibit its secretion via negative
Test your
understanding
Woman in the late Woman in the luteal
follicular phase of a phase of a normal
normal ovarian cycle ovarian cycle
Hormone 1 Low High
Hormone 2 High Low
Hormone3 Rising High
3. Identify and explain the concentrations of hormone 3 during the
different phases of the ovarian cycle
Oestrogen (1). During the follicular phase, increased production of LH
and FSH stimulates the synthesis of oestrogen by the developing
follicle, which results in increased plasma oestrogen concentration (1).
In the luteal phase the development of the corpus luteum cuases
production of oestrogen and progesterone (1).
Abnormalities in the female
sex hormones
Amenorrhoea (Lack of menstruation)
• Pregnancy
• Anorexia nervosa (starvation)
• Menopause
Abnormalities in the female
sex hormones
Menopause
• 45-55 years old
• Ovaries become depleted
of follicles
• Follicles secrete less
oestrogen and
progesterone
• No negative feedback
• ↑ FSH & ↑LH
Abnormalities in the female
sex hormones
Symptoms of menopause
• Vaginal dryness and loss of
libido
• Osteoporosis
• Decreased breast fullness
• Hot flashes
Test your understanding
The following diagram shows changes in the concentration of pituitary
and ovarian hormones during the ovarian cycle.
1. Which hypothalamic
hormone is responsible for
stimulating the release of
hormones 1 and 2?
2. An increase in the plasma
concentration of hormone 1
stimulates the production of
which hormone from the
granulosa cells of the
follicles?
3. Which hormone is produced
by the granulosa cells and
selectively inhibits hormone
1?
Test your understanding
The following diagram shows changes in the concentration of pituitary
and ovarian hormones during the ovarian cycle.
1. Which hypothalamic hormone is
responsible for stimulating the
release of hormones 1 and 2?
GnRH
2. An increase in the plasma
concentration of hormone 1
stimulates the production of which
hormone from the granulosa cells of
the follicles? Oestrogen
3. Which hormone is produced
by the granulosa cells and
selectively inhibits hormone
1? Inhibin
Test your understanding
The following diagram shows changes in the concentration of pituitary
and ovarian hormones during the ovarian cycle.
4. Identify hormone 3
5. List TWO function of
hormone 2 during
ovulation.
6. Identify hormone 4.
7. List ONE function of
hormone 4 during the
luteal phase.
Test your understanding
The following diagram shows changes in the concentration of pituitary
and ovarian hormones during the ovarian cycle.
4. Identify hormone 3 Oestrogen
5. List TWO functions of hormone 2
during ovulation.
causes the ovaries to release an oocyte
during ovulation (1)
stimulates the development of the
corpus luteum (1)
6. Identify hormone 4.
Progesterone
7. List ONE function of hormone 4
during the luteal phase.
Progesterone is secreted by the
corpus luteum to prepare the uterus
for implantation (1).
Test your understanding
A 46-year-old woman is amenorrhoeic. A blood hormone
analysis shows:
Plasma Patient’s Normal
results values
FSH 126 3.0-8.1
LH 68 1.8-11.8
Oestrogen 24 40-606
Progesterone 2 5-55
1. Explain why this woman is likely to have menopause
2. Explain how the low oestrogen will result in osteoporosis
3. Explain the concentrations of FSH and LH
Test your understanding
A 46-year-old woman is amenorrhoeic. A blood hormone
analysis shows:
Plasma Patient’s Normal
results values
FSH 126 3.0-8.1
LH 68 1.8-11.8
Oestrogen 24 40-606
Progesterone 2 5-55
1. Explain why this woman is likely to have menopause
Patient is undergoing menopause since her oestrogen and
progesterone concentrations have declined (1). This is also
supported by the increased concentration of FSH and LH
(1).
Test your understanding
A 46-year-old woman is amenorrhoeic. A blood hormone
analysis shows:
Plasma Patient’s Normal
results values
FSH 126 3.0-8.1
LH 68 1.8-11.8
Oestrogen 24 40-606
Progesterone 2 5-55
2. Explain how the low oestrogen will result in osteoporosis
Oestrogen plays a crucial role in the maturation and growth of bone
(increases osteoblast activity and decreases osteoclast formation).
Therefore when oestrogen levels are reduced, more osteoclast formation
making it a challenge to maintain healthy bone mineral density levels.
Test your understanding
A 46-year-old woman is amenorrhoeic. A blood hormone
analysis shows:
Plasma Patient’s Normal
results values
FSH 126 3.0-8.1
LH 68 1.8-11.8
Oestrogen 24 40-606
Progesterone 2 5-55
3. Explain the concentrations of FSH and LH
The low oestrogen and progesterone concentrations
results in decreased inhibition of secretion of
gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) and LH and
FSH (1), leading to a higher than normal plasma LH and
FSH concentrations (1).
Transport of sperm and ovum
• Fertilization occurs in the
~170 sperm
upper third of the oviduct
(Ampulla)
• The oviduct is the site of
fertilization
– Ovum transport to the
oviduct
– Sperm transport to the
oviduct
• Viability of ovum: 24 hours
• Viability of sperm: 48 hours
(up to 5 days)
Contraception
Contraception
• Blockage of sperm transport to the ovum
− Chemical contraceptives: such as spermicidal jellies,
foams creams and suppositories when inserted into the
vagina are toxic to sperm after about an hour of
application.
− Barrier methods: mechanically prevent sperm transport
to the oviducts e.g. condoms and the diaphragm.
− Surgical methods: Permanent blockage of the
movement of the sperm or the egg is the purpose of
surgical methods. They include male and female
sterilization (tubal ligation, vasectomy).
• Blockage of implantation
− Insertion of small intrauterine devices (IUD) into the
uterus induces local inflammatory response in the
uterus that prevents implantation of fertilized eggs.
Contraception
• Prevention of fertilization
− Oral contraceptives: prevent ovulation by suppressing
gonadotropin secretion; the pills contain synthetic oestrogen and
synthetic progesterone like steroids which are taken for 3 weeks in
combination and then are withdrawn for a week.
They Inhibit GnRH, FSH and LH secretions as a result follicle
maturation and ovulation do not occur. The endometrium responds
to the exogenous steroids by thickening and developing secretory
capacity. The endometrial lining sloughs off when these steroids
are withdrawn.
− Emergency contraceptives prevent pregnancy if taken within 72
hours. These pills can suppress ovulation or cause premature
degeneration of the corpus luteum thus preventing implantation of
a fertilized ovum by withdrawing the developing endometrium’s
hormonal support.
Contraception
Male contraceptives
• A daily gel that stops sperm production
−The gel contains testosterone and a progestin,
which is a synthetic form of the female sex
hormone progesterone
• A male birth control pill
−The drug works in a similar way to the birth
control gel. Administered similarly to the female
pill, however, two doses a day are required
• A nonsurgical vasectomy
−injecting a polymer gel into the vas deferens to
block sperm, rather than cutting or tying the vas
deferens
Anatomy of a spermatozoa
Fertilisation
Fertilisation
Hormonal levels during normal
pregnancy
• Trophoblastic cells produce
human chorionic
gonadotropin (hCG) within
9 days.
• hCG:
‒ maintains corpus luteum
‒ stimulates production of
estrogen & progesterone
‒ declines when placenta
can make estrogen &
progesterone
Hormonal levels during normal
pregnancy
• Oestrogen:
‒ stimulates uterine muscle
growth
‒ stimulates maternal
prolactin production (breast
development), but
suppresses milk production
‒ towards the end of
pregnancy, stimulates
expression of oxytocin
receptors
Hormonal levels during normal
pregnancy
• Progesterone:
‒ suppresses uterine
contraction
‒ inhibits prolactin
stimulation of milk
production
‒ together with oestrogen
suppress LH and FSH
Hormonal levels during normal
pregnancy
• human chorionic
somatomammotropin
(hCS, also called placental
lactogen):
‒ growth hormone of
pregnancy
‒ stimulates maternal
breast growth
‒ converts maternal fatty
acids to glucose for
foetus
Parturition
↑ Cortisol
↓ Progesterone ↑ DHEA ↑Relaxin
↑ uterine ↑ Oestrogen Cervical softening
contractions
↑ prostaglandin ↑ oxytocin receptors
production on uterus
↑ uterine contractions
Oxytocin
↑ prostaglandin production
Lactation
Lactation Suckling
Mechanoreceptors in nipple
Hypothalamus
↑ Oxytocin ↑ PRH
production ↓ PIH (Dopamine)
Posterior pituitary Anterior pituitary
↑ Oxytocin release ↑ Prolactin
Contraction of Secretion by alveolar
myoepithelial cells epithelial cells
Milk ejection Milk secretion
Prolactin axis Suckling
Mechanoreceptors in nipple
↓GnRH
Hypothalamus
PRH
PIH (Dopamine)
↓ LH Anterior pituitary
↓ FSH
Prolactin
Secretion by alveolar
epithelial cells
Milk secretion
