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Principles of Sociological Inquiry Qualitative
and Quantitative Methods Version 1.0 1st

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© 2012 Flat World Knowledge

1
 Chapter 1
Introduction

True/False Questions

1. The problem with informal observation is that sometimes it is right and sometimes it is
wrong.
True; Easy

2. Informal observation occurs when we make observations without any systematic process for
observing or assessing accuracy of what is observed.
True; Easy

3. Selective observations involve observations without any systematic process for observing or
assessing accuracy of what is observed.
False; Easy

4. Overgeneralization is a socially defined source of knowledge that might shape our beliefs
about what is true and what is not true.
False; Easy

5. Sociology seldom relies on a systematic process of inquiry for gaining knowledge.

False; Easy

6. Overgeneralization is a source of knowledge that might shape our own beliefs about what is
true and what is not true.
False; Easy

7. A research method is an organized, logical way of learning and knowing about our social
world.
True; Easy

8. Authority occurs when we assume that broad patterns exist even when our observations have
been limited.
False; Easy

9. Ontology deals with research questions about “how” we know what is, rather than “what is.”
False; Easy

10. A person’s ontological perspective shapes her or his beliefs about the nature of reality.
True; Easy

11. Epistemology deals with research questions about “what is”, rather than “how” we know
what is.
False; Easy

12. The scientific study of human groups is better known as sociology.

True; Easy

13. Basic research is conducted for some purpose beyond or in addition to researcher interest.
False; Easy

© 2012 Flat World Knowledge

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14. Applied research is motivated solely by the researcher’s interest.
False; Easy

15. Public sociology lies near the middle of the basic/applied continuum.
True; Easy

16. Qualitative methods of data collection can be represented by and condensed into numbers.
False; Easy

17. Sociology is a social science focused on patterns in society.

True; Easy

18. While individuals make up social patterns, every individual need not be a part of a pattern in
order for a pattern to exist.
True; Easy

19. An individual’s life is seldom shaped by social scientific research.

False; Easy

20. Evaluation research is the research conducted to assess the effects of specific programs or
policies.
True; Easy

Multiple Choice Questions

21. Which of the following involves processes that are not deliberate?
a. Ontology
b. Authority
c. Contingent observation
d. Informal observation
e. Selective observation
d; Easy

22. While conducting a research on the eating habits of kids aged between 5 and 8, Reuben
accidently discovered that kids aged between 5 and 8 are emotionally attached to their parents
than the kids aged below 5. Reuben’s accidental discovery is an example of a(n) _____.
a. placebo effect
b. authority observation
c. contingent observation
d. informal observation
e. selective observation
d; Moderate

23. Selective observation differs from informal observation in that selective observation:
a. makes observation without any systematic process for observing or assessing accuracy of
what is observed.
b. notices only patterns that one has experienced directly or wishes to find.
c. assumes that broad patterns exist based on very limited observations.
d. does not assume that broad patterns exist based on very limited observations.
e. involves research methods that are not deliberate.

© 2012 Flat World Knowledge

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 b; Moderate

24. Which of the following is true of informal observation?

a. It is a systematic process of observing a process or group of people.
b. It is seldom shaped by the beliefs and values of the researcher.
c. It is a way of knowing that attempts to systematically collect and categorize facts or
truths.
d. It rarely contributes to the research fraternity.
e. It occurs when observations are made without any preconceived system or process.
e; Easy

25. Which of the following is an example of an informal observation?

a. John in his research study on women and their driving habits reported that women are
skeptical drivers while driving in crowded streets.
b. While conducting a research on the market demand for bedspreads, Deborah–a market
research analyst–stumbled upon the information that the market demand for toilet
accessories are in greater demand than bedspreads.
c. While conducting a research on teens and their drinking habits, Benny–a psychologist–
observed that all teens after turning 18 consume alcohol at a greater rate than their
parents.
d. Sue, a trade market analyst, predicts the trends observed in the market based on the
performances of few multinational corporations.
e. Kelly who works in the sales department of Oscorp Inc., a gaming console manufacturer,
observed that the demand in the market for gaming consoles from Oscorp Inc. showed a
steep decline.
b; Hard

26. Informal observation differs from selective observation in that informal observation:
a. makes observation without any systematic process for observing or assessing accuracy of
what is observed.
b. notices only patterns that one has experienced directly or wishes to find.
c. assumes that broad patterns exist based on very limited observations.
d. does not assume that broad patterns exist based on very limited observations.
e. attempts to systematically collect and categorize facts or truths.
a; Moderate

27. _____ is the assumption that broad patterns exist based on very limited observations.
a. Temporality
b. Authority
c. Ontology
d. Epistemology
e. Overgeneralization
e; Easy

28. Based on few experiences, Connor assumed that all the respondents in his research study are
generally stressed because they are addicted to smoking. Connor’s assumption is an example
of _____.
a. ornithology
b. authority
c. overgeneralization
d. ontology

© 2012 Flat World Knowledge

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 e. epistemology
c; Moderate

29. ____ is known as a socially defined source of knowledge.

a. Belief
b. Authority
c. Value
d. Inheritance
e. Intuition
b; Easy

30. Ontology differs from epistemology in that ontology:

a. seldom deals with formal observational research.
b. does not deal with studies in sociology.
c. deals with studies in sociology.
d. deals with research questions of how we know what is.
e. deals with research questions about what is.
e; Moderate

31. Epistemology differs from ontology in that epistemology:

a. seldom deals with formal observational research.
b. does not deal with studies in sociology.
c. deals with studies in sociology.
d. deals with research questions of how we know what is.
e. deals with research questions about what is.
d; Moderate

32. _____ is a particular way of knowing that attempts to systematically collect and categorize
facts or truths.
a. A value
b. A belief
c. Science
d. Religion
e. Informal observation
c; Easy

33. _____ is the scientific study of humans in groups.

a. Sociology
b. Ornithology
c. Zoology
d. Botany
e. Ethology
a; Easy

34. Basic research differs from applied research in that basic research:
a. is motivated solely by researcher interest.
b. is conducted for some purpose beyond or in addition to researcher interest.
c. seldom deals with formal observational research.
d. seldom deals with informal observational research.
e. deals with the scientific study of humans in groups.
a; Moderate

© 2012 Flat World Knowledge

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35. Which of the following is true of basic research?
a. It is often client focused.
b. In sociology, basic research is sociology for sociology’s sake.
c. It is seldom motivated solely by researcher interest.
d. It lies somewhere in between applied research and public sociology.
e. It seldom collects facts or truths systematically.
b; Easy

36. Applied research differs from basic research in that applied research:
a. is motivated solely by researcher interest.
b. is conducted for some purpose beyond researcher interest.
c. seldom deals with formal observational research.
d. seldom deals with informal observational research.
e. deals with the scientific study of humans in groups.
b; Moderate

37. Which of the following is true of applied research?

a. It is often client focused.
b. In sociology, applied research is sociology for sociology’s sake.
c. It is motivated solely by researcher interest.
d. It lies somewhere in between basic research and public sociology.
e. It seldom collects facts or truths systematically.
a; Easy

38. Which of the following accurately describes a researcher whose main purpose is to
understand the consequences of industrialization?
a. A gatekeeper
b. An philosopher
c. A public sociologist
d. An epistemologist
e. An ontologist
c; Easy

39. Qualitative research differs from quantitative research in that qualitative research:
a. collects data that yields results such as words or pictures.
b. collects data that can be represented by and condensed into numbers.
c. collects data that aims at gaining a shallow understanding about the research topic.
d. is a data collection method that focuses on a large number of cases.
e. is a data collection method that uses questionnaires to gather data.
a; Easy

40. Quantitative research differs from qualitative research in that quantitative research:
a. collects data that yields results such as words or pictures.
b. collects data that can be represented by and condensed into numbers.
c. collects data that aims at gaining a shallow understanding about the research topic.
d. is a data collection method that focuses on a large number of cases.
e. is a data collection method that uses questionnaires to gather data.
b; Moderate

41. Which of the following is true of qualitative research?

© 2012 Flat World Knowledge

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 a. It aims to gain an in-depth understanding of a relatively small number of cases.
b. It results in data that can be represented by and condensed into numbers.
c. It seldom involves the use of selective observations.
d. It seldom involves the use of informal observations.
e. It offers less depth but more breadth because it typically focuses on a larger number of
cases.
a; Easy

42. Which of the following is true of quantitative research?

a. It aims to gain an in-depth understanding of a relatively small number of cases.
b. It collects data that yield results such as words or pictures.
c. It seldom involves the use of selective observations.
d. It seldom involves the use of informal observations.
e. It offers less depth but more breadth because it typically focuses on a larger number of
cases.
e; Easy

43. Which of the following is true of the considerations that social scientists should be aware of?
a. Social science is seldom concerned with patterns in society.
b. While individuals make up patterns, every individual need not be a part of a pattern in
order for a pattern to exist.
c. Sociological research projects do not fall on a continuum from basic research to public
sociology to applied research.
d. Qualitative methods are those that yield data such as numbers; quantitative methods are
those that yield data such as words or pictures.
e. Epistemology is an analytic philosophy concerning the nature of reality; ontology is an
analytic philosophy concerning how we know what we know.
b; Moderate

44. The plaintiffs of a gender bias suit enlisted Professor Rebecca to conduct an analysis of B&G
Inc’s personnel policies in order to support their claim that B&G engages in gender
discriminatory practices. Rebecca’s analysis shows that B&G Inc’s compensation and
promotion decisions may indeed have been vulnerable to gender bias. This gender bias suit is
an example of:
a. available employment opportunities.
b. ontology vs. epistemology.
c. sociological research in action.
d. qualitative research vs. quantitative research.
e. the assumption that broad patterns exist based on very limited observations.
c; Moderate

45. What is evaluation research?

a. It is conducted to assess the effects of specific programs or policies.
b. It is the assumption that broad patterns exist based on very limited observations.
c. It is the observations made without any systematic process for observing or assessing
accuracy of what is observed.
d. It is an interdisciplinary review committee tasked with protecting the rights of human
research subjects.
e. It is a subject’s voluntary agreement to participate in research based on a full
understanding of the research.
a; Easy

© 2012 Flat World Knowledge

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46. What is General Social Survey?
a. It is a type of research conducted to assess the effects of specific programs or policies.
b. It is a way of collecting data that yield results such as words or pictures.
c. It is a way of collecting data that can be represented by and condensed into numbers.
d. It is one of the largest sources of social scientific data in the United States.
e. It is the application of sociological theories and research to matters of public interest.
d; Easy

Short Answer Questions

47. What are the different ways of gaining knowledge?

Informal observation - Occurs when we make observations without any systematic process
for observing or assessing accuracy of what we observed.
Selective observation - Occurs when we see only those patterns that we want to see or when
we assume that only the patterns we have experienced directly exist.
Overgeneralization - Occurs when we assume that broad patterns exist even when our
observations have been limited.
Authority- A socially defined source of knowledge that might shape our own beliefs about
what is true and what is not true.
Research methods - An organized, logical way of learning and knowing about our social
world.
Easy

48. What is ontology and epistemology?

Ontology refers to one’s analytic philosophy of the nature of reality. In sociology, a
researcher’s ontological position might shape the sorts of research questions he or she asks
and how those questions are posed.
Like ontology, epistemology has to do with knowledge. But rather than dealing with
questions about what is, epistemology deals with questions of how we know what is.
Easy

49. Describe what the phrase “sociology is a social science” means.

Sociology uses organized and intentional procedures to uncover facts or truths about society.
Sociologists study how individuals shape, are shaped by, and create and maintain their social
groups.
Easy

50. Describe the specific considerations of which social scientists should be aware.
 Social science is concerned with patterns in society.
 While individuals make up patterns, every individual need not be a part of a pattern in
order for a pattern to exist.
 Sociological research projects typically rest somewhere on a continuum from basic
research to public sociology to applied research.
 Qualitative methods are those that yield data such as words or pictures; quantitative
methods are those that yield data such as numbers.
Moderate

51. Write a brief note on basic and applied research.

© 2012 Flat World Knowledge

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 Basic research is the research that is motivated solely by researcher interest. In sociology,
basic research is sociology for sociology’s sake.
In sociology, applied research refers to sociology that is conducted for some purpose beyond
or in addition to a researcher’s interest in a topic. Applied research is often client focused,
meaning that the researcher is investigating a question posed by someone other than her or
himself.
Easy

52. What is public sociology?

Public sociology refers to the application of sociological theories and research to matters of
public interest.
Easy

53. Differentiate qualitative from quantitative methods of data collection.

Qualitative methods aim to gain an in-depth understanding of a relatively small number of
cases, while quantitative methods offer less depth but more breadth because they typically
focus on a much larger number of cases.
Easy

54. Write a brief note on General Social Survey.

The General Social Survey (GSS) is one of the largest sources of social scientific data in the
United States. Since 1972, GSS researchers have collected data on social trends,
demographics, behaviors, beliefs, and change using survey interview technique.
Easy

55. Give two reasons why students should care about social scientific research methods.
 Research methods are regularly applied to solve social problems and issues that shape
how our society is organized, thus we have to live with the results of research methods
every day of our life.
 Understanding research methods might actually help students land a job.
Easy

Fill in the Blanks

56. _____ refers to one’s analytic philosophy of the nature of reality.

Ontology; Easy

57. Rather than dealing with research questions about what is, _____ deals with questions of how
we know what is.
epistemology; Easy

58. _____ is a particular way of knowing that attempts to systematically collect and categorize
facts or truths.
Science; Easy

59. _____ research that is motivated solely by researcher interest.

Basic research; Easy

60. _____ is collecting data that can be represented by and condensed into numbers.
Quantitative Data; Easy

© 2012 Flat World Knowledge

9
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
short as to seem to be absent, and the anther is then said to be
sessile. The anther bears the pollen spores. It is made up of two or
four parts (known as sporangia or spore-cases), which burst and
discharge the pollen. When the pollen is shed, the stamen dies.
The pistil has three parts: the
lowest, or seed-bearing part,
which is the ovary; the stigma
at the upper extremity, which is a
flattened or expanded surface,
and usually roughened or sticky;
the stalk-like part or style,
connecting the ovary and the
stigma. Sometimes the style is
apparently wanting, and the
stigma is said to be sessile on the Fig. 175.—The Structure of a Plum
Blossom.
ovary. These parts are shown inse, sepals; p, petals; sta, stamens; o, ovary; s, style;
the fuchsia (Fig. 174). The ovary stand
, stigma. The pistil consists of the ovary, the style
the stigma. It contains the seed part. The
or seed vessel is at a. A long stamens are tipped with anthers, in which the pollen
style, bearing a large stigma, is borne. The ovary, o, ripens into the fruit.
projects from the flower. See also
Figs. 175 and 176.
Stamens and pistils probably are homologous with leaves. A pistil
is sometimes conceived to represent anciently a leaf as if rolled into
a tube; and an anther, a leaf of which the edges may have been
turned in on the midrib.
The pistil may be of one part or compartment, or
of many parts. The different units or parts of which
it is composed are carpels. Each carpel is
homologous with a leaf. Each carpel bears one or
more seeds. A pistil of one carpel is simple; of two
Fig. 176.—Simple or more carpels, compound. Usually the structure
Pistils of of the pistil may be determined by cutting
Buttercup, one in horizontally across the lower or seed-bearing part,
longitudinal as Figs. 177, 178 explain. A flower may contain a
section.
simple pistil (one carpel), as the pea (Fig.
177); several simple pistils (several separate
carpels), as the buttercup (Fig. 176); or a
compound pistil with carpels united, as the
Saint John’s wort (Fig. 178) and apple. How
many carpels in an apple? A peach? An okra
pod? A bean pod? The seed cavity in each
carpel is called a locule (Latin locus, aFig. 177.—Pistil of Garden
place). In these locules the seeds are borne. Ppulled
ea, the stamens being
down in order to
Conformation of disclose it; also a section
the Flower.—A flower showing the single
compartment (compare
that has calyx, corolla, Fig. 188).
stamens, and pistils is
said to be complete
(Fig. 173); all others are incomplete. In some
flowers both the floral envelopes are wanting:
such are naked. When one of the floral
envelope series is wanting, the remaining series
Fig. 178.—Compound
is said to be calyx, and the flower is therefore
Pistil of a St. John’s apetalous (without petals). The knot-weed
Wort. It has 5 (Fig. 179), smartweed, buckwheat, elm are
carpels. examples.
Some flowers lack the pistils: these are
staminate, whether the envelopes are missing or not. Others lack
the stamens: these are pistillate. Others have neither stamens nor
pistils: these are sterile (snowball and hydrangea). Those that have
both stamens and pistils are perfect, whether or not the envelopes
are missing. Those that lack either stamens or pistils are imperfect
or diclinous. Staminate and pistillate flowers are imperfect or
diclinous.
When staminate and pistillate flowers are borne on the same
plant, e.g. oak (Fig. 180), corn, beech, chestnut, hazel, walnut,
hickory, pine, begonia (Fig. 181), watermelon, gourd, pumpkin, the
plant is monœcious (“in one house”). When they are on different
 plants, e.g. poplar,
cottonwood, bois d’arc,
willow (Fig. 182), the
plant is diœcious (“in
two houses”). Some
varieties of strawberry,
grape, and mulberry
are partly diœcious. Is
the rose either
monœcious or
diœcious?
Flowers in which the
parts of each series are Fig. 181.—Begonia
Flowers.
alike are said to beStaminate at A: pistillate
Fig. 179.—Knotweed, a very regular (as in Figs. below, with the winged
ovary at B.
common but inconspicuous 173, 174, 175). Those
plant along hard walks and in which some parts are
roads. Two flowers, enlarged, unlike other parts of the same series are
are shown at the right. These
flowers are very small and irregular. Their regularity may be in
borne in the axils of the calyx, as in nasturtium (Fig. 183); in
leaves. corolla (Figs. 184, 185); in the stamens
(compare nasturtium, catnip, Fig. 185,
sage); in the pistils. Irregularity is most
frequent in the corolla.

Fig. 180.—Staminate Catkins of

Oak. The pistillate flowers are
in the leaf axils, and not
shown in this picture.
 Fig. 182.—Catkins of a Willow.
A staminate flower is shown at s, and a pistillate flower
at p. The staminate and pistillate are on different
plants.

Fig. 183.—Flower of
Garden Nasturtium. Fig. 184.—The Five Petals of Fig. 185.—
Separate petal at a. The the Pansy, detached to show Flower of
calyx is produced into a the form. Catnip.
spur.
 Various Forms of Corolla.—The corolla often assumes very
definite or distinct forms, especially when gamopetalous. It may
have a long tube with a wide-flaring limb, when it is said to be
funnelform, as in morning-glory and pumpkin. If the tube is very
narrow and the limb stands at right angles to it, the corolla is
salverform, as in phlox. If the tube is very short and the limb wide-
spreading and nearly circular in outline, the corolla is rotate or
wheel-shaped, as in potato.
A gamopetalous corolla or gamosepalous calyx is often cleft in
such way as to make two prominent parts. Such parts are said to be
lipped or labiate. Each of the lips or lobes may be notched or
toothed. In 5-membered flowers, the lower lip is usually 3-lobed and
the upper one 2-lobed. Labiate flowers are characteristic of the mint
family (Fig. 185), and the family therefore is called the Labiatæ.
(Literally, labiate means merely “lipped,” without specifying the
number of lips or lobes; but it is commonly used to designate 2-
lipped flowers.) Strongly 2-parted polypetalous flowers may be said
to be labiate; but the term is oftenest used for gamopetalous
corollas.
Labiate gamopetalous flowers that are
closed in the throat (or entrance to the
tube) are said to be grinning or
personate (personate means masked).
Snapdragon is a typical example; also
toadflax or butter-and-eggs (Fig. 186),
and many related plants. Personate
flowers usually have definite relations to Fig. 186.—Personate Flower of
insect pollination. Observe how an insect Toadflax.
forces his head into the closed throat of
the toadflax.
The peculiar flowers of the pea tribes are explained in Figs. 187,
188.
Spathe Flowers.—In many plants, very simple (often naked)
flowers are borne in dense, more or less fleshy spikes, and the spike
 is inclosed in or attended by a leaf,
sometimes corolla-like, known as a
spathe. The spike of flowers is
technically known as a spadix. This
type of flower is characteristic of the
great arum family, which is chiefly
tropical. The commonest wild
representatives are Jack-in-the-pulpit,
or Indian turnip, and skunk cabbage.
In the former the flowers are all
diclinous and naked. In the skunk
cabbage all the flowers are perfect
and have four sepals. The common
calla is a good example of this type of
inflorescence.

Fig. 187.—Flowers of the Common

Bean, with one flower opened (a)
to show the structure.

Composite Flowers.—The
head (anthodium) or so-called
“flower” of sunflower (Fig. 189),
thistle, aster, dandelion, daisy,
chrysanthemum, goldenrod, is
composed of several or many little
flowers, or florets. These florets Fig. 188.—Diagram of Alfalfa Flower in
are inclosed in a more or less Section:
C, calyx; D, standard; W, wing; K, keel; T, stamen
dense and usually green tube; F, filament of tenth stamen; X, stigma; Y,
involucre. In the thistle (Fig. 190) style; O, ovary; the dotted lines at E show position
of stamen tube, when pushed upward by insects.
this involucre is prickly. A Enlarged.
longitudinal section discloses the
florets, all attached at bottom to a common torus, and densely
packed in the involucre. The pink tips of these florets constitute the
showy part of the head.
 Each floret of the thistle
(Fig. 190) is a complete
flower. At a is the ovary. At
b is a much-divided plumy
calyx, known as the
pappus. The corolla is
long-tubed, rising above
the pappus, and is
enlarged and 5-lobed at
the top, c. The style
projects at e. The five
anthers are united about
the style in a ring at d.
Such anthers are said to be Fig. 189.—Head of Sunflower.

syngenesious. These are the

various parts of the florets of the
Compositæ. In some cases the
pappus is in the form of barbs,
bristles, or scales, and sometimes
it is wanting. The pappus, as we
shall see later, assists in
distributing the seed. Often the
florets are not all alike. The
corolla of those in the outer circles
may be developed into a long,
straplike, or tubular part, and the
head then has the appearance of
being one flower with a border of
petals. Of such is the sunflower
(Fig. 189), aster, bachelor’s button
or cornflower, and field daisy (Fig.
Fig. 190.—Longitudinal Section of Thistle 211). These long corolla-limbs are
Head; also a Floret of Thistle. called rays. In some cultivated
composites, all the florets may
develop rays, as in the dahlia and the chrysanthemum. In some
species, as dandelion, all the florets naturally have rays.
Syngenesious arrangement of anthers is the most characteristic
single feature of the composites.
Double Flowers.—
Under the stimulus of
cultivation and increased
food supply, flowers tend
to become double. True
doubling arises in two
ways, morphologically: (1)
stamens or pistils may
produce petals (Fig. 191);
(2) adventitious or
accessory petals may arise
in the circle of petals. Both
these categories may be
Fig. 191.—Petals arising from the Staminal Column present in the same flower.
of Hollyhock, and accessory petals in the In the full double hollyhock
corolla-whorl.
the petals derived from the
staminal column are
shorter and make a rosette in the centre of the flower. In Fig. 192 is
shown the doubling of a daffodil by the modification of stamens.
Other modifications of flowers are sometimes known as doubling.
For example, double dahlias, chrysanthemums, and sunflowers are
forms in which the disk flowers have developed rays. The snowball is
another case. In the wild snowball the external flowers of the cluster
are large and sterile. In the cultivated plant all the flowers have
become large and sterile. Hydrangea is a similar case.
 Fig. 192.—Narcissus or Daffodil. Single flower at the right.
Suggestions.—145. If the pupil has been skilfully conducted through this chapter
by means of careful study of specimens rather than as a mere memorizing
process, he will be in mood to challenge any flower that he sees and to make an
effort to understand it. Flowers are endlessly modified in form; but they can be
understood if the pupil looks first for the anthers and ovaries. How may anthers
and ovaries always be distinguished? 146. It is excellent practice to find the
flowers in plants that are commonly known by name, and to determine the main
points in their structure. What are the flowers in Indian corn? pumpkin or squash?
celery? cabbage? potato? pea? tomato? okra? cotton? rhubarb? chestnut? wheat?
oats? 147. Do all forest trees have flowers? Explain. 148. Name all the
monœcious plants you know. Diœcious. 149. What plants do you know that
bloom before the leaves appear? Do any bloom after the leaves fall? 150. Explain
the flowers of marigold, hyacinth, lettuce, clover, asparagus, garden calla, aster,
locust, onion, burdock, lily-of-the-valley, crocus, Golden Glow, rudbeckia, cowpea.
151. Define a flower.

Note to the Teacher.—It cannot be urged too often that the specimens
themselves be studied. If this chapter becomes a mere recitation on names and
definitions, the exercise will be worse than useless. Properly taught by means of
the flowers themselves, the names become merely incidental and a part of the
pupil’s language, and the subject has living interest.
 CHAPTER XIX
THE FLOWER—FERTILIZATION AND POLLINATION

Fertilization.—Seeds result from the

union of two elements or parts. One of
these elements is a cell-nucleus of the
pollen-grain. The other element is the
cell-nucleus of an egg-cell, borne in the
ovary. The pollen-grain falls on the
stigma (Fig. 193). It absorbs the juices
exuded by the stigma, and grows by
sending out a tube (Fig. 194). This tube
grows downward through the style,
absorbing food as it goes, and finally
reaches the egg-cell in the interior of an
Fig. 193.—B, Pollen escaping ovule in the ovary (Fig. 195), and
from anther; A, pollen fertilization, or union of a nucleus of
germinating on a stigma.
Enlarged. the pollen and the nucleus of the egg-
cell in the ovule, takes place. The ovule
and embryo within then develops into a
seed. The growth of the pollen-tube is often spoken of as
germination of the pollen, but it is not germination in the sense in
which the word is used when speaking of seeds.
Better seeds—that is, those that produce stronger and more
fruitful plants—often result when the pollen comes from another
flower. Fertilization effected between different flowers is cross-
fertilization; that resulting from the application of pollen to pistils in
the same flower is close-fertilization or self-fertilization. It will
be seen that the cross-fertilization relationship may be of many
degrees—between two flowers in the same cluster, between those in
different clusters on the same branch, between those on different
plants. Usually fertilization takes place only between
plants of the same species or kind.
In many cases there is, in effect, an apparent
selection of pollen when pollen from two or more
sources is applied to the stigma. Sometimes the
foreign pollen, if from the same kind of plant, grows,
and fertilization results, while pollen from the same
flower is less promptly effective. If, however, no
foreign pollen is present, the pollen from the same
flower may finally serve the same purpose.
In order that the pollen may grow, the stigma must
be ripe. At this stage the stigma is usually moist and
sometimes sticky. A ripe stigma is said to be
receptive. The stigma may remain receptive for
Fig. 194.—A
several hours or even days, depending on the kind of Pollen-grain and
plant, the weather, and how soon pollen is received. the Growing
Watch a certain flower every day to see the anther Tube.
locules open and the stigma ripen. When fertilization
takes place, the stigma dies. Observe, also, how soon the petals
wither after the stigma has received pollen.
Pollination.—The transfer of the pollen from anther to stigma is
known as pollination. The pollen may fall of its own weight on the
adjacent stigma, or it may be carried from flower to flower by wind,
insects, or other agents. There may be self-pollination or cross-
pollination, and of course it must always precede fertilization.
Usually the pollen is discharged by the bursting of the anthers.
The commonest method of discharge is through a slit on either side
of the anther (Fig. 193). Sometimes it discharges through a pore at
the apex, as in azalea (Fig. 196), rhododendron, huckleberry,
wintergreen. In some plants a part of the anther wall raises or falls
as a lid, as in barberry (Fig. 197), blue cohosh, May apple. The
opening of an anther (as also of a seed-pod) is known as
dehiscence (de, from; hisco, to gape). When an anther or seed-
pod opens, it is said to dehisce.
 Most flowers are so constructed
as to increase the chances of
cross-pollination. We have seen
that the stigma may have the
power of choosing foreign pollen.
The commonest means of
necessitating cross-pollination is
Fig. the different times of maturing of
196.— stamens and pistils in the same
Anther flower. In most cases the stamens
of
mature first: the flower is then
Azalea,
opening proterandrous. When the pistils
by mature first, the flower is
terminal proterogynous. (Aner, andr, is a
pores. Greek root often used, in
combinations, for stamen, and
gyne for pistil.) The difference in time ofFig. 195.—Diagram to represent
ripening may be an hour or two, or it Fertilization.
s, stigma; st, style; ov, ovary; o, ovule; p,
may be a day. The ripening of the pollen-grain; pt, pollen-tube; e, egg-cell;
stamens and the pistils at different times m, micropyle.
is known as dichogamy, and flowers of
such character are said to be dichogamous. There is little chance for
dichogamous flowers to pollinate themselves. Many flowers are
imperfectly dichogamous—some of the anthers mature
simultaneously with the pistils, so that there is chance for self-
pollination in case foreign pollen does not arrive. Even when the
stigma receives pollen from its own flower, cross-fertilization may
result. The hollyhock is proterandrous. Fig. 198 shows a flower
recently expanded. The centre is occupied by the column of
stamens. In Fig. 199, showing an older flower, the long styles are
conspicuous.
Some flowers are so constructed as to prohibit self-pollination.
Very irregular flowers are usually of this kind. With some of them,
the petals form a sac to inclose the anthers and the pollen cannot be
shed on the stigma but is retained until a bee forces the sac open;
the pollen is rubbed on the hairs of the bee and
transported. Regular flowers usually depend mostly on
dichogamy and the selective power of the pistil to insure
crossing. Flowers that are very irregular and provided with
nectar and strong perfume are usually pollinated by
insects. Gaudy colours probably attract insects in many
cases, but perfume appears to be a greater attraction.
The insect visits the flower for the nectar (for the
making of honey) and may unknowingly carry the pollen.
Spurs and sacs in the flower are nectaries (Fig. 200), but
in spurless flowers the nectar is usually secreted in the
bottom of the flower cup. This compels the insect to pass Fig. 197.—
by the anther and rub against the pollen before it reaches Barberry
the nectar. Sometimes the anther is a long lever poised on Stamen, with
anther
the middle point and the insect bumps against one end opening by
and lifts it, thus bringing the other end of the lever with lids.
the pollen sacs
down on its back.
Flowers that are
pollinated by insects
are said to be
entomophilous
(“insect loving”).
Fig. 200 shows a
larkspur. The
envelopes are
separated in Fig.
201. The long spur
at once suggests
insect pollination.
The spur is a sepal.
Two hollow petals
project into this Fig. 198.—Flower of Hollyhock; proterandrous.
spur, apparently
serving to guide the bee’s tongue. The two smaller petals, in front,
 are peculiarly coloured and
perhaps serve the bee in
locating the nectary. The
stamens ensheath the
pistils (Fig. 202). As the
insect stands on the flower
and thrusts its head into
the centre, the envelopes
are pushed downward and
outward and the pistil and
stamens come in contact
with its abdomen. Since
the flower is
proterandrous, the pollen
Fig. 199.—Older Flower of Hollyhock.
that the pistils receive from
the bee’s abdomen
must come from
another flower. Note
a somewhat similar
arrangement in the
toadflax or butter-
and-eggs.
In some cases
(Fig. 203) the
stamens are longer
than the pistil in one
Fig. 200.—Flower of flower and shorter
Larkspur. in another. If the
insect visits such
Fig. 201.—Envelopes of a
flowers, it gets pollen on its head from Larkspur. There are five wide
the long-stamen flower, and deposits this sepals, the upper one being
pollen on the stigma in the long-pistil spurred. There are four small
flower. Such flowers are dimorphous petals.
(of two forms). If pollen from its own
flower and from another flower both fall on the
stigma, the probabilities are that the stigma will
choose the foreign pollen.

Fig. 202.—Stamens of
Larkspur, surrounding
the pistils.

Fig. 203.—Dimorphic Flowers of Primrose.

Many flowers are pollinated by the wind. They are said to be
anemophilous (“wind loving”). Such flowers produce great
quantities of pollen, for much of it is wasted. They usually have
broad stigmas, which expose large surfaces to the wind. They are
usually lacking in gaudy colours and in perfume. Grasses and pine
trees are typical examples of anemophilous plants.
In many cases
cross-pollination is
assured because the
stamens and the
pistils are in
different flowers
(diclinous).
Monœcious and
diœcious plants may
be pollinated by
wind or insects, or
other agents (Fig.
204). They are
usually wind-
pollinated, although
willows are often, if
not mostly, insect-
pollinated. The
Indian corn is a
monœcious plant.
Fig. 204.—Flowers of Black Walnut: Two Pistillate flowers
at A, and staminate catkins at B.
The staminate
flowers are in a
terminal panicle
(tassel). The pistillate flowers are in a dense spike (ear), inclosed in
a sheath or husk. Each “silk” is a style. Each pistillate flower
produces a kernel of corn. Sometimes a few pistillate flowers are
borne in the tassel and a few staminate flowers on the tip of the ear.
Is self-fertilization possible with the corn? Why does a “volunteer”
stalk standing alone in a garden have only a few grains on the ear?
What is the direction of the prevailing wind in summer? If only two
or three rows of corn are planted in a garden where prevailing winds
occur, in which direction had they better run?
 Although most flowers
are of such character as to
insure or increase the
chances of cross-
pollination, there are some
that absolutely forbid
crossing. These flowers are
usually borne beneath or
on the ground, and they
lack showy colours and
perfumes. They are known
as cleistogamous flowers
(meaning self-fertilizing
flowers). The plant has
normal showy flowers that
may be insect-pollinated,
and in addition is provided
with these simplified
flowers. Only a few plants
bear cleistogamous
flowers. Hog-peanut,
common blue violet,
fringed wintergreen, andFig. 205.—Common Blue Violet. The familiar
flowers are shown, natural size. The corolla is
dalibarda are the best spurred. Late in the season, cleistogamous
subjects in this country. flowers are often borne on the surface of the
Fig. 205 shows a ground. A small one is shown at a. A nearly
cleistogamous flower of the mature pod is shown at b. Both a and b are
blue violet at a. Above the one third natural size.
true roots, slender stems
bear these flowers, that are provided with a calyx, and a curving
corolla which does not open. Inside are the stamens and the pistils.
Late in the season the cleistogamous flowers may be found just
underneath the mould. They never rise above ground. The following
summer one may find a seedling plant, in some kinds of plants, with
the remains of the old cleistogamous flower still adhering to the
root. Cleistogamous flowers usually appear after the showy flowers
have passed. They seem to insure a crop of seed by a method that
expends little of the plant’s energy. The pupil will be interested to
work out the fruiting of the peanut (Fig. 206). Unbaked fresh
peanuts grow readily and can easily be raised in Canada, in a warm
sandy garden.

Fig. 206.—Pods of Peanuts ripening underground.

Suggestions.—152. Not all the flowers

produce seeds. Note that an apple tree
may bloom very full, but that only
relatively few apples may result (Fig.
207). More pollen is produced than is
needed to fertilize the flowers; this
increases the chances that sufficient
stigmas will receive acceptable pollen to
enable the plant to perpetuate its kind.
At any time in summer, or even in fall,
examine the apple trees carefully to
determine whether any dead flowers or
flower stalks still remain about the apple;
or, examine any full-blooming plant to
Fig. 207.—Struggle for Existence among see whether any of the flowers fail. 153.
the Apple Flowers. Keep watch on any plant to see whether
insects visit it. What kind? When? What
for? 154. Determine whether the calyx serves any purpose in protecting the
flower. Very carefully remove the calyx from a bud that is normally exposed to
heat and sun and rain, and see whether the flower then fares as well as others.
155. Cover a single flower on its plant with a tiny paper or muslin bag so tightly
that no insect can get in. If the flower sets fruit, what do you conclude? 156.
Remove carefully the corolla from a flower nearly ready to open, preferably one
that has no other flowers very close to it. Watch for insects. 157. Find the nectar
in any flower that you study. 158. Remove the stigma. What happens? 159.
Which of the following plants have perfect flowers: pea, bean, pumpkin, cotton,
clover, buckwheat, potato, Indian corn, peach, chestnut, hickory, watermelon,
sunflower, cabbage, rose, begonia, geranium, cucumber, calla, willow, cottonwood,
cantaloupe? What have the others? 160. On wind-pollinated plants, are either
anthers or stigmas more numerous? 161. Are very small coloured flowers usually
borne singly or in clusters? 162. Why do rains at blooming time often lessen the
fruit crop? 163. Of what value are bees in orchards? 164. The crossing of plants
to improve varieties or to obtain new varieties.—It may be desired to perform the
operation of pollination by hand. In order to insure the most definite results, every
effort should be made rightly to apply the pollen which it is desired shall be used,
and rigidly to exclude all other pollen. (a) The first requisite is to remove the
anthers from the flower which it is proposed to cross, and they must be removed
before the pollen has been shed. The flower-bud is therefore opened and the
anthers taken out. Cut off the floral envelopes with small, sharp-pointed scissors,
then cut out or pull out the anthers, leaving only the pistil untouched; or merely
open the corolla at the end and pull out the anthers with a hook or tweezers; and
this method is often the best one. It is best to delay the operation as long as
possible and yet not allow the bud to open (and thereby expose the flower to
foreign pollen) nor the anthers to discharge the pollen. (b) The flower must next
be covered with a paper bag to prevent the access of pollen (Figs. 208, 209). If
the stigma is not receptive at the time (as it usually is not), the desired pollen is
not applied at once. The bag may be removed from time to time to allow of
examination of the pistil, and when the stigma is mature, which is told by its
glutinous or roughened appearance, the time for pollination has come. If the bag
is slightly moistened, it can be puckered more tightly about the stem of the plant.
The time required for the stigma to mature varies from several hours to a few
days. (c) When the stigma is ready, an unopened anther from the desired flower is
crushed on the finger nail or a knife blade, and the pollen is rubbed on the stigma
by means of a tiny brush, the point of a knife blade, or a sliver of wood. The
flower is again covered with the bag, which is allowed to remain for several days
until all danger of other pollination is past. Care must be taken completely to cover
the stigmatic surface with pollen, if possible. The seeds produced by a crossed
flower produce hybrids, or plants having parents belonging to different varieties or
species. 165. One of the means of securing new forms of plants is by making
hybrids. Why?
Fig. 208.—A Paper Bag,
with string inserted.

Fig. 209.—The Bag tied over a

Flower.

Fig. 210.—The fig is a hollow torus with flowers borne on the

inside, and pollinated by insects that enter at the apex.
 CHAPTER XX
FLOWER-CLUSTERS

Origin of the Flower-cluster.—We have seen that branches

arise from the axils of leaves. Sometimes the leaves may be reduced
to bracts and yet branches are borne in their axils. Some of the
branches grow into long limbs; others become short spurs; others
bear flowers. In fact, a flower is itself a specialized branch.
Flowers are usually borne near the top of the plant. Often they are
produced in great numbers. It results, therefore, that flower
branches usually stand close together, forming a cluster. The shape
and the arrangement of the flower-cluster differ with the kind of
plant, since each plant has its own mode of branching.
Certain definite or well-marked types of flower-clusters have
received names. Some of these names we shall discuss, but the
flower-clusters that perfectly match the definitions are the exception
rather than the rule. The determining of the kinds of flower-clusters
is one of the most perplexing subjects in descriptive botany. We may
classify the subject around three ideas: solitary flowers,
centrifugal or determinate clusters, centripetal or
indeterminate clusters.
Solitary Flowers.—In many cases flowers are borne singly; they
are separated from other flowers by leaves. They are then said to be
solitary. The solitary flower may be either at the end of the main
shoot or axis (Fig. 211), when it is said to be terminal; or from the
side of the shoot (Fig. 212), when it is said to be lateral or
axillary.
Centripetal Clusters.—If the flower-bearing axils were rather
close together, an open or leafy flower-cluster might result. If the
plant continues to grow from the tip, the older flowers are left
farther and farther behind. If the cluster were so short as to be flat
 or
conve
x on
top,
the
outer
most
flower
s
would
be the
older.
A
flower
-
cluster
in
which
the
lower
Fig. 212.—Lateral Flower of an Abutilon. Aor
greenhouse plant.
outer
flower
s open first is said to be a centripetal
Fig. 211.—Terminal Flowers of the
cluster. It is sometimes said to be an Whiteweed (in some places
indeterminate cluster, since it is the called ox-eye daisy).
result of a type of growth which may go
on more or less continuously from the
apex.
The simplest form of a definite centripetal cluster is a raceme,
which is an open elongated cluster in which the flowers are borne
singly on very short branches and open from below (that is, from the
older part of the shoot) upwards (Fig. 213). The raceme may be
terminal to the main branch; or it may be lateral to it, as in Fig. 214.
Racemes often bear the flowers on one side of the stem, thus
forming a single row.
When a centripetal flower-cluster is
long and dense and the flowers are
sessile or nearly so, it is called a spike
(Fig. 215). Common examples of spikes
are plantain, mignonette, mullein.
A very short and dense spike is a
head. Clover (Fig. 216) is a good
example. The sunflower and related
plants bear many small flowers in a very
dense and often flat head. Note that in
the sunflower (Fig. 189) the outside or
exterior flowers open first. Another
special form of spike is the catkin,
which usually has scaly bracts, the whole
cluster being deciduous after flowering
or fruiting, and the flowers (in typical
cases) having only stamens or pistils.
Examples are the “pussies” of willows
Fig. 213.—Raceme of Currant.
(Fig. 182) and flower-clusters of oak
Terminal or lateral? (Fig. 180), walnuts (Fig. 204), poplars.
When a loose, elongated centripetal
flower-cluster has some primary branches simple, and others
irregularly branched, it is called a panicle. It is a branching raceme.
Because of the earlier growth of the lower branches, the panicle is
usually broadest at the base or conical in outline. True panicles are
not very common.
When an indeterminate flower-cluster is short, so that the top is
convex or flat, it is a corymb (Fig. 217). The outermost flowers
open first. Centripetal flower-clusters are sometimes said to be
corymbose in mode.
 When
the
branches
of an
indetermi
nate
cluster
arise from
a
Fig. 214.—Lateral Racemes (in fruit) of Barberry.
common
point, like
the frame of an umbrella,
the cluster is an umbel
(Fig. 218). Typical umbels
occur in carrot, parsnip,
caraway, and other plants
of the parsley family: the
family is known as the
Umbelliferæ, or umbel-
bearing family. In the
carrot and many other
Umbelliferæ, there are
small or secondary umbels,
called umbellets, at the
end of each of the main
branches. (In the centre of
the wild carrot umbel one
often finds a single,
blackish, often aborted
flower, comprising a 1-
flowered umbellet.)

Fig. 216.—Head of Clover Blossoms.

 Fig. 215.—
Spike of
Plantain.

Fig. 217.—Corymb of Candy-tuft.

 Fig. 218.—Remains of a Last Year’s Umbel of Wild Carrot.
Centrifugal or Determinate Clusters.—When the terminal or
central flower opens first, the cluster is said to be centrifugal. The
growth of the shoot or cluster is determinate, since the length is
definitely determined or stopped by the terminal flower. Fig. 219
shows a determinate or centrifugal mode of flower bearing.
Dense centrifugal clusters are usually flattish on top because of
the cessation of growth in the main or central axis. These compact
flower-clusters are known as cymes. Centrifugal clusters are
sometimes said to be cymose in mode. Apples, pears (Fig. 220), and
elders bear flowers in cymes. Some cyme-forms are like umbels in
general appearance. A head-like cymose cluster is a glomerule; it
blooms from the top downwards rather than from the base upwards.
Mixed Clusters.—Often the cluster is mixed, being determinate
in one part and indeterminate in another part of the same cluster.
The main cluster may be indeterminate, but the branches
determinate. The cluster has the appearance of a panicle, and is
usually so called, but it is really a thyrse. Lilac is a familiar example
 of a thyrse. In some cases the main
cluster is determinate and the branches
are indeterminate, as in hydrangea and
elder.
Infloresce
nce.—The
mode or
method of
flower
arrangement
is known as
the
inflorescenc
e. That is,
the Fig. 220.—Cyme of Pear. Often
inflorescence imperfect.
is cymose,
corymbose, paniculate, spicate, solitary,
determinate, indeterminate. By custom,
however, the word “inflorescence” has
Fig. 219.—Determinate or Cymose
come to be used in works on descriptive
Arrangement.—Wild geranium. botany for the flower-cluster itself. Thus
a cyme or a panicle may be called an
inflorescence. It will be seen that even solitary flowers follow either
indeterminate or determinate methods of branching.
 Fig. 221.—Forms of Centripetal Flower-clusters.
1, raceme; 2, spike; 3, umbel; 4, head or anthodium; 5, corymb.

Fig. 222.—Centripetal Inflorescence, continued.

6, spadix; 7, compound umbel; 8, catkin.