Petroleum Training Academy

PRINCIPLES AND PROCEDURES (P&P)

Course Contents

1. Overview DR-SF-PNP-01 Page 02

2. Introduction to well control DR-SF-PNP-02 Page 06
3. Barriers DR-SF-PNP-03 Page 17
4. Risk management DR-SF-PNP-04 Page 22
5. Causes of kicks DR-SF-PNP-05 Page 25
6. Kick warning signs and kick indicators DR-SF-PNP-06 Page 34
7. Circulating system DR-SF-PNP-07 Page 43
8. Influx characteristics and behavior DR-SF-PNP-08 Page 50
9. Shut-in procedures DR-SF-PNP-09 Page 57
10. Well control methods DR-SF-PNP-10 Page 66
11. Well control during casing and cementing DR-SF-PNP-11 Page 91
12. Well control management DR-SF-PNP-12 Page 94
13. Contingency planning DR-SF-PNP-13 Page 98

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Overview
Objective:
The purpose and objective of this section is to understand the negative and undesirable impact of
a well control event and to recognize the requirement for the well control training and
evaluation.
Well control Incidents
The impact of a well control incident

A “well control incident” is defined as Well Shut-in because of inflow of formation fluid in the well
- confirmed by flow check - with pressure build-up on a closed BOP. The kill method is
determined and implemented.

In recent years there has been an increase in well control incidents. The risk attributed with these
incidents is however stable compared with previous years, since most of them were well control
incidents classed at the lowest risk classification.

To determine the impact from a well control incident, one should consider the following:
Personnel safety, employment, assets, environment, operations, and reputation. The impact
should consider both the initial event and the impact on the safety and the length of time
required for controlling the blowout. While a kick can be controlled, however, a blowout means
lost control of the influx. It may take months to stop the blowout, and it is often accompanied by
the loss of human lives and/or large material, equipment and economical losses.

A well control incident has a high financial & reputational impact on an Operating Company,
environment around & its worker with a loss time event including possible loss of lives & assets.

1. Personnel: As all personnel on-board at drilling site as exposed to risk. Especially at off-shore
installations & Jack-ups escape is a critical factor. Moreover wells with potential poisonous &
flammable gases put extra limits on time & exposure. The accurate response & understanding
of the key personnel can save and an undesired event or an incorrect response can result into
a disaster resulting is loss of lives.

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2. Employment: As the well control incident has overall impact on the complete organization;
not only the exposed personnel will be directly affected, the catastrophic events can result
into loss of employment for all staff as the company may get legal restrictions.

3. Assets: An uncontrolled or not properly responded event can result in loss of not only
expensive well, but it can expand to overall producing reservoir, physical damage to Drilling
Rig and in case of offshore and close-by production facilities, tangible assets as well.

4. Environmental: Uncontrolled flooding of Oil & Gases can directly harm environment with
huge financial and resources penalty for restoration.

5. Operations: Reallocation of resources (human and material), business disruptions, loss of

production/sales, contract problems, litigation, drop in stock value, cash flow disruptions.

6. Reputation: Image Impact: Human causalities, real or perceived environmental damage, wild
life casualties, real or perceived public safety concern, public disruption (evacuation, closed
roads, railroads, air traffic), local government problems, real or perceived liability claims.

The measures that can be taken to reduce potential impact of a well control incident are:

• Improvement of procedures/ documentation

• Increased or improved control/check/verification
• Strengthening well control training and assessment
• Improved work practice/ operational follow-up of barriers
• Improved technical well design

Following is an example of response plan to manage a well control incident:

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Well Control Training and Assessment

Both theoretical and practical training is required to develop competence and to have “the right
person in the right place”,

Let us ask ourselves: "why are we here?"

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We are here to develop:

1. Capability to apply Well Control Skills:

There is a need for more training and practical system competence among the employees in
drilling and well operations, i.e. better knowledge of and familiarity with the technical systems
and barriers used during drilling. This need has increased in line with a lower experience level in
the industry, due to considerable turnover and a steep career ladder.
Attending the IWCF Well Control training course will help the trainees deepen their theoretical
and practical understanding of how to manage wellsite operations and maintain well control at
all times.

2. Reduce the Severity of Impact of Well Control Event

Despite all precautions and preventive measures; still drilling oil & gas wells can face well control
events and the requirement is to reduce the severity of event so that situation can be under
control at the earliest possible. Better understanding & experience on well control situations will
help personnel to achieve this goal.

3. Responsibility to Colleagues:
In addition to our normal job responsibilities; the key drilling personnel have the moral
responsibility to colleagues to protect them and not to let a situation occur that can result
endangering their lives. All of the personnel working in the organization depend on the proper
response from these key personnel which is not possible if they don’t understand the criticality of
their position.

4. Trust of Stakeholders
A better organization with competent personnel at the end will develop the trust of stakeholders
and directly affects the growth of the organizations/companies. A better environment with
minimum or controlled risks will have the tendency to progress in future.

5. Regulatory Requirements
Recent years more regulatory policies and legal requirements have been introduced to have
better control on unlikely events. The supervisors are required to have knowledge and
comprehension of these requirements. Non-conformation may result in legal actions.

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Introduction to Well Control

Objectives:
This section serves purpose to understand the distinctive sorts of pressures associated with Well
Control.
Hydrostatic Pressure

Hydrostatic pressure is defined as the pressure due to the unit weight and vertical height of a
column of fluid.
Hydrostatic Pressure = Fluid Density x True Vertical Depth

Note: It is the vertical height/depth of the fluid column that matters, its shape and volume
inside is irrelevant.

Since the pressure is measured in psi and depth is measured in feet, it is convenient to convert
mud weights from pounds per gallon ppg to a pressure gradient psi/ft. The conversion factor is
0.052.
Pressure Gradient psi/ft = Fluid Density in ppg X 0.052
Hydrostatic Pressure psi = Density in ppg X 0.052 X True Vert. Depth
The Conversion factor 0.052 psi/ft per lb/gal is derived as follows:
A cubic foot contains 7.48 US gallons.
A fluid weighing 1 ppg is, therefore, equivalent to 7.48 lbs/cu.ft.
The pressure exerted by one foot of that fluid over the area of the base would be:

Formation Pore Pressure

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All rocks should have two properties i.e. Porosity & Permeability. The porosity provides the
storage space for fluids and gases however the formation permeability is a measure of how easy
the fluid will flow through the rock.

Formation pressure or pore pressure is said to be normal when it is caused solely by the
hydrostatic head of the subsurface water contained in the formations and there is pore to pore
pressure communication with the atmosphere.
Dividing this pressure by the true vertical depth gives an average pressure gradient of the
formation fluid.
In the absence of an accurate data, 0.465 psi/ft which is the average pore pressure gradient in
the Gulf of Mexico sea water is often taken to be the “normal” pressure gradient because all
formations are considered to have some connection to the sea water. It can be an active
connection or historic stagnant connection.

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Normal Formation Pressure

Normal Formation Pressure is equal to the hydrostatic pressure of water extending from the
surface to the subsurface formation. Thus, the normal formation pressure gradient in any area
will be equal to the hydrostatic pressure gradient of the water occupying the pore spaces of the
subspace formations in that area.

The magnitude of the hydrostatic pressure gradient is affected by the concentration of dissolved
solids (salts) and gases in the formation water. Increasing the dissolved solids (higher salt
concentration) increases the formation pressure gradient whilst an increase in the level of gases
in solution will decrease the pressure gradient.

For example, formation water with a salinity of 80,000 ppm sodium chloride (common salt) at a
temperature of 25°C, has a pressure gradient of 0.465 psi/ft. Fresh water (zero salinity) has a
pressure gradient of 0.433 psi/ft. Temperature also has an effect as hydrostatic pressure
gradients will decrease at higher temperatures due to fluid expansion. In formations deposited in
an offshore environment, formation water density may vary from slightly saline (0.44 psi/ft) to
saturated saline (0.515 psi/ft). Salinity varies with depth and formation type. Therefore, the
average value of normal formation pressure gradient may not be valid for all depths. For
instance, it is possible that local normal pressure gradients as high as 0.515 psi/ft may exist in
formations adjacent to salt formations where the formation water is completely salt-saturated.

The following table gives examples of the magnitude of the normal formation pressure gradient
for various areas. However, in the absence of accurate data, 0.465 psi/ft is often taken to be the
normal pressure gradient.

Average Normal Formation Pressure Gradients

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Formation Pressure Gradient Density (SG) Example area
Water (psi/ft)
Fresh Water 0.433 1 Rocky Mountains and Mid-
Continent, USA
Brackish 0.438 1.01 Most Sedimentary
water 0.422 1 Basins worldwide
Salt water

Abnormal Formation Pore Pressure

Every pressure which does not conform to the definition given for normal pressure is abnormal.
The principal causes of abnormal pressures are:
Presence of Gas on top Reservoir
Gases present on top of the reservoir have the push from the fluid present below. As in the below
picture:

In this example if we drill on top of the gas reservoir will give us the pressure of the Formation
Water present below minus the hydrostatic head of gases. As Gases have very less hydrostatic
head; therefore most the pressure from the below formation water passes to the gas reservoir.
Artesian Well
Another very common high pressure condition is called Artesian Well where the source of the
formation fluid drilled is above the area where new well is drilled. Artesian affects can be due to
fresh water source as well and have affects on long distances.

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Under-compaction in shales:
When first deposited, shale has a high porosity. More than 50% of the total volume of
uncompacted clay-mud may consist of water in which it is laid. During normal compaction, a
gradual reduction in porosity accompanied by a loss of formation water occur as the thickness
and weight of the overlaying sediments increase.
Compaction reduces the pore space in shale, as compaction continues water is squeezed out. As
a result, water must be removed from the shale before further compaction can occur. See Fig 1.4.
Not all of the expelled liquid is water, hydrocarbons may also be flushed from the shale.
If the balance between the rate of compaction and fluid expulsion is disrupted such that fluid
removal is impeded then fluid pressures within the shale will increase. The inability of shale to
expel water at a sufficient rate results in a much higher porosity than expected for the depth of
shale burial in that area.

Tectonic Causes:
Is a compacting force that is applied horizontally in subsurface formations. In normal pressure
environments water is expelled from clays as they are being compacted with increasing
overburden pressures. If however an additional horizontal compacting force squeezes the clays

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laterally and if fluids are not able to escape at a rate equal to the reduction in pore volume the
result will be an increase in pore pressure.

Faulting:
Faults may cause abnormally high pressures. Formation slippage may bring a permeable
formation laterally against an impermeable formation preventing the flow of fluids. Non-sealing
faults may allow fluids to move from a deeper permeable formation to a shallower formation. If
the shallower formation is sealed then it will be pressurized from the deeper zone.

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Diapirism

A salt diapirism is an upward intrusion of salt to form a salt dome. This upthrust disturbs the
normal layering of sediments and over pressures can occur due to the folding and faulting of the
intruded formations.

Reservoir Pressures
In a reservoir with Gas / Oil & Water, The top of reservoir generally develops a high pressure due
the Gas being compressible and bottom layer Water pushes its pressure through low gravity gas.
Moreover reservoirs can have different pressures at different points primarily due to:
1. Depletion or Depleted zones
2. Injection from other water injection well
3. Diagenesis

Fracture pressure

In order to plan to drill a well safely it is necessary to have some knowledge of the fracture
pressures of the formation to be encountered. The maximum volume of any uncontrolled influx
to the wellbore depends on the fracture pressure of the exposed formations.
If wellbore pressures were to equal or exceed this fracture pressure, the formation would break
down as fracture was initiated, followed by loss of mud, loss of hydrostatic pressure and loss of
primary control. Fracture pressures are related to the weight of the formation matrix (Rock)
and the fluids (water/oil) occupying the pore space within the matrix, above the zone of
interest. These two factors combine to produce what is known as the overburden pressure.
Assuming the average density of a thick sedimentary sequence to be the equivalent of 19.2 ppg
then the overburden gradient is given by:
0.052 X 19.2 = 1.0 psi/ft

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Since the degree of compaction of sediments is known to vary with depth, the gradient is not
constant.
To drill a well, the Hydrostatic Head of the fluid in the well is adjusted between Formation
Pressure and Fracture Pressure of the formation. This is to avoid any well flow situation and
damage to the formation.
Formation Pressure & Fracture Pressure limit on Mud Weight

A well is drilled so that Mud Weight should be higher than Formation Pressure and lower than
the fracture pressure. In case multiple formations with different formation and fracture
pressures, they are isolated the Casing Strings and Cementation. Below chart is a guideline how
casing seat selection and maximum & minimum Mud Weights are selected for the different
formations in a well. The below green line should give an ideal mud weight for each section to be
drilled.

Primary Well Control:

It is the name given to the process which maintains a hydrostatic pressure in the wellbore greater
than the pressure of the fluids in the formation being drilled, but less than formation fracture
pressure. If hydrostatic pressure is less than formation pressure then formation fluids will enter
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the wellbore. If the hydrostatic pressure of the fluid in the wellbore exceeds the fracture pressure
of the formation then the fluid in the well could be lost. In an extreme case of lost circulation the
formation pressure may exceed hydrostatic pressure allowing formation fluids to enter into the
well.
When the Hydrostaic Pressure is equal to Formation Pressure it is callled “Balanced Well” but however it is
not a comfortable situation.

If the hydrostatic Pressure is less than the formation Pressure it is called under-balanced. This is
not favorable situation and our primary well control situation is lost.

In the last case when the hydrostatic Press is greater than formation pressure; it is called
overbalance. This is the normal and required situation. However too excessive overbalance may
create losses. Only overbalance of 50 – 200 psi is ideal situation depending on well complexity.

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Secondary Well Control

If the pressure of the fluids in the wellbore (i.e. mud) fail to prevent formation fluids entering the
wellbore, the well will flow. This process is stopped using a “blow out preventer (BOP)” and other
associated equipment to prevent the escape of wellbore fluids from the well. This is the initial
stage of secondary well control also known as Containment of unwanted formation fluids.
Below are reasons why do we lose primary well control:

• Failure to Fill the Hole Properly While Tripping

• Swabbing / Surging - Mud properties, Pulling speed, Annulus Clearance …
• Drilling into zones of known pressure with Mud Weight too low
• Drilling into unexpected abnormal formation pressure
• Lost Circulation
• Insufficient Mud Weight - enough to drill, but not to trip
• Accidental dilution of drilling fluids
• Weighting material (barite) settling out

Secondary Well Control Equipment

Secondary Well Control in this case is complex combination of equipment that stops the
unintentional flow of formation fluids. Below are some of the examples:

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The above mentioned equipment together forms an envelope to control the well. All elements in
the envelope are dependent on each other. Failure of even one can breach the system.

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Barriers
Objectives

To understand the barrier terminology and concept. Define barriers for operations and their
acceptance criteria and contingency plan.

General
Well barriers are envelopes (something that surrounds or encloses something else) of one or
more dependent WBE’s (well barrier elements) to prevent fluids or gases from flowing
unintentionally from a formation, into another formation or back to surface.

Well barrier(s) shall be defined prior to commencement of an activity or operation by description

of the required WBE’s to be in place and the specific acceptance criteria.

Primary well barrier:

• This is the first object that prevents flow from a source.
Secondary well barrier:
• This is the second object that prevents flow from a source.

Well Barrier Element Examples:

➢ Fluid Barriers
➢ Casing and Cement
➢ Drill string
➢ Drilling, Wireline, Coil Tubing, Workover BOP’s
➢ BOP Risers
➢ Wellhead
➢ Casing & Tubing Hangers
➢ Deep set tubing plug
➢ Production Packer
➢ Stab-in Safety Valves
➢ Completion String
➢ X-Mass Tree

The function of the well barrier and number of Well Barrier Elements shall be clearly defined as
per operations.

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• One well barrier in place during all well activities and operations, including suspended or
abandoned wells, where a pressure differential exists that may cause uncontrolled cross flow in
the wellbore between formation zones.

• Two well barriers available during all well activities and operations, including suspended or
abandoned wells, where a pressure differential exists that may cause uncontrolled outflow from
the borehole/well to the external environment.

WELL BARRIER ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA

Well barrier acceptance criteria are technical and operational requirements that need to be
fulfilled in order to qualify the well barrier or WBE for its intended use.
Below is an example of Well Barrier acceptance Criteria for Drilling BOP:

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Well Barrier Testing Program must be defined as well.

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Also in case the well barrier element fails; the subsequent plan must be part of main program.
Further to above example the failure and the subsequent action can be as:

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Documents for Well Test Barriers:

All well integrity tests for barriers shall be documented and accepted by an authorized person.
This authorized person can be the driller, tool-pusher, drilling and well intervention supervisor or
the equipment and service provider's representative.
The chart and the test documentation should contain:
• Type of test,
• Test pressure,
• Test fluid,
• System or components tested,
• Estimated volume of system pressurized,
• Volume pumped

Integrity of Well Barrier Envelope:

While drilling operations; Well barrier must be continuously monitored for their integrity. For
example:
- Annulus pressures of well must be continuously monitored
- Casing Wear must be monitored using ditch magnets

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Risk Management
Objective

The objective of this segment is to comprehend what is implied by the term "risk assessment"
and additionally the diverse methods for Well Control and Emergency Drills and use of checklists
for any operation with well control implications.
Well Control Main Goal

The main goal of well control is to keep the Bottom Hole Pressure (BHP) slightly higher than Pore
Pressure in order to have the full control of the well. Early recognition of the warning signals and
rapid shut-in are the key to effective well control. By taking action quickly, the amount of
formation fluid that enters the wellbore is minimized. Relevant step by step procedure to shut
the well in or divert, as applicable, must be followed. Minimizing kick size is fundamental for the
safety of a WellControl operation.

By Risk Management techniques, we can reduce the severity of incident or can bring it to as low
as possible level or if possible avoid it completely.

Controllable Parameters: Can be Controlled with:

• Degree of underbalance Mud Weight
• Length of reservoir exposed ROP + Kick detection time
• Time well remains underbalanced Kick detection + shut-in time
• Wellbore diameter Hole size

Non-controllable Parameters:
• Formation permeability and type of influx

Implementation of Well Control Procedures

To control the risk of the well control event; all procedures must be followed. Any deviation from
Procedure should be approved by “Management of Change” (MOC) process by line management.
No short-cuts or bypass of procedure can be initiated on-site without proper authorization and
approval.
A simple example requiring MOC is “change in Mud Weight”. If based on operations; it is required
that the Mud Weight is too high and dynamic losses are observed; an MOC is required to reduce
Mud Weight below the planned value as it can create a potential hazard if all factors are not
considered and discussed before reducing Mud Weight. The MOC must mention the reason and
whether it is applied temporarily or permanent during the course of well.
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Well control Drills & Checklists

Purpose of drills is to familiarize the drill crews with techniques that will be implemented in a well
control event. Drills make the rig team more alert to warning signs and promote quick response.
The severity of any well kick can be reduced if it is controlled as early as possible. Rig-Site
Supervisors must be able to recognize the indications of a potential blowout and be able to close
in the well properly in a minimum time to prevent it becoming hazardous. The drills shall be
conducted on scheduled & unscheduled basis and repeated until the procedures are thoroughly
understood. The purpose of the drills is to train and improve the proficiency of the crew and they
must therefore be carried out conscientiously.

The Main Drills include:

- Pit Drills
- Kick Drills
- Trip Drill
- BHA Drill
- BOP Drill
- Choke Drill
- Accumulator Test
- Stripping Drill
- Diverter Drill

Also there should be inspections and checklists for the well control Equipment to ensure that all
equipment is functional and ready to use. Typical checklist must be conducted on:
- Daily
- Weekly
- Bi-monthly&
- Monthly basis.

These entire checklists must be verified by supervisors and must be kept for record purposes.
Anything found not meeting the requirement must be raised immediately and planned to replace
/ changed on priority. Any work on well control equipment should be considered under special
procedure.

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Management of Non-Shearable & Non-Sealable Tubular

The Making-up and running of all non Sealable & Non Shearable equipment in BOP should be
treated as non-routine operations.

- For Non-Sealable Drill String Components; they should not be Made-up across BOP’s as to
reduce time where BOP closing can become a serious issue in case of an unlikely well
control event. These should be Made-up on surface and must be run past the well as soon
as possible.

- For the Non-Shearable components; there must be a barrier defined to close in case of
emergency before running or pulling them. An example is to close the drill collars on
annular BOP with cross-over and safety valve installed on it.

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Causes of Kicks
Objective
Understanding the causes of Kicks that can lead to minimize the size of kick and prevent it from
taking place.
General
A kick is an intrusion of unwanted fluids into the wellbore in a situation where formation pressure
of the reservoir exceeds the hydrostatic pressure in a well. The unwanted fluid (gas, oil or water)
which enters into the wellbore is called an “Influx”.
Causes of Kicks and Influxes

The most common causes of kicks are:

• Loss of Hydrostatic Pressure due to poor understanding, negligence or human error

• Gas Cutting
• Lost Circulation
• Swab & Surge Effects
• Wrong Tripping Practices

Loss of Hydrostatic Pressure due to Poor Understanding, Negligence or Human Error

Failure to Keep the Hole Full During a Trip
If the fluid level in the hole falls as pipe is removed a reduction in bottom hole pressure will
occur. If the magnitude of the reduction exceeds the formation pressure or safety overbalance
factor a kick may occur. The hole must be kept full with a lined up trip tank that can be monitored
to ensure that the hole is taking the correct amount of mud. If the hole fails to take the correct
mud volume, it can be detected.
Factors that Affect Fluid Density
Reduction of Fluid Density or Mud weight can initiate a well control issue. Therefore special care
should be taken to maintain Mud Weight within the required range. Possible causes of reduction
of Fluid Density can be:
- Accidental Dilution of Mud
- Continuous use of Centrifuge
- Gas Cut Mud if not treated

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Hydrostatic Head reduction Operations

The proper understanding of operations which reduce hydrostatic head directly can save us from
serious situations. Few examples are:
- Cement Setting
- Temperature effects on Muds & their Weight or Density
- Settling of Weighing Agent
- Swabbing
Gas Cutting
Gas-cut drilling fluid often occurs during drilling operations and can be considered one of the
early warning signs of a potential well kick: however, it is not a definite indication that a kick has
occurred or is impending. An essential part of analyzing this signal is being able to determine the
downhole conditions causing the drilling fluid to be gas-cut. Gas-cut fluid occurs as a result of one
or more of the following downhole conditions:
1. Drilling a gas-bearing formation with the correct drilling fluid density in the hole (drilled gas);

2. Swabbing while making connections or making a trip (trip or connection gas); and

3. Influx of gas from a formation having a pore pressure greater than the pressure exerted by
the drilling fluid (gas flow).

Drilled Gas.When the hydrostatic pressure exerted by the drilling fluid is greater than the pore
pressure of a gas-bearing formation being drilled, there will be no influx of gas from the
formation. Nevertheless, gas from the drilled cuttings will usually mix with the drilling fluid
causing the returns to be gas cut.
As gas is circulated up the annulus, it expands slowly until just before reaching the surface. The
gas then undergoes a rapid expansion, resulting in the drilling fluid density being reduced
considerably upon leaving the annulus. In some cases this reduction in density can be quite
extreme but it may not mean that a kick is about to occur. Usually, only a small loss in hydrostatic
pressure results because the majority of gas expansion occurs in the top of the hole. Drilling fluid
of proper density is still maintained in most of the hole. Quite often when the drilled gas reaches
the surface, the annular preventer must be closed and the drilling fluid circulated through the
open choke manifold. This prevents the expanding gas from “belching” fluid through the bell
nipple.
If “belching” continues, the hydrostatic head will be reduced due to loss of drilling fluid from the
hole.

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Trip or Connection Gas. After circulating “bottoms-up” following a trip or connection, a higher
level of gas entrained in the drilling fluid returns may cause a short duration density reduction or
gas unit increase. If the well did not flow when the pumps were stopped during

the trip or connection, it can be reasonably assumed that the gas was swabbed into the wellbore
by the pipe movement. These symptoms can indicate increasing formation pressure when
compared with previous trips and connections.
Gas Flow. Influx from a gas zone while drilling is a serious situation. While drilling, the formation
pore pressure must exceed the hydrostatic pressure of the drilling fluid plus the circulating
friction losses in the annulus for gas from the formation to flow into the wellbore. Once influx
begins, continued circulation without the proper control of surface pressures will induce
additional flow, since the density of the hydrostatic column (annulus) is continually lessened by
the flow of formation fluid and expansion of gas.
Liquid-cut Drilling Fluid.
When a permeable liquid-bearing formation having pore pressure greater than the drilling fluid
hydrostatic pressure is encountered, fluid will feed into the wellbore. Depending upon the
pressure differential between the formation and the drilling fluid, influx may be detected by: 1) a
gain in pit volume, 2) lower density returns, 3) a change in drilling fluid chlorides, and/or 4) an
increase in rotary torque. The volume of liquid contained in the cuttings is usually so small that
unless accompanied by gas, it will not significantly affect the drilling fluid density.
Loss of Circulation
Another cause for a kick to occur is the reduction of hydrostatic pressure through loss of drilling
fluid to the formation during lost circulation. When this happens, the height of the mud column is
shortened, thus decreasing the pressure on the bottom and at all other depths in the hole.
The amount the mud column can be shortened before taking a kick from a permeable zone can
be calculated by dividing the mud gradient into the overbalance at the top of the permeable kick
zone.

Lost circulation may occur as partial or total loss of returns. There are a number of signs which,
taken together, indicate that losses are occurring. The most reliable of these is the pit level,
which may either drop or, more probably, fall below an expected trend of increase as gas
expands.
Swabbing and Surging

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Swabbing
Swabbing is when bottom hole pressure is reduced below formation pressure due to the effects
of pulling the drill string, which allows an influx of formation fluids into the wellbore.

When pulling the string there will always be some variation to bottom hole pressure. A pressure
loss is caused by friction, the friction between the mud and the drill string being pulled. Swabbing
can also be caused by the full gauge down hole tools (bits, stabilisers, reamers, core barrels, etc.)
being balled up. This can create a piston like effect when they are pulled through mud. This type
of swabbing can have drastic effects on bottom hole pressure.
The factors affecting swabbing and surging are:

• Pulling speed of pipe.

• Mud properties (Viscosity & Gel Strength).
• BHA balled-up.
• Hole clearance & geometry.

Surging
Surging is when the bottom hole pressure is increased due to the effects of running the drill string
too fast in the hole. Down hole mud losses may occur if care is not taken and fracture pressure is
exceeded while RIH. Proper monitoring of the displacement volume with the trip tank is required
at all times.

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Swabbing is a recognized hazard whether it is “low” volume swabbing or “high” volume

swabbing. A small influx volume may be swabbed into the open hole section. The net decrease in
hydrostatics due to this low density fluid will also be small. If the influx fluid is gas it can of course
migrate and expand. The expansion may occur when there is little or no

pipe left in the hole. The consequences of running pipe into the hole and into swabbed gas must
also be considered.
Pulling Speeds
Tripping speeds must be controlled to reduce the possibility of swabbing. It is normal practice to
run a swab and surge program and to make this information available to the Driller. This will
provide ample information to reduce the possibility of unforeseen influx occurring.
Mud Properties
Controlling the rheology of mud is important. The most critical factors for Swabing & Surging are:
Mud Viscosity & Gel Strength.
Trip Margin
A safety factor to provide an overbalance to compensate for swab pressure can be:

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If swabbing has been detected and the well is not flowing a non-return valve should be installed
and the bit returned to bottom. Flow check each stand. Once back on bottom the well should be
circulated and the bottoms up sample checked for contamination.
Continuous monitoring of replacement and displacement volumes is essential when performing
tripping. A short wiper trip and circulating the well before pulling completely out of the hole will
provide useful information about swabbing and pulling speeds.
Tripping

The tripping process

Prior Tripping Out of Hole, Hole should be clean from cuttings and In/ out Mud Weight should be
same. Same applies for other mud properties so as to avoid and swabbing / surging.

It should be regular practice to make flow checks prior tripping. Also during tripping pipe, flow
checks should be made:
• Just off bottom.
• At the lowest casing shoe.
• Prior DC through the BOP.

If the open hole section is in good condition or pulling through cased hole section; pumping slug
is a good practice. The slug doesnot affect the bottom hole pressure. It serves to have a dry POOH
rather than wet. Following two formulae help in determining slug calculations:

Tripping in or out of the well must be maintained using an accurate log called a trip sheet.
A trip sheet is used to record the volume of mud put into the well or displaced from the
well when tripping. A calibrated trip tank is normally used for the accurate measurement
of mud volumes and changes to mud volumes while tripping.

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When tripping pipe or drill collars out of the hole, a given volume of mud is put into the well for
the volume of steel removed. If the volume required to fill the hole is significantly less than the
volume of steel removed, then tripping must be stopped to ensure the well is stable, and

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consideration given to going back to5 bottom to condition the mud and investigate the cause of
the problem.

If the hole does not take the correct volume of mud, or if the Driller has any doubt, then:
- Flow-Check
- Run the pipe cautiously back to bottom. If flow is too high, Strip pipes through the annular
- Circulate bottom-up of required through choke.

For the wells where swabbing is an issue and have to Trip-out; Pump-out is only option. The
engineers conduct the swab analysis and recommend the pump-out flow-rate. This should be
sufficient to make-up fluid fill as the string is tripped-out.

The reduction in bottomhole pressure for different Dry & Wet Trip can be calculated using below
formulae. These assume the string is tripped-out without filling the hole.

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Normally while Drilling; the pumps are running and there is no chance the Kick can enter inside
Drill String. It will always rise in annulus. However while tripping; there are chances that the kick
may enter string if there is no float valve installed and if the BOP is closed before closing the
string safety valve.

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Kick Warning Signs and Kick Indicators

Objectives
The objectives of this segment are to comprehend the different types of kick warning signs and
indications.
Kick Warning Signs and First Actions
There are a number of warning signs and indications, which alert the drill crew to the possibility
of a kick or an impending kick. Not all the signs will necessarily be observed in any one instance,
though some will be there to provide a "warning flag” to an alert crew.
During Drilling

Kick warning signs while drilling include:

• Increase in Drilling Rate

• Increase in Torque and Drag
• Change in Pump Speed or Pressure
• Change in D - Exponent (For Shale only)
• Change in Cutting size and shape
• Decrease in Shale Density These indications appear on
• Temperature Measurements Bottom’s-up after lag time
• Gas Cut Mud from bit to Surface time
• Connection Gas

Increase in Rate of Penetration

A Drilling Break is one of the first indications that a kick may occur. A Drilling Break is an abrupt
change in drilling rate without changes in WOB and RPM caused by a change in formation type.
Usually Oil & Gas formations being more porous & permeable have high ROP then normal
formations.
Increase in Torque and Drag
Increase in torque and drag often occurs when drilling under balanced. Taken alone, this is not a
reliable indicator in “exploration drilling”. It could be a good indicator in “development” to
characterize a formation.

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Change in Pump Speed or Pressure

This indication is caused as a result of the U-tube effect, caused by light fluids into the annulus.
But a wash out in drill string will cause the same. Also for electrical driven pumps in new rigs
having VFD controls; it is not even noteable.

Change in D - Exponent (For Shale only)

“D” exponent is an indication of drillability & ROP. RPM, WOB & bit size are used to
calculate its value. Trends of “D” exponent normally increase with depth, but in transition zones
between shales & high pressure oil & gas bearing zones, it may decrease with lower than
expected value. Shale density normally increases with depth but decreases as abnormal pressure
zones (uncompacted shales) are drilled.

Change in Cutting Size and Shape

Normally pressured shale: cuttings are small with rounded edges, generally flat. Abnormally
pressured shale: cutting are long and splintery with angular edges.
As differential between the pore pressure and hydrostatic pressure is reduced, the cuttings have
a tendency to shear off walls and fall into hole.

Temperature Measurements
The temperature gradient in abnormally pressured formations is generally higher than normal.
This increase occurs before penetrating the interface. But this parameter is affected by the lag
time.

Gas Cut Mud

The presence of gas cut mud does not indicate that the well is kicking (gas may have been
entrained in the cutting). However, the presence of gas cut mud must be treated as an early
warning sign of a potential kick. Gas cut mud only slightly reduces mud column pressure, when it

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is close to surface. Drilled cuttings from which the gas comes may compensate for the decrease.
The Vacuum Degasser will be run to remove the gas cut.

Connection Gas
Connection Gas is detected at the surface as a distinct increase above the background gas, as
bottom up is circulated after a connection. If connection gas is present, limit its volume by
controlling the drilling rate to have only one batch at a time.

The sudden increase in gas which is received at the bottom’up after the trip-in; is called trip gas.
This has similar affect as connection gas but is more stronger as pumps are stopped for long time.

During Tripping
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The indication of the presence of a kick is:

a) Incorrect Hole Fill Volume Increase

It this indication is not noticed at an early stage, it should become progressively more
obvious. In the extreme case the hole would eventually stay full, or flow, while pulling out.

b) Increased Drag

While Tripping; increased drag can be an indication for the underbalance situation where
hole is falling or tend to cave-in. Flow check and continuous monitoring while tripping is
required.

Action to take on Recognizing Kick Warning Sign

On confirming about the warning sign the driller should:

- Stop Drilling

- Space out the drill string for the BOP

- Stop the pumps

- Monitor the well for flow on the trip tank.

- Communicate with the supervisor.

Kick Indicators
When a kick occurs the surface pressure required to contain it will depend mainly upon the size
of the influx taken into the wellbore. A small kick closed in early means lower pressures being
involved through the kill. Furthermore, it is easier to deal with a kick, which is noticed early and
closed in quickly
Flow Rate Increase
When an influx is flowing into a well with normal circulation in progress, the total volume of
material flowing out of the well increases. A flow sensor, such as a flow paddle system, provides a
means for measuring quite small variations in flow.
There are a variety of return flow sensors that can be used, the flow meter paddle being the
simplest. Today increasingly accurate flow sensors such as the magnetic flow sensor that can give
extremely accurate measurements of flow. When a kick is occurring from relatively low
permeability formations, as a slow 'bleed in', it is unlikely that any variation in flow rate will be
observable on traditional flow sensors.
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Roll and heave on floating vessels can cause considerable variations in flow, which will mask any
small increases in flow rate. Averaging Systems to damp out the effect of movement exist but are
not reliable. If it can be detected, this change in flow rate is a definite sign of a kick in progress.
There are few other possible causes for an increase in flow rate and for this reason, it is
sometimes said that a flow rate increase is the first reliable indicator of a kick in progress

Pit level indicators

Even though pit level measurements can be made manually, it is recommended that a system of
level-measuring transducers is installed (at least one for each active pit) and that the total volume
of the mud in the active pits is continuously recorded. Typical equipment of this type will include
high and low level alarms. These measurements are quite straightforward when drilling onshore,
but on a floating vessel it is difficult to compensate for the fluctuations in pit level caused by the
movement of the vessel.
In all cases it is recommended that mud treatment follows a standard procedure so that any
unexpected variations in pit level are not masked by the changes caused by the treatment. There
are several types of pit level indicator, including swinging arm, Deleval, and sonic sensors. The
most reliable indicator is the human eye.
Any invasion of formation fluid must result in the expulsion of mud from the well, and this shows
up as an increase in surface volume in what is normally, a closed circulating system.
As is the case with flow rate, a gain in pit level may be hard, or impossible, to detect when a slow
bleed-in of fluid occurs. Other factors may mask a change in pit level. Surface additions to the
mud system, or surface withdrawals and dumping, must be done with the Driller's knowledge.
When a continuous addition is being made, for instance seawater ('giving the mud a drink'), the
addition rate should be determined and monitored so that any further increase due to a kick can
be detected.
The addition of significant amounts of material such as barite also changes the total mud volume.
This should be pre-calculated, again the Driller informed of the likely increase, and over what
period such increase will occur. The continuous use of de- sanders and/or de-silters and mud
cleaners on the active system while drilling results in a slow continuous loss of mud. Experience
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with the particular equipment installed on a rig enables an estimate for the rate of loss to be
calculated. Such a continuous loss easily masks small continuous gains. If the Driller does not
know the equipment is running, he will not be surprised that the mud level is steady, hence he
must be notified whenever this equipment is switched on or off. A continuously recording pit
level monitor aids this process considerably, allowing the Driller to see at a glance if any change
in pit level, or in the trend of pit level variation, is taking

place. Visual observation of mud pit level, recorded at regular intervals with notes on additions
and alterations made is a valuable direct reference to what is happening
The drill crew should be made aware of the importance of maintaining an accurate record of
actual pit levels by direct observation and bringing any suspect variation immediately to the
Driller's attention. Recording pit levels electronically on charts allows small changes to be
noticed.

Figure 1: Pit Level Indicator

“Upon Detecting Kicks Communicate immediately”

Trend Analysis for Kick Detection

Below are few examples of the Mud Logs and Driller parameters recorders indicating kick. Better
understanding and looking for signs on the early stages can reduce the severity and better
control of the kick.

The below composite mud log and the estimated pore pressure while drilling shows the CG
(Connection Gas) and POG (Pump-off Gas) started appearing at 4320 m and increased with depth
until the kick detected at 4379 m, on the other hand, the last estimated pore pressure at 4371 m
was due to MWD offset distance.

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Shallow Gas

Kicks from shallow sands (gas and water) whilst drilling in the top hole section with short casing
strings can be very hazardous, as documented by many case histories. Some of the kicks from
shallow sands are caused by charged formations: poor cement jobs, casing leaks, injection

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operations, improper abandonments, and previous underground blowouts can produce charged
formations.

Shallow Gas Preventions & Preparations

Since years, shallow gas blowouts have jeopardized the oil industry drilling operations, killed
many people, and destroyed many rigs. An analysis of well control statistics done by Veritec has
revealed that:
➢ 33% of all gas blow outs: results from shallow gas kicks.
➢ 54% of shallow gas blowouts cause severe damage or total loss of the drilling support due to
the failure of the diverter system.

Shallow Gas is considered to be any gas accumulation encountered during drilling at depth above
the setting point of the first string of casing intended for, or capable of pressure containment.
Shallow Gas generally occurs as normally pressured accumulations in shallow sedimentary
formations with high porosity and high permeability. Drilling through such gas bearing formation
requires extreme caution.

Because of the difficulty in early detection of an influx while drilling top hole sections , the gas,
upon entering the wellbore expands and reaches the surface very rapidly and with little warning.

Shallow gas can be evaluated & planned for the wells by

➢ Shallow Seismic Survey

➢ Shallow Gas Plan Specific To The Rig / Well
➢ Drill A Pilote Hole

The preparation & Preventions for Shallow gas includes:

1. Reserve Of Heavy Mud will be 1 to 2 ppg heavier than the mud weight being used. The
minimum volume will be the calculated annular volume for the section TD.
2. All measuring instruments must be calibrated and in good condition
3. Clear Drilling or Tripping procedure to avoid any loss of Mud & Swab gas

Shallow Gas Procedure

If the well start to flow while drilling

– do not stop pumping
– open diverter line and close diverter
– increase pump speed
– switch to heavy mud (monitor volume)
– raise the alarm
– start evacuation procedure

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As a last option; closing the diverter should be considered and cement should be pumped for
zonal isolation.

Shallow gas flows are often extremely prolific, producing very high flow rates of gas and
considerable quantities of rock from the formation; particularly so when a long section of sand
has been exposed.
A well should not be drilled through a shallow seismic anomaly (bright spot), which may indicate
the presence of shallow gas. If a bright spot is present at the proposed drilling location it is good
practice to move the rig to avoid the hazard. The new drilling location should, if possible, be
located on a shallow seismic shot point. It should be noted that the absence of bright spots does
not rule out the possibility of the existence of shallow gas. Further to this, the absence of shallow
gas in one well of a series drilled from a surface location does not guarantee the absence of
shallow gas in subsequent directional wells drilled from the same surface location.

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Circulating System
Objectives
To comprehend the characteristics of the circulation system and particularly the slow circulation
rates.
Maintaining Mud Properties & Solid control Equipment
The Circulating System along with other functions also maintains the hydrostatic head on the
well. Density of Drilling Fluid called normally as Mud Weight is achieved by adding solids into
mud. Especially barite is added to Mud for raising the Mud Weight. However barite has issues for
settling. If not circulated the weight of the column of Mud will reduce and if the head reduced
below hydrostatic; it can flow as well.
Also the Solid Control Equipment removes/reduces weighing agent along with solids from well
(cuttings). These also result in reduction of Mud Weight. Continuous dilution & treatment of
drilling Mud is necessary for smooth drilling operations.

Circulating Pressure & ECD

The pressure provided by the rig pump is the sum of all of the individual pressures in the
circulating systems. All the pressure produced by the pump is expended in this process,
overcoming friction losses between the mud and whatever it is in contact with:
➢ Pressure loss in surface lines
➢ Pressure loss in drill-string
➢ Pressure loss across but jets
➢ Pressure loss in annulus

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Pressure losses are independent of hydrostatic and imposed pressures. Pressure losses in
the annulus acts as a “back pressure” on the exposed formations, consequently the total
pressure at the bottom of the annulus is higher with the pump on than with the pump off.

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The total pressure on bottom can be calculated and converted to an equivalent static mud
weight which exerts the same pressure.

Equivalent Mud Wt (ppg) = (APL + Pmud) / (0.052 x TVD )

or
APL
Equivalent Mud wt E.C.D = Mud Wt in use + ––––––––––
0.052 X TVD

Where: APL = Annulus Pressure Loss

Pmud = nulus

Circulating pressure will be affected if the pump rate or the properties of the fluid being
circulated are changed.

Relationship between Pump Speed & Mud Weight against Pump Pressure
If Pump Pressure is known for a given flow rate or density of specific mud then new pressure can
be calculated at a new Rate or Mud densiy by following relationship:

Slow Circulation Rates

A Slow Circulating Rate ( SCR) is the reduced circulating pump rate that is used when circulating
out a kick. Well Control Operations are conducted at reduced circulating rates in order to:

• Easier to adjust choke opening

• Reduce risk of equipment failure (less pressure in the circuit, onepump used,...)
• Limit of mud-gas separator (maximum pressure in the mud-gas separator set by the mud
seal height)
• Necessary time to weight the mud (Rig capacity to weight the mud)
• The Annulus Pressure Loss is so much reduced than it can be neglected
• Less variation of BHP if an incident happens and is not detected

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• Reduce the risk of choke erosion
• Reduce risk of over pressuring system if plugging occurs
• Less deviation from the straight line ICP to FCP while replacing

All these factors must be taken into account when deciding at what rate to displace the kick.
However the absolute upper limit for the displacement rate may be restricted by the pressure
rating of the surface equipment, in particular the setting of the pump relief valve. It should be
noted that it is potentially hazardous to displace a kick from the hole when the surface pressure is
close to the relief valve setting.
In order to estimate the circulating pressures during the displacement of a kick, it is necessary to
know the friction pressure in the circulating system at low rates. For this reason, it is useful to
have determined the SCR pressure before a kick is taken. At a given rate of circulation, the initial
circulating pressure can be estimated from the sum of the shut-in drill pipe pressure and the SCR
pressure.
Company policy states that SCRs should be conducted regularly and at least:
• Once per tour (or at 300m intervals during the tour).
• When the bit is changed.
• When the BHA is changed.
• When the mud weight or properties are changed.
The range of circulation rates used will be dependent upon many factors, but should fall within
the limits of 1/2 and 4 barrels per minute. If oil base mud is in the hole, when back on bottom
after a trip, circulate bottoms up before measuring SCRs.
At these relatively low pump speeds the volumetric efficiency of the rig pumps may be
significantly less than at normal speeds used during drilling. It is therefore recommended that the
volumetric efficiency of the rig pumps is checked at low pump speed, such as when pumping a
slug prior to a trip.

Fracture Pressure and MAASP

Objectives
To understand the characteristics fracture pressure & maximum surface pressures

Fracture Pressure
In order to plan to drill a well safely it is necessary to have some knowledge of the fracture
pressures of the formation to be encountered. The maximum volume of any uncontrolled influx
to the wellbore depends on the fracture pressure of the exposed formations.
If wellbore pressure is equal or exceeds this fracture pressure, the formation would break down
as fracture was initiated, followed by loss of mud, loss of hydrostatic pressure and loss of primary
control. Since the degree of compaction of sediments is known to vary with depth the gradient is
not constant.
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As last Casing is theoretically considered to be the weakest point in the open-hole section; so the
Fracture Pressure at the shoe is required to drill the next section.
Leak-Off Tests
The leak-off test establishes a practical value for the input into fracture pressure predictions and
indicates the limit of the amount of pressure that can be applied to the wellbore over the next
section of hole drilled. It provides the basic data needed for further fracture calculations and it
also tests the effectiveness of the cement job.
The test is performed by applying an incremental pressure from the surface to the closed
wellbore/casing system until it can be seen that fluid is being injected into the formation. Leak-off
tests should normally be taken to this leak-off pressure unless it exceeds the pressure to which
the casing was tested. In some instances as when drilling development wells this might not be
necessary and a formation Integrity test (FIT), where the pressure is only increased to a
predetermined limit, might be all that is required.
Leak-Off Test Procedure
Before starting, gauges should be checked for accuracy. The upper pressure limit should be
determined.
1. The casing should be tested prior to drilling out the shoe.
2. Drill out the shoe and cement, exposing 5 - 10 ft of new formation.
3. Circulate and condition the mud, check mud density in and out.
4. Pull the bit inside the casing.
5. Line up cement pump and flush all lines to be used for the test.
6. Close BOPs.
7. With the well closed in, the cement pump is used to pump a small volume at a time into the
well typically a 1/4 or 1/2 bbl per min. Monitor the pressure build up and accurately record
the volume of mud pumped. Plot pressure versus volume of mud pumped.
8. Stop the pump when any deviation from linearity is noticed between pump pressure and
volume pumped.
9. Bleed off the pressure and establish the amounts of mud, if any, lost to the formation.
10. When the trend of the plotted line deviates from the projected straight line, pumping must
be stopped, as leak-off has been obtained, and further pumping may fracture the formation.
11. If leak-off is obtained, shut-in well and record drop in pressure for each of the first 10
minutes after pumping has stopped or as long as a constant pressure has not been observed
(this allows a check for leaks).
12. Bleed off pressure by opening the return line and record the volume bled back and any fluid
lost to the formation.
13. Results of the leak-off test expressed in Equivalent Mud Weight (EMW), maximum
pressure, mud weight and shoe depth will be reported on the daily drilling report and IADC
report.

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P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

The total pressure applied at the shoe is the sum of:

➢ The surface pressure from the pump
➢ The hydrostatic pressure for the shoe depth.

A leak off test determines:

➢ The strength of the new formation
➢ The integrity of the cement job at the shoe.
➢ The pressure at which the formation begins to take fluid in order to calculate:
o The Maximum Allowable Mud Weight or MAMW
o The Maximum Allowable Annular Surface Pressure or MAASP

The Maximum Allowable Mud Weight or MAMW

The fluid density above which leak off or formation damage may occurs with no pressure on
surface.

Maximum Allowed Annular Surface Pressure - MAASP

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MAASP is defined as the surface pressure which, when added to the hydrostatic pressure of the
existing mud column, results in formation breakdown at the weakest point in the well. This value
is based on the Leak Off Test data.

Below is the information as required on Kill Sheet from the Leak-Off Test.

Note: MAASP has to be recalculated whenever there will be a change in Hydrostatic Head on
Casing Shoe i.e. whenever the Mud Weight is changed.
Maximum Allowed Gain or Kick Tolerance
Kick Tolerance is defined as the influx gain which, when circulated out of the well, results in
formation breakdown at the weakest point in the well.

The highest pressure in the open hole occurs when the top of the gas bubble reaches the casing
shoe. The largest bubble we can handle will occur when the pressure in the bubble equals the
fracture strength of the casing shoe.

A few more definitions related to Kick Tolerance are:

Kick Intensity: The increase in mud density required to balance the formation pressure. It can
also be defined as the difference between the kicking formation pore pressure and the current
mud density.

Kick Margin: The difference between the formation strength and the maximum wellbore
pressure gradient when handling a kick.

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Influx Characteristics and Behavior

Objectives
To comprehend the characteristics of influx and its behavior.

Types of Influx
Well influx can consist of gas, water, oil, or any combination of these media. Well influx forms a
slug in the well bore. The slug is usually less dense than the drilling fluid and must be removed
or pumped back into the formation.
Gas
Gas is a highly compressible fluid; the volume occupied depending on temperature and
pressure.
Gas is also highly soluble in oil-base and synthetic- or pseudo-oil-base fluids; therefore, special
care is required for detecting kicks and handling them with these fluids. Since dissolved gas
kicks become an integral part of the liquid phase, these kicks do not behave the same way
as free-gas kicks. Specifically, a gas influx which dissolves is more difficult to detect early, and
gas breakout can occur rapidly nearer the surface. Solubility depends on factors such as
temperature, pressure and fluid composition.
Oil
Oil sometimes exists as single phase but mostly found in combination with gas. If oil only is
present and appear as kick; it is very easy to handle as it doesnot expand and behave just like a
other liquids. However in multiphase flow from formations, oil behavior is complex as it has
dissolved gases at high pressure & temperature.
Water
Water is nearly incompressible; it does not expand to any appreciable extent as pressure is
reduced. Due to this property, pumping and returns rates are equal as a water kick is circulated
from the well bore, provided no further water influx is permitted or fluid is lost. To maintain
constant bottom hole pressure, the casing pressure must be allowed to decline as the lighter
water is displaced and heavier drilling fluid replaces it in the annulus. An increase in drilling
fluid density during a well kill operation also changes the casing pressure. Nearly all water
influxes contain some solution gas, which requires that surface pressures follow a pattern
similar to that seen during a gas kick.

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Boyl’s Gas Law

A scientist named Boyl discovered that for gases Pressure is inversely proportional to Volume.
Increase in pressure of gases result in reduction of volume & increase in volume of gases reduce
the pressure of gas. This is expressed as:
Pressure x Volume = Constant
Or in other words: If at a certain condition it was Pressure P1 & volume V1 of a gas then if we
change Pressure to a new value P2, the Volume V2 will be:
V2 = ( P1 x V1 ) / P2
This is called as Boyl’s Law.
Gas Behaviour
Imagine a hole of 10,000 ft is full of mud and has mud gradient of 0.5 psi /ft in a well that is
normally open to atmospheric pressure. Below diagram explains how 1 bbl influx of gas will
change as travels up from 10,000’ to surface. As the hydrostatic pressure on gas bubble
reduces; it will expand following Boyl’s law.

This shows how 1 bbl of gas becomes 341 bbl on surface in a 10,000’ well.

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Now we consider a well which has 1 bbl gain and is closed or shut-in. Assume that well is closed
containment with no possibility of fracture or losses. As the gas the is lighter than oil; it has a
tendency to migrate within liquid phase. So it will slowly start to rise in the mud column. But as
the well is closed or shut-in; the gas cannot expand. So according to Boyl’s Law; if volume will not
change; gas will carry its pressure as it migrates up the mud column inside well.
Below figure explains how the gas bubble will affect the surface pressure and the bottomhole
pressure as it migrates. It is to be noted that finally – if gas bubble doesnot expand and well is
cosidered as a closed containment – as the bubble will reach surface; the wellhead pressure will
be at the surface and the bottomhole pressure will be the surface pressure of gas + hydrostatic
head.

Gas Behavior in Oil Based Muds

Oil based muds (OBM) are normally used for controlling formation reactivity, preventition of
stuck pipe issues and in High Pressure & High Temperature wells for better stability and mud
properties. However it has an issue with hydro-carbon gases as they are normally dissolved in
OBM. This has a consequence for both:
- The size of influx when it enters into wellbore
- They way it behaves as it is circulated out

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Gas solubility increases with:
- High Pressure
- Low temperature
- High gas density
- Higher percentage of Oil

Kick Detection in Oil Based Muds

• Kicks taken while drilling with OBM may be difficult to detect due to the problems created by
gas solubility in OBM.
• Gas may go into solution during a kick instead of staying as a discrete phase as occurs in
Water Based Mud (WBM)
• When gas saturated mud reaches a depth where pressure / temperature are at the bubble
point, the gas will start coming out of solution causing a very rapid increase in well flow. In
some cases this can unload the annulus resulting in large pit gains and high annulus shut-in
pressures.

In comparison with the same shut in pit gain in WBM:

• The influx in OBM will arrive at surface later
• It will cause a smaller pit gain when it arrives at surface (gas still in solution)
• The pit gain will increase more rapidly when it arrives

If the well has not become underbalanced then:

• Dissolved gas in an OBM does not migrate

• In an OBM the flow check would be static (negative)

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Special Precaution while drilling:
• Gas sensors must be installed
• Supervisor must be notified of any changes in background gas or connection gas.
• No transfer of base oil or OBM from supply boat to the active mud pit.
• Flow-check should be extended to 15 / 30 minutes.

Special Precaution while tripping:

• While circulating when back on bottom, if flow rate or pit gain indicate a kick, consider
completing the bottoms up circulating through the choke
• Circulate influx with current mud weight to avoid excessive overpressure.

Advantages of OBM in Well Control

• Creates less hydrostatic head change on trips when drilling near balance through low
permeability zones – No migration if gas in solution
• Easier to take care of the well while waiting to circulate - No migration if gas in solution
• Lower casing and casing shoe pressures - Maximum Pressure may be Shut-In Pressure
• Less chance of drill string sticking

Comparison between Water Based & Oil Based Mud Gas Behavior

Water Based Mud Oil Based Mud

Easier to detect More difficult to detect
Gas Migrates No Gas Migration
Gas stay as separate phase Gas soluble
On Bottom Bigger Kick Size On bottom smaller Kick Size
Higher Casing Pressures Lower Casing Pressure
Expansion: Slow first then fast Expansion: none first then very fast
after the bubble pont

H2S Behavior in Muds

Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S) is one of the most poisonous of all naturally occurring gases.
It is extremely toxic, explosive and heavier than air. ( H2S = 1.19 SG & Air = 1 SG )
When ignited it burns with a blue flame producing Sulfur Dioxide (SO2), which also cause serious
injury.

Another problem associated with H2S is that it is soluble in water based muds. It behaves similar
to hydrocarbon gas with Oil Based Muds (as explained in last section)

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Influx Migration
So considering the above two examples; gas influx is extremely dangerous even if it is allowed to
expand or contained to expand.

The rate at which gas migrates inside liquid media is expressed as:

The main factors affecting gas migration rate:

1. Size of gas bubble (depend of permeability)

2. Hole Angle
- fastest between 15 and 30 degrees
- after 45 degrees slows down
- zero gas migration in 90° wells
3. Geometry
- S-shaped, Horizontal
- small deviations in wellbore can keep gas trapped
4. Rheology
- Solubility of gas into mud

Horizontal Wells

Horizontal wells normally have following sections:

1. Vertical
2. Kick-off to Hold
3. Tangent
4. Tangent to End of Build
5. Horizontal.

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On initial Shut-in of Horizontal well on gas kick; the pressure stabilizes as:

Normally horizontal wells have long horizontal sections where the TVD is same. If gas enters in
this zone, the influx doesnot have a vertical height. As it is circulated up the well; it only creates
changes in surface pressure when it is passing across build section. The gas expands very fast
after crossing build section.

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Shut-In Procedures
Objectives
To cover the shut-in procedures and techniques and diverter procedures for a surface BOP.
General Principles

When any positive indication of a kick is observed such as a sudden increase in flow or an
increase in pit level, then the well should be shut in immediately without doing a flow check. If
the increase in flow or pit gain is hard to detect then a flow check can be done to confirm the
well is flowing. It is our target to shut-in the well after confirmation of flow as soon as possible to
have minimum gain and subsequently less surface pressures.

Soft Shut-In Procedure While Drilling

Note: Choke in open position while drilling.

When any indications are observed, while drilling, that the well may be flowing, stop rotating the
drill string, raise the drill string with pumps on until tool joint is above the drill floor.
1. Stop pumps and check for flow, if positive:
2. Open choke line HCR valve.
3. Close BOP.
4. Close choke. If the choke is not a positive closing choke then close a valve downstream of
choke.
6. Call supervisors and commence plotting a graph of shut in drill pipe pressure. Check pit
volume gain.

Soft Shut-In Procedure While Tripping

Note: Choke in open position while tripping.

If there is an indication of swabbing and the well flows during a flow check proceed as
follows:
1. Space-out & Set the slips.
2. Install full opening safety valve (Kelly cock).
3. Close safety valve.
4. Open choke line HCR valves.
5. Close BOP.

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6. Close choke.
7. Call supervisor and check pressures.
8. Install inside blowout preventer (Gray valve or Non-Return Valve).
9. Open safety valve.

10. Reduce annular preventer pressure and start stripping drill pipe in the hole.

Hard Shut-In Procedure While Drilling

Note: Choke in closed position while tripping.

When any indication is observed while drilling that the well maybe flowing, stop rotating
the drill string, raise the drill string with pumps on until tool joint is above the drill floor.
1. Stop pumps and check for flow, if positive:
2. Close annular or pipe rams.
3. Open choke line HCR valve.
4. Call supervisor and commence plotting a graph of shut in drill pipe pressure.
5. Check pit volume gain.

Hard Shut-In Procedure While Tripping

Note: Choke in closed position while tripping.

If there is an indication of swabbing and the well flows during a flow check proceed as
follows:
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1. Space-out & Set the slips.

2. Install full opening safety valve (Kelly cock).
3. Close safety valve.
4. Close BOP.
5. Open choke line HCR valves.
6. Call supervisor and check pressures.
7. Install inside blowout preventer (Gray valve or Non-Return Valve).
8. Open safety valve.
9. Reduce annular preventer pressure and start stripping drill pipe in the hole.

Note: After the well has been shut-in n any procedure; it is prudent to line up the annulus
to the trip tank above the annular or rams. This will assist in double checking to see if
they Leak from BOP. Double check that the well is lined up through the choke manifold
prior to circulating kick out. It is responsibility of Driller to confirm BOP is properly
closed and well secured with no leaking components.

If the main secondary Barrier (BOP) is leaking; Driller must activate another barrier to
protect the well immediately.

Shut-in with Casing & Tubing

A similar operation for shut-in while tripping will be performed while RIH Casing &
Tubing Strings. It is to be confirmed that Rams have been changed to proper Casing or
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tubing size prior running & as the tubing & Casing connections are different, therefore a
X-Over from Casing or Tubing to Drill Pipe should be available with Safety Valve
connected. The Casings normally have a float valve unless self-fill float equipment is
used. But for Completions however there can be a more complex situation with Packers
and Completion Accessories; therefore Risk Assessment is required before commencing
normal killing procedure.

In all cases; Driller should have clear instructions to immediately secure the well. All
operations afterwards can be planned according. In cases where any short-cut or
procedure not followed can result in more complex situation.

Well Control while Cementing

In special cases if there is kick while cementing operations; the well has to be shut-in
immediately. As quick further Risk Assessment should be conducted whether to circulate
out the cement and control the well or it has be shut-in until the cement becomes hard.
There is a huge possibility of bad cement job if the well kicks during cement jobs.

Most kick are observed while cementing in two stages. As the cement is heavier than
normal mud; there may have been huge losses that immediately after completing first
stage; the well will start to flow due to less hydrostatic pressure from another higher
formation. In such situations; well must be shut-in and secured and kick should be
circulated as normally same mud should be sufficient and then next 2nd stage to be
conducted.

While casing cement operations; only Pre-loaded Cement Head should be used and Risk
Assessment must be conducted if the the Cement Head has to be opened for any reason.

Wireline Operations
Wireline BOPs can be used for open hole logging operations or cased hole operations with
Shooting Nipple where the Drilling BOPs are installed. A shooting Nipple is normally 7 inch pipe
with option of connecting wireline BOP on top and a 2” circulating connection. Normally the well
is closed on annular BOP with shooting Nipple. It’s length should be such that Bling/shear rams
can be closed at all times. But it cannot hold high pressure as the pressure will increase; the
upward force with increase drastically and may push it out. It has to be secured with chains while
in operation.
These are normally required for:

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▪ Open Hole logging operations (rig on site) where losses or kicks have been encountered
during drilling.
▪ Cement Bond logging with pressure applied to casing. This pressure (generally 1000 psi) is
applied when there are doubts about the cement quality with the normal bond log. It helps
to differentiate between cases of micro-annulus and channeling.
▪ Perforating overbalanced in fields where pressure regime is well known.
▪ Perforating underbalanced or perforating overbalanced where the pressure regime is not well
known requires full pressure control equipment.
Note: In normal circumstances full pressure control equipment operations are performed on
the (fine) monocable, with equipment of reduced diameter to pass through completion
strings. Operations with large multi-conductor cable are not recommended where the
pressure exceeds 1000 psi as the upthrust on the cable becomes significant above these
pressures (greater than 2,000 lbs).

Shut-in procedure during Wireline operations can be described as:

A. Shooting Nipple/Wireline BOPs not Installed

Tool String in Hole

If the well is in a stable condition, logging tools are run without wireline BOP / shooting nipple
installed. After a long logging session the possibility exists, that the hole starts flowing
slowly. Proceed as follows:
1. Stop logging and perform flow check.
2. If the well is flowing, close in the well using annular and strip tools out of hole. Shear the cable
using blind/shear rams if needed but do not cut logging tool.
3. Monitor the pressure build up.

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Toolstring out of Hole
If the well flows whilst the toolstring is out of hole, close in the well with the blind/shear rams.
Kill the well as per “well control procedure while out of the hole”.
B. Shooting nipple / Wireline BOPs Installed

Toolstring in Hole
If the well starts flowing with the logging tool in the hole, the following action shall be taken:
1. Close wireline BOP
2. Monitor pressure build up.
3. Kill well through rig BOP

Toolstring out of hole

When the well flows with no tool in hole; it will be same as above.
Note: Depending on pressures, stripping operations to run DP may be considered for next
operations to kill the well.

Well Control Data Interpretations

As soon as the well is Shut-in; Shut-in Drill Pipe & Shut-in Casing Pressure must be recorded
immediately. A table should be prepared for recording both pressures each minute:
Time Shut-in Drill Pipe Shut-in Casing
Remarks
(minutes) Pressure (psi) Pressure (psi)

This data will give us when the pressure stabilizes. If plotted it should be as below for the water
based mud & vertical wells.

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The pressure stabilization depends on:
• The permeability of the formation. High permeable formations stabilize quickly and low
permeable formations react and respond slowly.
• The difference between Formation Pressure and Hydrostatic Head
• The Type of Mud & its properties

Shut-in Casing Pressure (SICP) is normally more than Shut-in Drill Pipe Pressure (SIDP). This is
because while drilling the influx will always rise in annulus. The annulus mud will have less
hydrostatic pressure than the string. On the other hand the SIDP will reflect the correct formation
pressure and this should only be used for kill mud calculation. The difference in SIDP & SICP
depends on:
• Influx Density: If the influx is gas, there will be high difference but if oil lesser and will be
least with water.
• Influx Height in Annulus: It is directly related to Volume Of Influx Or Kick Size. High
kick volume will give higher difference
• Annulus Loaded With Cuttings Or Clean: In case of drilling with high ROP before kick,
the annulus maybe loaded with cuttings and will give pseudo or false reading (SICP). It
may even read less than Drill Pipe pressure.
• Position Of Bit From Bottom: If the bit is off-bottom and kick is below bit, the SIDP &
SICP will read equal as SICP will read less because of influx height only
• Well Deviation: It affects the SIDP & SICP readings because the difference depends on
vertical height of influx in annulus only. If influx is in horizontal section and donot have
any vertical height; there will be no difference.

Other than above there may be possibility of;

▪ Inaccuracy of Gauges: this has to be cross checked with other gauges
▪ Blockage in Annulus: It’s very difficult to interpret from surface conditions but an anomaly
in SICP can be due to this reason which will further elaborate as will start circulation
▪ Influx in Drill String: This is only possible if the string is bled-off or tripping out of hole
without float in the string.
▪ Trapped Pressure: Any trapped pressure while shut-in the well can give a false reading.
Nothing should be bleed-off after shut-in well to check for trapped pressure as it may lead
to more influx. However there can be more reasons:
- Unexpected pressure caused by injection into another well in same reservoir
- Formation supercharged by heavy mud during drilling

Kick fluid gradient is not required for kill procedure but it can be useful to determine the
magnitude of annulus pressures expected. Also it will help with the planning, handling and
disposal of the influx when it arrives at surface. Below is the range of gradients depending on
fluid condition:

Gas: 0.05 - 0.2 psi/ft

Oil: 0.3 - 0.4 psi/ft
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Water: > 0.4 psi/ft

Observations for the Shut-in Pressures

Float in Drill String
With a float valve into the string, SIDP will read zero or any trapped pressure. To read the correct
SIDP:
➢ Pump into the closed in wellbore through the drill pipe at a slow rate and closely monitor
drill pipe and casing pressure.
➢ When the Casing pressure just begins to rise or the rate of increase of the DP pressure
changes significantly, shut off the pump and record the DP pressure.
➢ This value will be the Shut-In Drill Pipe Pressure.

Pressure Gauges
Reading pressure gauges is also critical as wrong reading will result in wrong interpretation and
incorrect data to kill the well properly. There should be dedicated pressure gauges for reading
SIDP & SICP at choke panel which should have:
▪ A scale to identify even 10 psi range
▪ Accurate and calibrated. Also should be consistent / match with other gauges

Influx Migration
If the SIDP & SICP pressures soon after stabilization will start to increase consistently in both
gauges; this is an indication that influx is gas and its migrating up in the hole. It will directly start
to increase bottom hole pressure.

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Control Influx Migration

- If there is no float in the Drill Pipe; the bottom hole pressure can be restored by bleed-off
from choke reverting back to original SIDP. However in this case; SICP will never come back
to its last Shut-in value – it will be a bit higher as gas has expanded and moved up the
annulus.
- In case there is float in the Drill String; then DP pressure cannot be read. In this case volume
from annulus will be bled-off similar with below formulae. This also required correct
formation pressure information.

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WELL CONTROL METHODS

Objectives
To cover the approaches of well control for fixed rigs, to cover the distinct considerations for
surface rigs and to look at step down graphs for deviated and horizontal wells.
Kill Methods General
The aim of all methods is to keep bottom hole pressure constant and equal to or slightly greater
than formation pressure so that no more influx is taken and displace the current mud in hole to
kill mud. There are three basic methods of Well Control:

❖ The Driller’s Method

❖ The Wait and Weight Method
❖ The Volumetric Method (only required in special situations and gas influx)

There can be situations where the well killing cannot be initiated immediately after Shut-in well.
These include:
- Insufficient weighing material on-board
- Fluid Mixing Equipment Failure
- Unable to circulate due to Rig Equipment or Downhole problems
- Any of the Well Intervention Equipment is Rigged-up

In such cases the well should be controlled to level where the situation can be handled. An
example of this where influx is gas and its migrating. As the migration is an uncontrolled process
so action has to be taken to remove the gas influx first to be out of hazardous scenario and latter
kill the well.
Kill Sheet
After the well has been Shut-in; the following information should be immediately recorde:
- Well Depth
- Shut-in Drill Pipe Pressure
- Shut-in Casing Pressure &
- Gain

With length of Drill String & last Shoe information available; a complete kill sheet should be
prepared. The kill sheet is self explanatory and already has mentioned the critical data required
for each calculation and how it is calculated.

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So following important information will be available from kill sheet after duly filling with all data
and calculating:
- Maximum Allowable Mud Weight (MAMW)
- Maximum Allowable Annular Surface Pressure (MAASP)
- Drill String, Open-hole, Annulus & Complete Well Volume in BBL’s & Pump Strokes
- Time to Pump through Drill String, Open-hole, Annulus & Complete Well
- Kill Mud Weight (KMW)
- Initial Circulating Pressure (ICP)
- Final Circulating Pressure (FCP)
- Pressure drop per 100 strokes as the kill Mud is pumped from Surface to Bottom (Bit)

Maximum Allowable Mud Weight (MAMW)

It is Maximum Mud Weight allowed before to fracture the formation. Below is the formula to
calculate.

Maximum Allowable Annular Surface Pressure (MAASP)

This is the Maximum Surface pressure on Annulus allowed at a certain Mud Weight with kick
inside openhole. It is calculated as:

Kill Mud Weight

Kill Mud is the Mud that is calculated as to be the Mud required to balance the formation. It is
calculated from the Shut-in Drill Pipe Pressure as

This Mud must be displaced in hole to open the well for next operations.

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Initial Circulating Pressure (ICP)

This is circulating pressure expected at the start of kill operation at slow pump rate with the
same mud. It is simply the system pressure loss with well shut-in. That’s why is calculated as

Final Circulating Pressure (FCP)

This is the Slow Pump Rate with new Mud i.e. Kill Mud. This value will be reached when there is
no u-tube effect in hole or simply when the string has been displaced with Kill Mud. It is
calculated as:

Kill Rate
First thing to analyze is the selection of Kill Rate. Kill Rate is selected based on:
- Formation Strength
- Annular Friction loss
- Choke reaction Time
- Pump Rate Limitations
- Well Geometry
- Mud Gas Separator Capabilities

Kill Rate are Slow Circulating Rates and as annular pressure loss is very less on these slow rates;
therefore normally APL is ignored in calculation unless we are exceeding MAASP.
It must be taken into consideration that changing Kill Rate will change all the calculations for
Circulating pressures including ICP & FCP.
To start kill operations; as the Mud pumps are brought to kill rate, the Drill pipe pressure will
continuously increase with increasing Mud Pumps. So to keep the bottomhole pressure constant
during this short interval – when the pumps are brought to kill rate – casing pressure must be
held constant manipulating choke to keep the bottom hole pressure constant. If the casing
pressure will increase; it will increase well system pressure and if it is allowed to decrease below
its original value; then well will go under-balanced and more influx will enter into well.
Similar applies to the case where pumps have to stopped while killing operations. As the
pumping rate will decrease while slowing pumps; Drill Pipe pressure will decrease. So to maintain

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correct bottom hole pressure; Casing Pressure must be held constant by closing the choke as the
pumps stop.
Moreover it applies to the situation where kill rate has to be changed while in circulation. Casing
pressure must be kept constant during the transition between the kill rate change otherwise
bottomhole pressure will change. If Drill pipe Pressure is kept constant instead of Casing
Pressure; then if the Pump rate is increased; bottomhole will decrease as more choke opening is
required. On the other hand if pump rate is decreased keeping drill pipe pressure constant;
bottomhole will increase as choke has to be closed to compensate. Hence always casing pressure
should be taken reference point while braining any change.

Kill Methods
Selection of Kill method depends on availability and system capability to mix kill mud and
behavior of influx fluid. Normally for gases as they start migrating and increasing bottomhole &
surface pressures; it is required to start kill operation as soon as possible.
Driller Method
This method requires two circulations
• During the first circulation:
The influx is circulated out from the well.
• During the second circulation:
The kill mud weight is pumped to kill the well.

First Circulation
The original mud weight is used to circulate the influx out of the well.

➢ Reset the stroke counter.

➢ Bring the pump up to kill speed while holding the casing pressure constant.
➢ Read the pressure on the Drill & Maintain it constant until the influx is circulated out of
the well. (This pressure should be same as Initial Circulating pressure ICP)
➢ Shut-the well maintaining Casing Pressure constant
➢ If no more influx is taken; after shut-in SIDP = SICP

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Drill
Pipe

Casing

Second Circulation
➢ Line up the kill mud.
➢ Reset the stroke counter.
➢ Bring the pump up to kill speed while holding the Casing pressure constant.
➢ Reset the stroke counter after pumping the surface line volume.
➢ Keep the casing pressure constant until KMW reach the bit.
(Or follow the calculated DP pressure drop schedule from ICP to FCP)
➢ When kill mud enters the annulus, maintain Drill Pipe Pressure (This should be FCP)
constant until kill mud is at surface.
➢ Shut-in Well & Analyze pressures. If zero; Open well.

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Drill
Pipe

Casing

Wait & Weight Method

This method involves one circulation. The kill mud weight is used to circulate the influx out of the
well.

➢ Prepare & Line-up kill Mud

➢ Reset the stroke counter

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➢ Bring the pump up to kill speed while holding the casing pressure constant.
➢ Reset the stroke counter after pumping the surface line volume.
➢ Pump kill mud from surface to bit while following a calculated DP pressure drop schedule.

ICP

Normal Kill Slow-

Pump Rate

Shut-in Drill
Drill Pipe
Pipe Pressure
Pressure FCP

Shut-in Line

Surface to Bit Strokes – String Volume

Strokes
➢ When kill mud enters the annulus, maintain FCP constant until kill mud is at surface.
➢ After Kill Mud on Surface, Shut-in Well & Analyze pressures. If zero; Open well.

Note: If Kill Rate (Slow Pump Rate) will be changed, different Drill Pipe Schedule or pressure
drop will result. Below is just a guideline for different pump-rates:

40 SPM
ICP
30 SPM

Drill Pipe 20 SPM FCP

Pressure SIDP
Shut-in
Line

Surface to Bit Strokes – String Volume

Strokes

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Drill
Pipe
Gauge

Casing
Gauge

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Kill Methods Principles
There are few things to points that should be highlighted:
- The maximum shoe pressure is when the top of the influx reaches the shoe

- When the influx is passing the casing shoe, the shoe pressure will decrease.
- The Maximum Casing Pressure will reach when the influx is at the surface.

- For the wells where open hole section is small i.e. String Volume is greater than Open-hole
annulus volume; both Driller and Wait& Weight will produce same Casing Shoe Pressure.

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- However where Open-hole section is long i.e. Open-hole strokes greater than String Volume;
Weight & Weight will produce less Casing Shoe Pressure.

- As the influx crosses the Casing Shoe, there is no increase in Casing Shoe Pressure. It will
decrease further as the kill mud enters the open-hole. So if the MAASP is exceeded after the

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Influx crosses the casing shoe, it will not create fracture at casing shoe. The Casing pressure
then represents the Gas expansion pressure.
- Wait & Weight Method Weight will produce less surface pressures as the formation pressure is
reduced by the kill mud as it leaves the string.
- There can be however a situation where influx is still in open-hole and MAASP is about to
exceed; in this case the only way to cut-down the Annular pressure or minimize the risk of
breaking formation to as low as possible is to reduce the flow-rate / pumping rate. This will
decrease the Annular Pressure loss to minimum possible.
- In the well killing circulations there is always a lag time between the two pressure gauges of
Drill Pipe & Casing Pressure. If choke is operated the transient produced has to travel all the
way down the well and back up in the drill pipe. The Casing gauge responds immediately but
Drill pipe gauge reflects same after 2 second / 1,000 ft (TVD) delay (1 second per 1,000 ft
travel). It should be kept in mind that less action on the choke gives better control.
- It is a condition of Driller’s Method that after first circulation SIDP = SICP which should be the
same as initial shut-in Drill Pipe Pressure. It is because there has been some mishandling or
miscalculation. If this is the case; then either we have to make another cycle with the me mud
or use Wait & Weight Method for second circulation.

Advantages / Disadvantages of Wait & Weight to Drillers Method

Driller Method Wait & Weight Method

Advantages Disadvantages
Can start circulation immediately Longer waiting time prior to circulate the influx
Less effect of gas migration Gas migration might become a problem
Simplicity - Less calculation More Calculations
Able to remove influx even if not enough barite Cutting could settle down and plug the annulus
on board during waiting time
Disadvantages Advantages
Two circulation, more time through the choke One circulation, less time spent circulating
through the choke
Higher Surface Pressure With long open hole, less risks to induce losses
Where open-hole annulus volume is less than Can generate lower pressure on formation near
String Volume; higher shoe pressure the shoe

Horizontal Wells
There are few special considerations about horizontal wells:
– Horizontal wells when Shut-in on kick may have SIDP = SICP as the influx being in the
horizontal section and does not have a vertical height. If SIDP < SICP means that influx is in
build section of the well.
– All calculation for the kill sheet in horizontal wells are similar to vertical well except:
- TVD is used for Kill Mud calculation &
- Step down chart for pumping kill mud from surface to bit requires pressure drop to be
calculated separate for vertical, build and horizontal section. The greatest pressure change

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is for the vertical section. It has less drop in the build section and FCP is normally
achieved as soon as the kill mud reach the maximum TVD i.e. before even it has exit the
bit.

Vertical

Build
Horizontal

Volumetric Method
The volumetric method is only used when both Driller’s and Wait & Weight method cannot be
used. This applies on below conditions:

• String out of hole

• Power or mechanical failure
• String plugged
• Weighting up period very long
• Wash out in the drill string
• String very far from bottom with the kick below the string

So volumetric method is used only if a gas kick cannot be circulated from the wellbore. If no
action is taken, Gas Migration may occur in water base fluids resulting in HIGH surface, casing
shoe and bottom hole Pressures. To maintain Bottom Hole Pressure “constant” the Volumetric
method allows the gas to expand as it migrates to surface. This method cannot be used with the
OBM due to the gas solubility in OBM, the influx does not migrate. In other words it can be said
“It’s a Driller’s method without circulation”.

With the volumetric method, the bottom hole pressure is maintained slightly in excess of the
formation pressure following predetermined steps while the gas is allowed to expand as it
migrates to surface. The volumetric method only brings the gas to surface. To remove this
gas, the lubricate and bleed method must be implemented.

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Volumetric Method with Drill Pipe Communication in the Hole

If the well is shut-in with the Drill pipe is in the hole and have a communication as well with
annulus (without float); however it is not possible to circulate due to rig problems or other issues.
Moreover it is noticed that gas is migrating then we have to use following simple steps:

o The DP gauge should be utilized, keeping 100 psi above initial Shut-in pressure for a safety
factor.
o Maintain the new DP pressure constant by bleeding mud from the annulus through choke
until the gas reaches surface.
o Then Lubricate and bleed.

Volumetric Method with no Drill Pipe Communication, Off Bottom or Out of Hole

If a non ported float valve is installed in the drill string, or the drill string becomes plugged when
on bottom, is off bottom or out of the hole and gas migration is apparent, the situation becomes
more complicated.
The procedure would be as follows:
o Monitor casing pressure allowing it to increase approximately 50 - 100 psi above the original
shut-in casing pressure for an overbalance (safety margin).
o Calculate the hydrostatic pressure exerted by each barrel of mud:

- If the DP is inside the hole, the hydrostatic pressure per barrel of mud is:

Hydrostatic Pressure per bbl (psi / bbl) = Gmud (psi/ft) / CapOH/DP (bbl/ft)
Where: Gmud is the mud pressure gradient.
CapOH/DP is the annular capacity between open hole and drill pipe.

Note: the actual location of an influx volume is not known, therefore the conservative
practice is to assume it is in the tightest space where the maximum hydrostatic pressure
changes (mud for gas) will occur.

- If the DP is out of the hole, the hydrostatic pressure per barrel of mud is:
Hydrostatic Pressure per bbl (psi / bbl) = Gmud (psi/ft) / CapOH (bbl/ft)

CapOH is the annular capacity between open hole and drill pipe.

Monitor the casing pressure while allowing it to increase an additional 100 - 150 If gas is
migrating, the casing pressure will climb. Calculate the volume of mud in the annulus which
would contribute a hydrostatic pressure equal to the selected casing pressure increase. This
can be accomplished by using the following formula:
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Volume to bleed from annulus in bbls = Casing pressure increase / HP per bbl
o Hold the casing pressure constant until the volume of mud calculated is bled off into the trip
tank or a calibrated tank. Keep a record of time, pressures and volumes bled.
o Repeat this sequence of allowing casing pressure increases and then bleeding a calculated
volume of mud until gas reaches the surface.
o Once the gas is at surface, stop the bleeding process - this is the end of the volumetric method.
If gas is bled from the annulus at this point, the BHP will drop below formation pressure
and another influx will result.

When the gas reaches surface, the lubricate and bleed method must be implemented to remove
the gas bubble from the annulus.
Lubricate and Bleed Method

Key elements of Lubricate & Bleed Method are:

- Establish the safety margin

- Lubricate fluid into the well
- Bleed off the equivalent hydrostatic pressure of the lubricated fluid
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- Repeat the process.

With gas at surface after the use of the volumetric method, mud needs to be lubricated in the
annulus as follows:

o Slowly pump a selected volume of mud into the annulus to achieve as an example 100 psi BHP
increase.
o Allow time for the mud to fall through the gas by gravity. The casing pressure may increase
slightly due to the gas being compressed by the mud being pumped in.
o Reduce casing pressure by 100 psi (in this example), by bleeding gas from the annulus. If mud
starts coming back, shut the choke and wait for the gas to work its way up to the surface
before continuing to bleed. If mud has been bled off together with the gas, this volume of
mud must be additionally re-lubricated in the next step together with the selected volume of
mud per each lubrication.
o Repeat until all the gas has been bled off from the wellbore.

A small tank must be ready to collect mud inadvertently bled off from the annulus.

Stripping

During operations on a drilling or producing well, a sequence of events may require tubing,
casing, or drill pipe to be run or pulled while annular pressure is contained by blowout
preventers; such practice is called “stripping”. Stripping is normally considered an emergency
procedure to maintain well control. Stripping through annular preventers is recommended
because tool joints and specific coupling designs can be stripped through the annular preventer
without opening or closing it.

However, ram type BOPs or combinations of rams and annular BOPs are also employed when
pressure and/or configuration of the coupling or tool joint could cause excessive wear if the
annular BOP were used alone.
Important points to note when stripping in are as follows:

• Install an inside BOP above the full opening safety valve or pump a drop in check valve. Open
the full opening safety valve prior to stripping and make sure the inside BOP is not leaking.
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• Have an additional full opening safety valve available on the rig floor during stripping
operations.
• In order to preserve the integrity of the sealing element of the annular:
o Remove all drill pipe / casing protectors.
o Lubricate the string with grease and / or pour oil on top of the annular. Ensure the
tool joints are smooth.
o Apply the lowest practical closing pressure to the annular preventer while avoiding
leakage. Watch the flow line for any leakage. Any returns are to go back into the
trip tank.
• Accurately measure and record mud volumes bled-off using the trip tank via MGS. If available,
a separate stripping tank should be used. Possible expansion of the influx volume due to
migration and the effect of running the string into the influx are to be taken into account.

• Keep the string full. The string should be filled from the trip tank. Measure and record mud
volumes used to fill the string.
• Plot the casing pressures vs. stands run on graph paper and check for significant change of
slope in order to try to identify when the string has entered the influx.

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• The packing element of an annular preventer must be allowed to “breathe” slightly when a
tool joint passes through it (this can be accomplished by reducing the closing pressure on the
annular BOP). Recommended BOP closing pressures can be obtained from the manufacturer's
BOP operating manuals. A surge bottle connected to the closing line of the annular preventer
will improve effective BOP control during stripping tool joints through the annular preventer;
adjust its precharge to the required value before starting the stripping operation. Stripping
tool joints at slow speeds reduces surge pressures and prolongs the packing unit life.
Stripping speeds should not exceed 2 ft/sec. It is also recommended to vent the opening
chamber control line of the annular preventer to improve stripping tool joints through the
preventer.

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It is important that the correct procedures to be used are implemented as soon as possible in
case of a kick while stripping. A “Strip Sheet” should be prepared during this type of well control
operation.

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Procedures concerning the combined stripping and volumetric method are discussed for the
following conditions:
Stripping Through Annular Preventer

This operation involves the use of the annular preventer only.

1. After shutting-in the well, record SICP and determine the volume of the influx.

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2. Install a surge bottle (11 gal) on the close side of the hydraulic system.

3. While preparing for stripping, allow the SICP to build-up to Pchoke:

Pchoke= SICP + Psaf + Pstep

Where Psaf (psi) is the allowance for loss of hydrostatic pressure as the influx rises from
below the bit to around the DCs, calculated as below:

Psaf = ((Volume Influx/OH-DC Capacity) – (Volume Influx/OH-DC Capacity)) x (Gm –Ginf)

Where Gm & Ginf are Gradients of Mud & Influx in psi/ft; Volume in bbl & Capacity in bbl/ft.

Pstep is the working pressure per increment

Convenient values of Pstep are between 50 -100 psi, bearing in mind the scale divisions of
available pressure gauges.

4. Reduce the closing pressure of the annular preventer until it starts leaking (this will minimize
wear and tear of the rubber element).

Note: File off sharp edges and tong marks on tool joints, and grease tool joints

5. Commence stripping. Without bleeding off any mud allow the choke pressure to build up to:

Pchoke = SICP + Psaf + Pstep (psi)

6. Once the required choke pressure is reached, Pchoke is kept constant while drill pipe is stripped
in the hole. Excess pressure is bled off via the choke manifold into the trip tank. If the influx is
entirely liquid (water for example), the volume of mud bled should be equal to the closed-end
displacement of the stripped-in drill pipe.

If the influx is all or in part gas, the volume of mud bled should be greater than the closed-end
displacement of the stripped-in drill pipe because of the gas expansion due to the gas
migration. This will result in some hydrostatic pressure loss that must be compensated for as
follows:

Continue stripping in maintaining Pchoke until the total volume drained to the trip tank exceeds
the closed-end displacement of the stripped-in drill pipe by an amount Vstep calculated as
below:

Vstep (bbl) = Pstep x CapOH/DC÷ Gmud

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7. Once the measured excess volume equals Vstep, the choke is closed and the choke manifold
pressure is allowed to rise by Pstep by means of stripping drill pipe in the hole. The closed-end
pipe displacement volume should not be bled off during this phase of the operation.
It is recommended to strip the complete stand in the hole for each phase of the operation
(e.g. whilst maintaining Pchoke constant, or when increasing Pchoke by Pstep) to simplify the
bleeding off process and to improve the accuracy of differential volume measurements which
directly results in improved bottom hole pressure control. As a result of stripping the
complete stand, higher than required choke pressures will occasionally be obtained which
should be taken into account when the next pressure increment is added. Safety factors to
obtain sufficient overbalance, in particular when the drill string enters the influx are
incorporated in this killing method.

8. Steps 5, 6 and 7 are repeated as often as necessary, until one of the following situations
arises:
- The bit is back on bottom.
- Gas has reached surface.
- Stripping is no longer possible (excessive pressures, BOP stack problems, open hole
resistance, etc.)

Note: The annular element will probably need to be changed once the well is killed.
Stripping Through Ram Preventers

This operation involves the use of two pipe rams. As in all stripping operations, the location of
the tool joint in the BOP stack must be known at all times.
To prevent premature damage to the ram preventers, the closing operating pressure should be
reduced to a minimum. When a tool joint reaches the lower set of closed rams, the upper set
must be closed. The pressure between the rams is then brought up to the current well pressure
and the lower rams are opened allowing a tool joint to pass through. When the next tool joint
approaches the upper rams, the lower set of pipe rams are closed and the pressure between the
two sets of rams is bled off and the upper rams are opened allowing a tool joint to pass through.
This process is repeated alternating stripping through one ram then the other until the pipe
reaches bottom.

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Well Control While Casing & Cementing

Running Casing
There are many aspects to take into account, relating to well control while running casing, which
lead to special precautions to be taken. Additionally, kicks occurring while running casing are
more complicated to handle.
Maintenance of Fluid Column:

When running casing, primary well control will be maintained by keeping sufficient fluid height in
both the casing and the annulus.
Precautions to Take when Running Casing:

• On a rig with a surface BOP stack, if the casing is run in a section with a potential hydrocarbon
bearing formation, the upper pipe rams should be changed to casing rams and pressure tested.
• If a liner is run, the installation of casing rams is not a requirement. However, when the liner
length is longer that the cased hole depth, it is highly recommended to change the upper pipe
rams to casing rams.
• Have a circulating head readily available.
• A suitable cross-over (from casing to drill pipe thread) shall be made up to the Inside Blowout
Preventer (IBOP) and be readily available on the rig floor.
• When running casing into a hydrocarbon bearing zone, install two (2) non return valves in the
casing string.
• The casing should be filled every joint as time allows, and should be topped up completely
every 5 joints. Use clean mud and ensure that junk does not fall into the casing.
• Automatic-fill float equipment is to be tripped closed prior to reaching the open hole.
• Differential or automatic fill float equipment will not be used when running casing through or
into hydrocarbon bearing zones, since the casing is open to the surface.
• Calculate the maximum casing running speed to minimize surge pressure onto the formation.
• A record of the mud tank level is necessary and should be compared with the calculated
volume increment due to the metal displacement of the casing.
• In case of a kick while RIH casing, if the casing shoe cannot be pulled above the shear / blind
rams, the casing rams should be closed for shut in.
• When running slotted liner or sand control screens, a contingency plan is required in case of
the well flowing.

Complications that may be experienced if a kick is taken while running casing:

• Depending on the length of casing in the hole (and especially if the casing is floated), the
annulus pressure may tend to force the casing upward, in which case it must be tied down and
filled with drilling fluid immediately.
• The combination of tension forces and annulus pressure acting on the casing may cause its
collapse.

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• Because of the reduced annulus clearance when running casing, the danger of lost circulation
due to the applied surge pressure has the potential for a subsequent underground blowout.
Also, as a consequence of the reduced annulus clearance, even a small kick will result in a
significantly longer influx height. Hence, a large hydrostatic pressure reduction takes place,
which leads to substantially higher annular pressures when compared to a kick taken while
drilling. The mitigation actions will depend on the loss rate:
- Minor Losses: Have to keep the Casing and annulus filled to maximum possible. Also
reduce the RIH speed to control surge pressure monitoring return
- Major Losses: Same precautions for minor losses. There should be enough volume
available to meet the losses and to check for any possibility to reduce fill-up Mud Weight
depending on formations exposed
- Total Losses: Total losses require close vigilance. Casing fill-up volume must be pumped.
Hole should be filled intermittently from annulus. As last resort if mud volumes is a
limitation; pump the fluid available on-board.
• Due to the reduced annulus area, the ECD during circulating/cementing can be substantial and
can lead to formation breakdown and subsequent kick.

Note: well kicks occurring while running a liner can be dealt with in a conventional way (strip to
bottom and implement Driller’s method) as drill pipes are likely to be across the BOPs.
Shut-in Procedure during Casing
Following steps should be followed while well flows while RIH Casing:
1. In case of doubt with casing displacement while RIH; stop and Flow-Check
2. If floats are activated then proceed to step 3. If Floats are self filling; drop the activation ball
which has to be pumped down.
3. If a Cross-Over from Casing to Drill Pipe connection is available; then it should be first
priority with Full-Open Safety Valve for Stripping otherwise install circulating head with ball
valve and shut-in valve
4. Space-out for closing BOP & Close Casing Rams if installed otherwise close Annular BOP
(annular pressure to reduced for large size Casing sizes to avoid collapse of Casing)
5. Open HCR & Record Pressure
6. Well Kill procedure will follow depending on situation

Cementing Operations
Kicks have been experienced both while and after placing cement.
While displacing cement, care should be taken to maintain an overbalance at the bottom of the
hole at all times. A kick may occur at a point in time while displacing substantial light weight
spacers. The cement design must ensure an overbalance at the bottom of the hole in both static
and dynamic conditions throughout the cement job.
After displacing cement, when the slurry sets, it passes from a liquid phase, over time, to a stage
of hardness measured in compressive strength. During this transition time, the cement slurry
thickens and solidifies. As this occurs, the hydrostatic head dissipates and the static gel strength

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of the cement increases. The greatest risk for a kick to occur is encountered during this transition
time. Minimizing the transition time of cement slurry is critical for reducing a kick occurrence.
Importance of Successful Cement Job
Successful cement job is critical for life of well as it will be a permanent barrier in the well. The
following factors affect the quality of cement job:

• Verification of Cement Location: Cement should be placed across the zones where isolation is
required and this should be verified by wireline logging &testing
• Expected Pressure Profile to Maintain BHP Greater than Pore Pressure and Less than Fracture
Pressure: Design of job and Weight of cement should be selected according to Pressure
profile for the formations so it can stay in its position. A combination of Lead (light) and Tail
(heavy) cement slurry can be chosen according to the requirement and meet the target.
• Expected Returns: Should have continuous and complete return for success of cement job. If
cement reaches back to surface; it’s a good sign. Monitoring of returns will provide us
expected “Top of Cement” in the well in case of losses.
• Correct Weight and Quantity: While Pumping correct weight of cement should be observed as
it is directly related to quality of cement job
• Expected Setting Time: The setting time of cement is a risk. If too low; cement can settle while
pumping and if too high can lead to contaminations and poor cement bond
• Plugs Bump At Expected Volume: If cement plugs are bumped as planned; it gives a clear
indication that job executed to the required level and all volumes are pumped.
• No Back Flow: It verifies that Floats are holding and after there is no chance of cement u-
tubing or movement in annulus
• Verification of Cement Seal: Wireline logging operations must be run to evaluate cement
bond & cement quality to ensure that zones that need to isolated have been achieved or not.
Also it will identify any week portion or when there is a remedial job required. The pressure
test will further ensure for any movement of material behind casing or channeling.

Poor Cement Jobs

A poor cement job will eventually result in communication & movement of fluid behind casing
and breach of well barriers. If formation fluid enters the casing annulus it can be detrimental for
inner and outer casings as the inner casing can collapse due to trapped pressure; outer can burst
and shoe of the last casing or any weak formation can be damaged. This will further create
problems as the cement degrades during the life of the well.
Shut-in Procedure during Cement operations
A brief description of closing procedure was discussed in Shut-in Procedures section. Securing
well is always first priority. Normally while Cement jobs; the Casing is already on final Depth and
Landing joints spaced-out for closing BOP’s. Mostly well flow occurs while cementing either for
two stage cement or prior lift BOP to set Casing Slips. Usually Cement being heavier than Mud;
does not kick. Well kicks only as it goes to losses.

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Shut-in Well during cementing depends on which stage of operation a kick is encountered.
Securing well has to be done by activating BOP or WellHead valves as required. Further killing
procedure also needs to assessed according to the risks involved and well condition.

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Well Control Management

Well Control Drills

General

As a part of Risk Assessment, Drills simulating real situations improves the responsible person’s
reaction. All concerned personnel should be familiar with the well control system components
and installation and capable of reacting quickly and efficiently to potential situations requiring
their use. Drills should be documented, executed, repetitive, and followed-up to correct
identified problems. Drills should be clearly announced so all concerned know that a drill, not an
actual event, is taking place. Drills generally enhance the crew proficiency in well control
situations. When the desired proficiency is attained, periodic drills should be continued to
maintain performance. The following drills, frequency, and proficiency levels are considered
desirable for drilling operations.
Pit Drill
During a routine operation, the rig supervisor should simulate a gain in pit drilling fluid volume by
raising a float sufficiently to cause an alarm to be activated. If automatic equipment is not
available, the drills may be signaled by word of mouth. The drilling crew should immediately
initiate one of the four procedures discussed in On-Bottom Drill, Tripping Pipe Drill, Drill Collars or
Tool Joint in the BOP Drill and Out of the Hole Drill below, depending on the operation at the
time of the drill. A pit drill is terminated when the crew has completed the steps up to, but not
including, closing the BOPs. The supervisor initiating the drill should record response time, which
should be one minute or less.

BOP Drill

This drill includes all steps of the pit drill in last section but is continued through all the steps of
closing-in the well. The drill should be repeated on a daily basis until each crew closes-in the well
within a span of two minutes. Thereafter, the drill should be repeated weekly to maintain
proficiency. Following are simplified drill outlines that should be modified for the specifics of the
particular rig, equipment, and operation.

On Bottom Drill

This drill should be carried only to the point of driller recognition, signaled by raising the Kelly/top
drive and pump shutdown. This is to avoid the danger of stuck pipe.

1. Signal given.
2. Stop drilling or other operation.
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3. Position the drill pipe for the BOPs while sounding the alarm.
4. Stop pump.
5. Check for well flow.
Trip Drill
Drills while tripping drill pipe should be performed after the bit is up in the casing. A full-opening
safety valve for each size and type connection in the string must be open and on the floor ready
for use. Safety valves must be clearly identified as to size and connection to avoid confusion and
lost time when stabbing.

1. Signal given.
2. Position the upper tool joint above the floor and set slips.
3. Stab the full open safety valve on drill pipe.
4. Close the drill pipe safety valve.
5. Close the BOP.
BHA Drill
Preparation for this operation must be made in advance. Prior to reaching the drill collars or
bottom-hole assembly when pulling out of the hole, the appropriate crossover sub must be
placed on a single joint of pipe. A full open safety valve is then made-up on the top of the joint of
pipe. Flows that occur with drill collars or the bottom-hole assembly in the BOPs are generally
quite rapid since they are usually the result of expansion of a gas bubble close to the surface. A
joint of pipe picked up with the elevators is usually easier to stab and make-up than a safety valve
alone. Under actual kick conditions (other than drill) if only one stand of drill collars or the
bottom-hole assembly remained in the hole it is probably faster to simply pull that last stand and
close the blind rams.

1. Signal given.
2. Position the upper drill collar or tool joint and set the slips.
3. Stab the full open safety valve made up on one joint of pipe with the appropriate crossover
sub onto the drill collars or tool joint.
4. Lower the collars with joint of pipe into the hole.
5. Close the drill pipe safety valve.
6. Close the pipe rams above the pipe tool joint.
Out of Hole Drill
1. Signal given.
2. Close the blind rams.
Choke Drill
Choke Drill is performed after Casing is set and cemented. Before drilling cement inside casing and after
testing Casing; the well is shut-in and a positive pressure is build-up inside casing with Mud Pumps similar
to well shut-in on kick.

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This drill requires to circulate mud with well shut-in similar to the first circulation of driller method. The
circulation is started keeping Casing pressure constant and then Drill Pipe pressure is maintained at a
prescribed rate. Same applies to Shut-in well keeping Casing Pressure constant.

This drill establishes equipment performance and allows the crew to gain proficiency in choke
operation. It develops hands-on experience and sense in crew to handle real kicks and follow correct
killing procedure.

Stripping Drill
Stripping Drill is also performed same like Choke Drill with Casing tested and before drilling cement inside
shoe. However in this Drill few stands are RIH with the well Shut-in.

Well is shut-in with Bit off-bottom and a pressure is generated in Casing by mud pumps. Then Driller has
to strip next few stands of Drill Pipe in closed well on Annular BOP keeping Casing Pressure
constant watching for the volume to bleed-off while RIH and filling Drill Pipe.
Moreover Annular BOP is regulated to control the Drill Pipe movements and allowing tool joints
to pass through rubber element.
Diverter Drill
It is performed while drilling surface hole when Diverter is installed. A shallow kick is simulated
and driller response in recorded:

• With String on Bottom & Pumping; Stop Rotation

• Sound Alarm
• Open Diverter Valve
• Close Diverter
• Confirm return diverted and inform supervisor
Accumulator Test
Accumulator tests are conducted on the time of BOP installation or with complete unit connected
to BOP on Stump. Only pre-charge for the accumulator bottles should be checked prior
pressuring and R/U Accumulator unit.
➢ After R/U; first test to function Annular & Ram BOP’s and HCR Valves for proper opening
and closing as operated. Also closing time for each Ram and annular is recoded.
➢ The second test is to isolate the Charge Pumps for Accumulator Unit and All BOP’s are
closed and HSR opened and the remaining pressure on unit is recoded. It should be 200
psi above pre-charge
➢ The third test is to isolate accumulator bank and Annular is closed on the smallest size of
pipe available plus the HCR is opened. Time is recorded till accumulator pressure raise
back to 3000 psi with charge pumps running alone. It should be within 2 minutes.

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MAASP while Killing Operation

As discussed under “Leak-Off Test” & “Kill Methods Principles”; value of MAASP is normally
based on leak-off test data with the assumption that the formation below the last casing shoe is
the weakest point in the well. This assumption must be reconsidered if losses or weaker zones
are encountered in subsequent drilling.
MAASP is a bit different concept in well control. The name implies that surface pressure should
not be allowed to exceed some present value. In Kill Methods; sufficient pressure must be
applied to stop further influx of formation fluids into the wellbore and during this if surface
pressure exceeds MAASP! What is to be done?
During well control operations, it is most important that the position of the influx, in relation to
the last casing shoe (or the weak point) must be monitored. If the influx is below the last casing
shoe and the surface casing pressure approaches the MAASP then reduce the circulation rate to
the lowest possible. To do so, shut the well in and restart with a slower SCR and a consequently
lower Initial Circulating Pressure (ICP).
Once the influx has passed the casing shoe, the MAASP based upon the leak-off test data (or the
weak point fracture gradient) is no longer relevant. In this case, the MAASP will be based upon
the pressure ratings of the following:
• Innermost casing string.
• Wellhead equipment.
• BOP and related surface equipment.
• Other equipment directly exposed to well pressure.

If MAAS is exceeded while killing operation; it can be identified by:

• Deviation of annulus pressure (followed by the drill pipe pressure) below expected values
• The unplanned closure of the choke to maintain drill pipe pressure.
• Decrease in well returns (Losses).

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Contingency Planning
Objectives
The purposes of this segment are to understand the preeminent actions to be taken for each
surface problem.
Well Control Complications
While controlling a kick with the Driller’s and the Wait and Weight methods, the pressures
observed may diverge from the expected values. In such a case, or when in doubt, the first
response should be to stop the well control operation and shut in the well. A proper analysis
should then be carried out to investigate the causes of such differences. For guidance the
following table gives some indications:

Casing
Problem DP Gauge BHP To Do
Gauge
Drill String Sudden Record the press increase.
Partially Increase & This will be new DP press
Plugged or A then No change No Change for the killing procedure
Bit Nozzle constant with the restriction in
Plugged without drop string
Stop Pump & Close Choke
Drill String or Casing immediately to stop any
DP pressure BHP will drop if
Bit Pressure more influx coming to well.
continues to choke not
Completely starts to String either has to be
increase closed
Plugged decrease perforated or Volumetric
Method to be used
Sudden Record the press decrease.
Loss of a Bit Decrease This will be new DP press
No change No Change
Nozzle and then for the killing procedure
stabilize with the lost nozzle
Shut-in Well. If SIDP=SICP
then Influx still below
Slow wash-out. Use Volumetric
Drill String Decrease if no
continuous No Change Method. If SICP>SIDP;
Washout action on choke
decrease Influx is above washout.
Continue with kill will new
Circ rate.
Pump or Decrease Decrease Decrease if no Stop Pump & Line-up

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Surface afterwards action on choke another pump
Circuit
Failure
Shut-in Well. Prepare an
Surface Sharp Decrease if no
Decrease alternate pumping
circuit Plug Increase action on choke
arrangement
Increase
Stop Pump before
after first
exceeding MAASP. Bleed-
Choke Plug reaction of Increase Increase
off trapped Pressure and
Casing
Line-up to second choke
Gauge
Decrease
Try to close choke. Even if
after first
Choke Was- still Casing Press further
reaction on Decrease Decrease
out decreasing; Close Choke
Casing
upstream valve
Gauge
Decrease or No First try to unplug and
Annulus Continuously become zero Communication work on String. If no
Plugged Increase if annulus as annulus success; locate String Free
collapsed plugged Point. Back-ff & Side-Track.

The above is guideline only. The decision on-site will be taken as per real circumstances.

Few more complications and the way they should be addressed are:

Pressure Gauge Failure during Kill

Gauges are the indicators of well downhole conditions. All decisions, evaluations, judgments and
further plans depend on the reading of these gauges. If the gauges are not reading correct,
direction will be lost to solve the problems and would become complex. We should have cross-
reference gauges for the same pressures to keep a check. A gauge can be identified as
malfunction if:

- Lack of sensitivity
- Comparison with alternative gauges
- Deviation from expected pressure.

An experienced operator can identify it and should replace the faulty gauges immediately.

Mud/Gas Separators (MGS) reaching Limit

If during Kill, Mud Gas separator reaches its limit and there develops a situation where the gas
possibly starts going towards shale shakers & Mud Pits, the immediate action should be:

– Reduce the flow rate from the choke

– Close in the well at the choke and re-establish a new reduced circulating rate.

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BOP Failure
Immediately after Shut-in BOP, the flow-line should be lined-up to Trip tank to mark any leak
from BOP. If the BOP leak is detected then second option should be immediately activated as
influx will continue to enter in well if BOP does not hold.

Hydrate Formation & Prevention

Gas hydrates may exist naturally inside the formations drilled, these are called natural gas
hydrates, or they can form inside the well system. In this section natural gas hydrates will not be
discussed.
Hydrates are ice-like solid material that has the ability to block the mud flow paths and block the
operation of well control equipment. These frozen compounds form when hydrocarbons and
water are present at certain temperature and pressure. Hydrates have physical properties similar
to ordinary ice, except that they form at temperatures much higher than normal freezing
conditions.
Prevention of hydrate formation is a great deal less difficult than removal of hydrates once they
have formed.
Conditions under which Gas Hydrates Form
The formation of hydrates is dependent upon the following conditions:
• Sufficient water is present.
• Hydrocarbon gas is present (gas composition and gas specific gravity are important factors).
• The right combination of temperature and pressure (low temperature and high pressure).
• Time is allowed for hydrate to form and agglomerate.

Note: high pressure commonly cause hydrate formation, however hydrates can form at
temperatures well above freezing: e.g. at 1,500 psi common gases form hydrates at 19 deg C (66
deg F).
Figure below shows the general conditions at which hydrates can form depending on certain gas
compositions (the specific gravity of gas in the figure below represents gravity compared to air.
Air = 1.0)

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Each hydrate equilibrium curve represents the pressure and temperature conditions under which
hydrates will form if free water is present.

Impact of Hydrates on Well Control Operations

Several adverse effects may result from hydrates formation, primarily the plugging of well control
related equipment, causing considerable difficulties in subsequent operations, as those plugs are
very difficult to remove.
In well control, when a kick is being circulated out, the critical area is the choke. The resulting
pressure drop as the gas passes through these restrictions and the sudden increase in velocity
causes expansion cooling of the gas immediately downstream of the restriction.

Prevention of Hydrates
Hydrates are much easier to prevent from forming than to remove once they have formed,
therefore hydrate prevention is absolutely essential.
Prevention can be achieved as follows:
• If WBM is used, adequate inhibition should be provided (i.e. salt, glycols, alcohols, etc). The
addition of these chemicals inhibits the formation of hydrate by reducing the temperature at
which the hydrate will form for a given pressure.
• If hydrates will be a high risk, then OBM should be used whenever possible.
• Reduce to a minimum the non-circulating time: formation of hydrates during circulation is
very unlikely due to the heat brought up from the wellbore, as well as the decreased time
that gas is in the BOP.
• Lines & Manifolds should be properly sized to have facility to inject these inhibitors.
• Injecting methanol or glycol at a rate of 0.5 - 1 gal per minutes on the upstream side of a
choke

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*Methanol is more efficient in eliminating already formed hydrate plugs, but is more toxic than
glycol, and attacks elastomers seals. Because of these properties special provisions must be made
to handle.

Removal of Hydrates
Several methods are available to eliminate the hydrates once they have formed. Among the
techniques which have proved to be successful for removal:
• Chemical inhibitors: by reducing the temperature at which the hydrate will form for a given
pressure.
• Thermal energy: by using an external source of heat to raise the hydrate plug temperature
above the equilibrium temperature.
• Depressurization: by reducing the pressure over the hydrate plug below the hydrate
equilibrium pressure at the prevailing temperature.

Note: do not attempt to force the hydrate out with pressure, this would improve the hydrate
formation conditions and would make the situation worse. However, if a flow path has been
established it may be possible to reduce the pressure in the choke and kill lines by displacing the
fluid with air and nitrogen. This will help to break down the hydrates.

Lost Circulation during a Kill

The Kill Methods discussed in this manual are only applicable if hole is considered without any
losses. However Lost circulation may occur as partial or total loss of returns while killing. There
are a number of signs which indicate that losses are occurring. While circulating out a gas kick;
gain is expected and when oil or water kick, the pits should be steady. Contrary to this means that
we are losing. Another indication of loss is choke movement. Most choke adjustments in a usual
kill are towards the open position. If a gradual closing down is needed to hold pressure, lost
circulation is a possibility, since this results in casing and drill pipe pressure dropping.

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Partial Losses
With partial loss of returns, two possible courses of action are:
1. Maintain kill rate pump speed and drillpipe pressures to keep a constant bottom hole
pressure, while attempting to keep up with the losses until the gas is within the shoe.
Once the gas is within the casing shoe, the lost return problem should stabilize.
2. Reduce the Kill Rate to minimum possible. This will result in minimum Annular Pressure
Loss might reduce losses.
Severe or Total Losses
Where losses are too severe to maintain or complete/total loss of drilling fluid, several options
remain:
- A LCM pill maybe pumped with concentration depending on bit & BHA limitations. If
circulating sub is present in BHA; then even high concentration pills can be pumped as well. In
complex situations; kill fluid can be a LCM loaded system.
- Set barite or gunk plugs or cement as last option.
- Use Volumetric Method

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