502-S1-MSS05ges 8/20/04 12:06 PM Page 32

Matter

Matter, Matter Everywhere!

sections
Everything in this scene is matter, which
1 Atoms
can exist as solid, liquid, or gas. You can
2 Combinations of Atoms see solids and liquids, but not gas. Only
Lab Scales of Measurement
one thing occurs naturally on Earth in all
3 Properties of Matter three forms. Can you guess what it is?
Lab Determining Density
Science Journal What is matter made of and how
Virtual Lab How does
can it take such varied forms? Write what you know now in
thermal energy affect the
state of a substance? your Science Journal, and compare it with what you learn
after you read the chapter.

John Coletti/Index Stock

502-S1-MSS05ges 8/20/04 12:06 PM Page 33

Start-Up Activities
Matter Make the following
Foldable to help you understand
the vocabulary terms in this
Change the State of Water chapter.
On Earth, water is unique because it is found
STEP 1 Fold a vertical
as a solid, liquid, or gas. Water is invisible as
sheet of notebook
a gas, but you know it is there when fog paper from side to
forms over a lake or a puddle of water dries side.
up. The following lab will help you visualize
how matter can change states.
STEP 2 Cut along every third line of only the
top layer to form tabs.
1. Pour 500 mL of water into a 1,000-mL
glass beaker.
2. Mark the level of water in the beaker with
the bottom edge of a piece of tape.
3. Place the beaker on a hot plate.
STEP 3 Label each tab with vocabulary words.
4. With the help of an adult, heat the water
until it boils for 5 min. Let the water cool.
5. With the help of an adult, compare the
level of the water to the bottom edge of
the tape. Build Vocabulary As you read the chapter, list
6. Think Critically Did the amount of the vocabulary words on the tabs. As you learn
water in the beaker change? In your the definitions, write them under the tab for each
vocabulary word.
Science Journal, explain what happened
to the water.
Preview this chapter’s content
and activities at
earth.msscience.com

33
John Coletti/Index Stock
502-S1-MSS05ges 8/20/04 12:06 PM Page 34

Atoms
The Building Blocks of Matter
What do the objects you see, the air you breathe, and the
food you eat have in common? They are matter. Matter is any-
■ Identify the states of matter.
thing that has mass and takes up space. Heat and light are not
■ Describe the internal structure matter, because they have no mass and do not take up space.
of an atom. Glance around the room. If all the objects you see are matter,
■ Compare isotopes of an element. why do they look so different from one another?

Atoms Matter, in its various forms, surrounds you. You can’t

Nearly everything around you—air, see all matter as clearly as you see water, which is a transparent
water, food, and clothes—is made
of atoms. liquid, or rocks, which are colorful solids. You can’t see air, for
example, because air is colorless gases. The forms or properties
Review Vocabulary of one type of matter differ from those of another type because
mass: amount of matter in an matter is made up of tiny particles called atoms. The structures
object of different types of atoms and how they join together deter-
New Vocabulary mine all the properties of matter that you can observe. Figure 1
•• matter
atom
• number
atomic illustrates how small objects, like atoms, can be put together in
different ways.
•• element
proton
• number
mass This figure shows only two types of atoms represented by the
two colors. In reality, there are over 90 types of atoms having
•• neutron
electron
• isotope different sizes, making great variety possible.

Figure 1 Like atoms, the same few

blocks can combine in many ways.
Infer How could this model help explain
the variety of matter?

34 CHAPTER 2 Matter
502-S1-MSS05ges 8/20/04 12:06 PM Page 35

The Structure of Matter Matter is joined together much

like the blocks shown in Figure 1. The building blocks of matter
are atoms. The types of atoms in matter and how they attach to
each other give matter its properties.
Searching for
Elements When atoms combine, they form many different Elements
types of matter. Your body contains several types of atoms com- Procedure
bined in different ways. These atoms form the proteins, DNA, 1. Obtain a copy of the
tissues, and other matter that make you the person you are. periodic table of the
Most other objects that you see also are made of several differ- elements and familiarize
ent types of atoms. However, some substances are made of only yourself with the elements.
2. Search your house for items
one type of atom. Elements are substances that are made of only made of various elements.
one type of atom and cannot be broken down into simpler sub- 3. Use a highlighter to high-
stances by normal chemical or physical means. light the elements you dis-
Elements combine to make a variety of items you depend on cover on your copy of the
every day. They also combine to make up the minerals that com- periodic table.
pose Earth’s crust. Minerals usually are combinations of atoms Analysis
that occur in nature as solid crystals and are usually found as mix- 1. Were certain types of ele-
tures in ores. Some minerals, however, are made up of only one ments more common?
element. These minerals, which include copper and silver, are 2. Infer why you did not
find many of
called native elements. Table 1 shows some common elements the elements.
and their uses. A table of the elements, called the periodic table of
the elements, is included on the inside back cover of this book.

Table 1 Some Common Uses of Elements

Element Phosphorus Silver Copper Carbon

Native state Phosphorus Silver Copper Graphite
of the element

Uses of the Fertilizer Tableware Wire Ski wax

element

SECTION 1 Atoms 35
(tl)Stephan Frisch/Stock Boston, (tcl)Dane S. Johnson/Visuals Unlimited, (tcr)Ken Lucas/Visuals Unlimited, (tr)Mark A. Schneider/Photo Researchers, (bl)Aaron Haupt, (bcl)Amanita Pictures,
(bcr)Charles D. Winters/Photo Researchers, (br)Aaron Haupt
502-S1-MSS05ges 8/20/04 12:06 PM Page 36

Modeling the Atom

How can you study things that are too small to be seen with
the unaided eye? When something is too large or too small to
observe directly, models can be used. The model airplane,
shown in Figure 2, is a small version of a larger object. A model
also can describe tiny objects, such as atoms, that otherwise are
difficult or impossible to see.
Figure 2 This model airplane is
a small-scale version of a large The History of the Atomic Model More than 2,300 years
object. ago, the Greek philosopher Democritus (dih MAH kruh tuss)
proposed that matter is composed of small particles. He called
these particles atoms and said that different types of matter were
composed of different types of atoms. More than 2,000 years
later, John Dalton expanded on these ideas. He theorized that all
atoms of an element contain the same type of atom.

Protons and Neutrons In the early 1900s, additional work

led to the development of the current model of the atom, shown
in Figure 3. Three basic particles make up an atom—protons,
neutrons (NOO trahnz), and electrons. Protons are particles
that have a positive electric charge. Neutrons have no electric
charge. Both particles are located in the nucleus—the center of
an atom. With no negative charge to balance the positive charge
of the protons, the charge of the nucleus is positive.

Electrons Particles with a negative charge are called

electrons, and they exist outside of the nucleus. In 1913, Niels
Bohr, a Danish scientist, proposed that an atom’s electrons travel
Protons
in orbitlike paths around the nucleus. He also proposed that
("charge) electrons in an atom have energy that depends on their distance
from the nucleus. Electrons in paths that are closer to the
nucleus have lower energy, and electrons farther from the
Nucleus nucleus have higher energy.

The Current Atomic Model Over the next several decades,

Neutrons research showed that electrons can be grouped into energy levels,
(no charge) High-speed each holding only a specific number of electrons. Also, electrons
electrons
(!charge) do not travel in orbitlike paths. Instead, scientists use a model
that resembles a cloud surrounding the nucleus. Electrons can be
anywhere within the cloud, but evidence suggests that they are
located near the nucleus most of the time. To understand how
Figure 3 This model of a helium this might work, imagine a beehive. The hive represents the
atom shows two protons and two nucleus of an atom. The bees swarming around the hive are like
neutrons in the nucleus, and two electrons moving around the nucleus. As they swarm, you can’t
electrons in the electron cloud. predict their exact location, but they usually stay close to the hive.

36 CHAPTER 2 Matter
John Evans
502-S1-MSS05ges 8/20/04 12:06 PM Page 37

Counting Atomic Particles

You now know where protons, neutrons, and electrons are
located, but how many of each are in an atom? The number of
protons in an atom depends on the element. All atoms of the Isotopes Some isotopes of
same element have the same number of protons. For example, elements are radioactive.
Physicians can introduce
all iron atoms—whether in train tracks or breakfast cereal— these isotopes into a
contain 26 protons, and all atoms with 26 protons are iron patient’s circulatory sys-
atoms. The number of protons in an atom is equal to the tem. The low-level radia-
atomic number of the element. This number can be found tion they emit allows the
above the element symbol on the periodic table that is printed isotopes to be tracked as
in the back of this book. Notice that as you go from left to right they move throughout the
patient’s body. Explain how
on the periodic table, the atomic number of the element this would be helpful in
increases by one. diagnosing a disease.

How many electrons? In a neutral atom, the number of

protons is equal to the number of electrons. This makes the
overall charge of the atom zero. Therefore, for a neutral atom:

Atomic number # number of protons # number of electrons

Atoms of an element can lose or gain electrons and still be

the same element. When this happens, the atom is no longer
neutral. Atoms with fewer electrons than protons have a positive
charge, and atoms with more electrons than protons have a
negative charge.
Figure 4 This radioactive
How many neutrons? Unlike protons, atoms of the same carbon atom is found in organic
element can have different numbers of neutrons. The number of material.
neutrons in an atom isn’t found on the periodic table. Instead, Determine this atom’s mass
you need to be given the atom’s mass number. The mass number number.
of an atom is equal to the number of protons plus
the number of neutrons. The number of neu-
trons is determined by subtracting the atomic Nucleus
number from the mass number. For example, if
the mass number of nitrogen is 14, subtracting its
atomic number, seven, tells you that nitrogen has
seven neutrons. In Figure 4, the number of neu-
trons can be determined by counting the blue !
!
spheres and the number of protons by counting ! !
! !
orange spheres. Atoms of the same element that
have different numbers of neutrons are called
isotopes. Table 2 lists useful isotopes of some
elements.

How are isotopes of the same

Electron cloud
element different?

SECTION 1 Atoms 37
502-S1-MSS05ges 8/20/04 12:06 PM Page 38

Table 2 Some Useful Isotopes

Number of Number of Number of Atomic Mass

Isotope
Protons Neutrons Electrons Number Number
Hydrogen-1 1 0 1 1 1

Hydrogen-2 1 1 1 1 2

Hydrogen-3 1 2 1 1 3

Carbon-12 6 6 6 6 12

Carbon-14 6 8 6 6 14

Uses of Isotopes Scientists have found uses for isotopes that

benefit humans. For example, medical doctors use radioactive
isotopes to treat certain types of cancer, such as prostate cancer.
Geologists use isotopes to date some rocks and fossils.

Summary Self Check

The Building Blocks of Matter 1. Explain how the air you breathe fits the definition
• Matter has mass and takes up space. of matter.

• Matter is made of particles called atoms. 2. Explain why it is helpful to have a model of an atom.

• Elements are substances that are made of

only one type of atom.
3. Determine the charge of an atom that has five protons
and five electons.
Modeling the Atom 4. Explain how isotopes can be used to benefit humans.

• The current model of an atom includes

protons, neutrons, and electrons.
5. Think Critically Oxygen-16 and oxygen-17 are isotopes
of oxygen. The numbers 16 and 17 represent their mass

• Protons and neutrons are found in the

nucleus. Protons have a positive charge and
numbers, respectively. If the element oxygen has an
atomic number of 8, how many protons and neutrons
are in these two isotopes?
neutrons are neutral. Electrons are located
around the nucleus and have a negative
charge.
Counting Atomic Particles

• The atomic number of an element equals the

number of protons in an atom.
6. Use Numbers If a sodium atom has 11 protons and
12 neutrons, what is its mass number?

• The mass number of an element equals the

number of protons plus the number of
7. Simple Equations The mass number of a nitrogen
atom is 14. Find its atomic number in the periodic
table shown on the inside back cover of this book.
neutrons in an atom.
Then determine the number of neutrons in its
• Atoms of the same element having different
numbers of neutrons are called isotopes.
nucleus.

38 CHAPTER 2 Matter earth.msscience.com/self_check_quiz

502-S2-MSS05ges 8/20/04 12:07 PM Page 39

Combinations of Atoms
Interactions of Atoms
When you take a shower, eat your lunch, or do your home-
work on the computer, you probably don’t think about ele-
ments. But everything you touch, eat, or use is made from them. ■ Describe ways atoms combine
Elements are all around you and in you. to form compounds.
There are about 90 naturally occurring elements on Earth. ■ List differences between
When you think about the variety of matter in the universe, you compounds and mixtures.
might find it difficult to believe that most of it consists of com-
binations of these same elements. How could so few elements
produce so many different things? This happens because ele- On Earth, most matter exists as
compounds or mixtures.
ments can combine in countless ways. For example, the same
oxygen atoms that you breathe also might be found in many Review Vocabulary
other objects, as shown in Figure 5. As you can see, each combi- force: a push or a pull
nation of atoms is unique. How do these combinations form
and what holds them together? New Vocabulary
•• compound
molecule
•• ion
mixture
This canister
contains pure
•• heterogeneous mixture
homogeneous mixture
oxygen gas. • solution

Solid limestone has oxygen within its structure.

Figure 5 Oxygen is a common element found

in many different solids, liquids, and gases.
Infer How can the same element, made from the
same type of atoms, be found in so many different Oxygen also is present in the juices of these
materials? apples.

SECTION 2 Combinations of Atoms 39

(l)Herbert Kehrer/OKAPIA/Photo Researchers, (r)Bruce Hands/Getty Images, (c)Doug Martin
502-S2-MSS05ges 8/20/04 12:07 PM Page 40

Compounds When the atoms of more than one

element combine, they form a compound. A
compound contains atoms of more than one type of
H element that are chemically bonded together. Water,
O
shown in Figure 6, is a compound in which two hydro-
H
gen atoms are bonded to each oxygen atom. Table
salt—sodium chloride—is a compound consisting of
sodium atoms bonded to chlorine atoms. Compounds
are represented by chemical formulas that show the
ratios and types of atoms in the compound. For exam-
ple, the chemical formula for sodium chloride is NaCl.
The formula for water is H2O.
Figure 6 The water you drink is What atoms form the compound water?
a compound consisting of hydro-
gen and oxygen atoms. The properties of compounds often are very different from
Identify how hydrogen and oxy- the properties of the elements that combine to form them.
gen are united to form water. Sodium is a soft, silvery metal, and chlorine is a greenish, poi-
sonous gas, but the compound they form is the white, crystalline
table salt you use to season food. Under normal conditions on
Earth, the hydrogen and oxygen that form water are gases. Water
can be solid ice, liquid water, or gas. Which form do you think is
most common for water at Earth’s south pole?

Chemical Properties A property that describes a change that

occurs when one substance reacts with another is called a chem-
ical property. For example, one chemical property of water is that
it changes to hydrogen gas and oxygen gas when an electric cur-
rent passes through it. The chemical properties of a substance
depend on what elements are in that substance and how they are
arranged. Iron atoms in the mineral biotite will react with water
and oxygen to form iron oxide, or rust, but iron mixed with
chromium and nickel in stainless steel resists rusting.

Bonding
The forces that hold the atoms together in compounds are
Topic: Periodic Table called chemical bonds. These bonds form when atoms share or
Visit earth.msscience.com for Web exchange electrons. However, only those electrons having the
links to information about the
periodic table and chemical
highest energies in the electron cloud can form bonds. As you
bonding. read in the last section, these are found farthest from the
nucleus. An atom can have only eight electrons in this highest
Activity Research five elements
that you are unfamiliar with and
energy level. If more electrons exist, they must form a new,
make a table showing their names, higher energy level. If an atom has exactly eight electrons in its
atomic number, properties, and outermost level, it is unlikely to form bonds. If an atom has
how they are used. fewer than eight electrons in its outermost level, it is unstable
and is more likely to combine with other atoms.

40 CHAPTER 2 Matter
Kenji Kerins
502-S2-MSS05ges 8/20/04 12:07 PM Page 41

Covalent Bonds Atoms can combine to

form compounds in two different ways. One
way is by sharing the electrons in their outer-
most energy levels. The type of bond that
forms by sharing outer electrons is a covalent
O
bond. A group of atoms connected by cova-
lent bonds is called a molecule. For example, Energy
levels
two atoms of hydrogen can share electrons
with one atom of oxygen to form a molecule
of water, as shown in Figure 7. Each of the
hydrogen atoms has one electron in its out- H H
ermost level, and the oxygen has six electrons
in its outermost level. This arrangement
causes hydrogen and oxygen atoms to bond
together. Each of the hydrogen atoms
becomes stable by sharing one electron with the oxygen atom, Figure 7 A molecule of water
and the oxygen atom becomes stable by sharing two electrons consists of two atoms of hydrogen
with the two hydrogen atoms. that share outer electrons with one
atom of oxygen.
Ionic Bonds In addition to sharing electrons, atoms also
combine if they become positively or negatively charged. This
type of bond is called an ionic bond. Atoms can be neutral, or
under certain conditions, atoms can lose or gain electrons.
When an atom loses electrons, it has more protons than elec-
trons, so the atom is positively charged. When an atom gains
electrons, it has more electrons than protons, so the atom is neg-
atively charged. Electrically charged atoms are called ions. Figure 8 Table salt forms when
Ions are attracted to each other when they have opposite a sodium ion and a chlorine ion are
charges. This is similar to the way magnets behave. If the ends of attracted to one another.
a pair of magnets have the same type of pole, they repel each Draw Conclusions What kind of
other. Conversely, if the ends have opposite poles, they attract bond holds ions together?
one another. Ions form
electrically neutral com-
pounds when they join. The
mineral halite, commonly
used as table salt, forms in
this way. A sodium (Na)
atom loses an outer electron Na Cl
and becomes a positively
charged ion. As shown in
Figure 8, if the sodium ion
comes close to a negatively
charged chlorine (Cl) ion,
they attract each other and
Sodium ion (!) Chlorine ion (")
form the salt you use on
french fries or popcorn.

SECTION 2 Combinations of Atoms 41

502-S2-MSS05ges 8/20/04 12:07 PM Page 42

Metallic Bonds Metallic bonds are found in

metals such as copper, gold, aluminum, and sil-
ver. In this type of bond, electrons are free to
move from one positively charged ion to
another. This free movement of electrons is
responsible for key characteristics of metals.
The movement of electrons, or conductivity,
allows metals like copper, shown in Figure 9, to
pass an electric current easily.

Hydrogen Bonds Some bonds, called hydro-

gen bonds, can form without the interactions of
electrons. The arrangement of hydrogen and
oxygen atoms in water molecules causes them
to be polar molecules. A polar molecule has a
positive end and a negative end. This happens
because the atoms do not share electrons
equally. When hydrogen and oxygen atoms
form a molecule with covalent bonds, the
hydrogen atoms produce an area of partial pos-
itive charge and the oxygen atom produces an
area of partial negative charge. The positive end
of one molecule is attracted to the negative end
Figure 9 This machine is mak- of another molecule, as shown in Figure 10, and a weak hydro-
ing cable from spools of wire. gen bond is formed. The different parts of the water molecule
Electrons move freely along this are slightly charged, but as a whole, the molecule has no charge.
wire, passing from one copper ion This type of bond is easily broken, indicating that the charges
to another. are weak.
Identify What type of bond holds Hydrogen bonds are responsible for several properties of
copper atoms together? water, some of which are unique. Cohesion is the attraction
between water molecules that allows them to form raindrops
and to form beads on flat surfaces. Hydrogen bonds cause water
to exist as a liquid, rather than a gas, at room temperature. As
water freezes, hydrogen bonds force water molecules apart, into
a structure that is less dense than liquid water.

Figure 10 The ends of polar mole- More "

H
H
cules, such as water, have opposite partial O
charges. This allows molecules to be
held together by hydrogen bonds. H
More !
H
H
O H O O H
H H
H H O O
H O H
O H
H H

42 CHAPTER 2 Matter
Ken Whitmore/Getty Images
502-S2-MSS05ges 8/20/04 12:07 PM Page 43

Figure 11 This rock

contains a variety of
mineral compounds
Classifying Forms
that, together, form a
of Matter
mixture.
Procedure
1. Make a chart with the
columns Mixtures,
Compounds, and Elements.
Mixtures 2. Classify each of these items
into the proper column on
Sometimes compounds and elements mix together but do your chart: air, sand,
not combine chemically. A mixture is composed of two or more hydrogen, muddy water,
substances that are not chemically combined. There are two dif- sugar, ice, sugar water,
ferent types of mixtures—heterogeneous and homogeneous. water, salt, oxygen,
The components of a heterogeneous mixture are not mixed copper.
evenly and each component retains its own properties. Maybe 3. Make a solution using two
or more of the items listed
you’ve seen a rock like the one in Figure 11. Several different above.
minerals are mixed together, but if you were to examine the
minerals separately, you would find that they have the same Analysis
1. How does a solution
properties and appearance as they have in the rock. differ from other types
The components of a homogeneous mixture are evenly of mixtures?
mixed throughout. You can’t see the individual components. 2. How does an element dif-
Another name for a homogeneous mixture is a solution. The fer from a compound?
properties of the components of this type of mixture often are
different from the properties of the mixture. Ocean water is an
example of a liquid solution that consists of salts mixed with
liquid water.

What is a solution?

Separating Mixtures and Compounds

The components of a mixture can be separated by physical
means. For example, you can sit at your desk and pick out the
separate items in your backpack, or you can let the water evap-
orate from a saltwater mixture and the salt will remain.
Separating the components of a mixture is a relatively easy
task compared to separating those of a compound. The sub-
stances in a compound must be separated by chemical means.
This means that an existing compound can be changed to one
or more new substances by chemically breaking down the orig-
inal compound. For example, a drop of dilute hydrochloric acid
(HCl) can be placed on calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and carbon
dioxide (CO2) is released. To break down most compounds,
several steps usually are required.

SECTION 2 Combinations of Atoms 43

Mark Steinmetz
502-S2-MSS05ges 8/20/04 12:07 PM Page 44

Exploring Matter
Air, sweetened tea, salt water,
and the contents of your back-
pack are examples of mixtures.
The combination of rocks, fish,
and coral shown in Figure 12
also is a mixture. In each case,
the materials within the mixture
are not chemically combined.
The individual components are
made of compounds or ele-
ments. The atoms in these com-
pounds lost their individual
properties when they combined.
Figure 12 The ocean is a mix-
ture of many different forms of Seashells and coral reefs contain calcium
matter. The ocean water itself is a carbonate, which has the formula CaCO3.
solution, a homogeneous mixture. Properties of CaCO3 differ greatly from those of its elements,
calcium, carbon, and oxygen. For example, calcium is a soft, sil-
very metal, oxygen is a gas, and carbon can be a black solid. In
contrast, calcium carbonate is hard and white. For example, it
also is found in limestone and marble.

Summary Self Check

Interactions of Atoms 1. Explain how atoms or ions combine to form
• A compound contains atoms of more than one
type of element that are chemically bonded.
compounds.
2. Classify sweetened tea as a solution or a compound.
Bonding 3. Infer Why do metals transmit electricity so well?
• Atoms share electrons in covalent bonds. 4. Identify What does the formula tell you about a
• Atoms lose or gain electrons in ionic bonds. chemical compound?

• In metallic bonds electrons move freely from

one metal ion to another.
5. Think Critically How can you determine whether salt
water is a solution or a compound?

• Hydrogen bonds can form between polar

molecules.
Mixtures 6. Infer You have seen how the Na! ion attracts the

• A combination of two or more substances that

are not chemically combined is a mixture.
Cl" ion forming the compound sodium chloride, NaCl.
What compound would form from Ca!2 and Cl"?

• Components of a heterogeneous mixture are

not mixed evenly.
7. Design How would you separate a mixture of sugar
and sand? Devise an experiment to do this. Discuss

• Components of a homogeneous mixture or

solution are evenly mixed.
your procedure with your teacher. Perform the
experiment and write the results.

44 CHAPTER 2 Matter earth.msscience.com/self_check_quiz

Stuart Westmorland/Danita Delimont Agent
502-S2-MSS05ges 8/20/04 12:07 PM Page 45

Scales of Measurement
How would you describe some of the objects Measurement and Error
in your classroom? Perhaps your desktop is
about one-half the size of a door. Measuring Sample at Value of Causes
Station Measurement of Error
physical properties in a laboratory experiment
will help you make better observations. a. mass # ___ g Do not
b. volume # ___ mL write
c. (location) average temp. # ___ °C in this
Real-World Question d. length# ___ cm book.
How are physical properties of objects measured? e. circumference# ___ cm

Goals
■ Measure various physical properties in SI. d. Use a meterstick to measure the length, to
■ Determine sources of error. the nearest 0.1 cm, of the stick or dowel.
e. Use a meterstick and string to measure
Materials the circumference of the globe. Be
triple beam balance rock sample accurate to the nearest 0.1 cm.
100-mL graduated cylinder string
metersticks (2) globe
non-mercury thermometers (3) water Conclude and Apply
stick or dowel
1. Compare your results with those provided
Safety Precautions by your teacher.
2. Calculate your percentage of error in each
case. Use this formula.
WARNING: Never “shake down” lab thermometers. your val. " teacher’s val.
% error # %%% $ 100
teacher’s val.
3. Being within five to seven percent of
Procedure the correct value is considered good. If
1. Go to every station and determine the your error exceeds ten percent, what
measurement requested. Record your could you do to improve your results
observations in a data table and list and reduce error?
sources of error.
a. Use a balance to determine the mass, to
the nearest 0.1 g, of the rock sample.
b. Use a graduated cylinder to measure the
water volume to the nearest 0.5 mL. Compare your conclusions with those of
c. Use three thermometers to determine other students in your class. For more help,
the average temperature, to the nearest refer to the Science Skill Handbook.
0.5°C, at a selected location in the room.

LAB 45
502-S3-MSS05ges 8/20/04 12:07 PM Page 46

Properties of Matter
Physical Properties of Matter
In addition to the chemical properties of matter that you
have already investigated in this chapter, matter also has other
■ Describe the physical properties
properties that can be described. You might describe a pair of
of matter. blue jeans as soft, blue, and about 80 cm long. A sandwich could
■ Identify what causes matter to have two slices of bread, lettuce, tomato, cheese, and turkey.
change state. These descriptions can be made without altering the sandwich
■ List the four states of matter. or the blue jeans in any way. The properties that you can
observe without changing a substance into a new substance are
physical properties.
You can recognize many substances
by their physical properties. One physical property that you will use to describe matter is
density. Density is a measure of the mass of an object divided by
Review Vocabulary its volume. Generally, this measurement is given in grams per
energy: the ability to cause cubic centimeter (g/cm3). For example, the average density of
change liquid water is about 1 g/cm3. So 1 cm3 of pure water has a mass
New Vocabulary of about 1 g.
• density An object that’s more dense than water will sink in water. On
the other hand, an object that’s not as dense as water will float
in water. When oil spills occur on the ocean, as shown in Figure 13,
the oil floats on the surface of the water and washes up on
beaches. Because the oil floats, even a small spill can spread out
and cover large areas.

Figure 13 Oil spills on the ocean

spread across the surface of the
water.
Infer How does the density of oil
compare to the density of water?

46 CHAPTER 2 Matter
John S. Lough/Visuals Unlimited
502-S3-MSS05ges 8/20/04 12:07 PM Page 47

States of Matter
On Earth, matter occurs in four physical states. These four
states are solid, liquid, gas, and plasma. You might have had solid
toast and liquid milk or juice for breakfast this morning. You
breathe air, which is a gas. A lightning bolt during a storm is an
example of matter in its plasma state. What are the differences
among these four states of matter?

Solids The reason some matter is solid is that its particles are
in fixed positions relative to each other. The individual particles
vibrate, but they don’t switch positions with each other. Solids
have a definite shape and take up a definite volume.
Suppose you have a puzzle that is completely assembled. The
pieces are connected so one piece cannot switch positions with
another piece. However, the pieces can move a little, but stay
attached to one another. The puzzle pieces in this model repre-
sent particles of a substance in a solid state. Such particles are
strongly attracted to each other and resist being separated.

Solve One-Step Equations

CALCULATING DENSITY You want to find the density of a small cube of an unknown
material. It measures 1 cm ! 1 cm ! 2 cm. It has a mass of 8 g.

Solution
This is what you know: ● mass: m " 8 g
● volume: v " 1 cm ! 1 cm ! 2 cm " 2 cm3
● d " m/v
This is what you need to density: d
find out:

This is the procedure ● substitute: d " 8 g/2 cm3

you need to use: ● Divide to solve for d: d " 4 g/cm3
● The density is 4 g/cm3
Check your answer: Multiply by the volume. You should get the given mass.

1. You discover a gold bar while exploring an old shipwreck. It measures 10 cm ! 5 cm !

2 cm. It has a mass of 1,930 g. Find the density of gold.
2. A bar of soap measures 8 cm ! 5 cm ! 2 cm. Its mass is 90 g. Calculate its density.
Predict whether this soap will float.
For more practice, visit
earth.msscience.com/
math_practice

SECTION 3 Properties of Matter 47

502-S3-MSS05ges 8/20/04 12:07 PM Page 48

Liquids Particles in a liquid are attracted to each other, but are

not in fixed positions as they are in the solid shown in Figure 15.
This is because liquid particles have more energy than solid par-
Topic: States of Matter ticles. This energy allows them to move around and change
Visit earth.msscience.com for positions with each other.
Web links to information about When you eat breakfast, you might have several liquids at the
the four states of matter.
table such as syrup, juice, and milk. These are substances in the
Activity Search for information liquid state, even though one flows more freely than the others
on a family of elements called the at room temperature. The particles in a liquid can change posi-
halogens. Use the information
you find to write a “Wanted
tions to fit the shape of the container they are held in. You can
Poster” on one halogen. Include pour any liquid into any container, and it will flow until it
items such as physical descrip- matches the shape of its new container.
tion, distinguishing characteris-
tics, and known associates. Gases The particles that make up gases have enough energy to
overcome any attractions between them. This allows them to
move freely and independently. Unlike liquids and solids, gases
spread out and fill the container in which they are placed. Air
fresheners work in a similar way. If an air freshener is placed in
a corner, it isn’t long before the particles from the air freshener
have spread throughout the room. Look at the hot-air balloon
shown in Figure 15C. The particles in the balloon are evenly
spaced throughout the balloon. The balloon floats in the sky,
because the hot air inside the balloon is less dense than the
colder air around it.
Figure 14 The Sun is an How do air fresheners work?
example of a plasma.

Plasma Although it is probably

unfamiliar to most people, plasma is
the most common state of matter in
the universe. This state is associated
with high temperatures. Can you
name something that is in the
plasma state? Stars like the Sun,
shown in Figure 14, are composed of
matter in the plasma state. Plasma
also exists in Jupiter’s magnetic field.
On Earth, plasma is found in light-
ning bolts, as shown in Figure 15D.
Plasma is composed of ions and elec-
trons. It forms when high tempera-
tures cause some of the electrons
normally found in an atom’s electron
cloud to escape and move outside of
the electron cloud.

48 CHAPTER 2 Matter
CORBIS
502-S3-MSS05ges 8/20/04 12:07 PM Page 49

M502-
NGS TITLE
VISUALIZING STATES OF MATTER

ben C-MS
d06
Figure 15

S02
M
atter on Earth exists naturally in four
different states—solid, liquid, gas, and
plasma—as shown here. The state of
a sample of matter depends upon the amount of
energy its atoms or molecules possess. The more D PLASMA Electrically charged
energy that matter contains, the more freely its
particles in lightning are free moving.
atoms or molecules move, because they are able
to overcome the attractive forces that tend to
hold them together.

A SOLID In a solid such as galena, the

tightly packed atoms or molecules lack
the energy to move out of position.

B LIQUID The atoms or molecules

in a liquid such as water have
enough energy to overcome some C GAS In air and other gases,
attractive forces and move over and
atoms or molecules have sufficient
around one another.
energy to separate from each other
completely and move in all directions.

SECTION 3 Properties of Matter 49

(tl)Breck P. Kent/Earth Scenes, (tr)Storm Pirate Productions/Artville/PictureQuest, (bl)CORBIS/PictureQuest, (br)E.R. Degginger/Earth Scenes

SS02
502-S3-MSS05ges 8/20/04 12:07 PM Page 50

Changing the State

of Matter
Matter is changed from a liquid to a solid
at its freezing point and from a liquid to a gas
at its boiling point. You may know the freezing
and boiling points of water. Water begins to
change from a liquid to a solid at its freezing
point of 0°C. It boils at 100°C. Water is the
only substance that occurs naturally on Earth
as a solid, liquid, and gas. Other substances
don’t naturally occur in these three states on
Earth because of the limited temperature
range Earth experiences. For example, temper-
Figure 16 A solid metal can be atures on Earth do not get cold enough for solid carbon dioxide
changed to a liquid by adding ther- to exist naturally. However, it can be manufactured.
mal energy to its molecules. The attraction between particles of a substance and their
Describe what is happening to the rate of movement are factors that determine the state of matter.
molecules during this change. When thermal energy is added to ice, the rate of movement of
its molecules increases. This allows the molecules to move more
freely and causes the ice to melt. As Figure 16 shows, even solid
metal can be converted into liquid when enough thermal energy
is added.
Changes in state also occur because of increases or decreases
in pressure. For example, decreasing pressure lowers the boiling
points of liquids. Also, solids tend to melt at lower temperatures
when pressure is increased. Although the lowering of the melt-
Figure 17 If ice were more ing point is not great, this might explain how the base of a gla-
dense than water, lakes would cier can move around some rock obstacles. It is thought that the
freeze solid from the bottom up. pressure of the glacier on the rock melts the ice, creating a thin
Infer What effect might this have layer of water. The water then flows around the obstacle and
on the fish? refreezes on the other side.

Changes in Physical Properties

Chemical properties of matter don’t change when the matter
changes state, but some of its physical properties change. For
example, the density of water changes as water changes state. Ice
floats in liquid water, as seen in Figure 17, because it is less dense
than liquid water. This is unique, because most materials are
denser in their solid state than in their liquid state.

Why does ice float in water?

Some physical properties of substances don’t change when

they change state. For example, water is colorless and transpar-
ent in each of its states.

50 CHAPTER 2 Matter
(t)Paul Chesley/Getty Images, (b)David Muench/CORBIS
502-S3-MSS05ges 8/20/04 12:07 PM Page 51

Matter on Mars
Matter in one state often can be
changed to another state by adding or
removing thermal energy. Changes in
thermal energy might explain why
Mars appears to have had considerable
water on its surface in the past but now
has little or no water on its surface.
Recent images of Mars reveal that there
might still be some groundwater that
occasionally reaches the surface, as
shown in Figure 18. But what could
explain the huge water-carved channels
that formed long ago? Much of the liq-
uid water on Mars might have changed
state as the planet cooled to its current temperature. Scientists Figure 18 Groundwater might
believe that some of Mars’s liquid water soaked into the reach the surface of Mars along the
ground and froze, forming permafrost. Some of the water edge of this large channel.
might have frozen to form the polar ice caps. Even more of the
water might have evaporated into the atmosphere and escaped
to space.

Summary Self Check

Physical Properties of Matter 1. List the four states of matter in order from lowest to
• Density is the mass of an object divided by its
volume.
highest particle movement.
2. Explain how temperature can bring about changes in
the state of matter.
States of Matter
3. Explain why an ice cube will melt if compressed, even
• Solids have a definite shape and volume. though the temperature remains the same.
• Liquids take the shape of their containers. 4. Think Critically Suppose you blow up a balloon and
• Gases spread out and fill their containers. then place it in a freezer. Later, you find that the
• Plasma occurs at high temperatures and has
such high energy that some electrons may
balloon has shrunk and has bits of ice in it. Explain.

escape their electron clouds.

5. Classify Assign each of the following items to one of
Changing the State of Matter the four states of matter and describe their character-
• Both temperature and pressure can cause
changes in the state of matter.
istics: groundwater, lightning, lava, snow, textbook,
ice cap, notebook, apple juice, eraser, glass, cotton,
helium, iron oxide, lake, limestone, and water vapor.
Changes in Physical Properties
6. Infer You have probably noticed that some liquids,
• Chemical properties do not change when
matter changes state, but physical properties
such as honey and molasses, flow slowly at room
temperature. How does heating affect flow rate?
can change.

earth.msscience.com/self_check_quiz SECTION 3 Properties of Matter 51

NASA/JPL/Malin Space Science Systems
502-S3-MSS05ges 8/20/04 12:07 PM Page 52

Design Your Own

DETERMINING DENSITY
Goals Real-World Question
■ List some ways that Which has a greater density—a rock or a piece of wood? Is cork more
the density of an object dense than clay? Density is the ratio of an object’s mass to its volume.
can be measured.
■ Design an experiment
that compares the
Form a Hypothesis
densities of several State a hypothesis about what process you can use to measure and
materials. compare the densities of several materials.

Possible Materials
pan
Test Your Hypothesis
triple-beam balance Make a Plan
100-mL beaker 1. As a group, agree upon and write the hypothesis statement.
250-mL graduated
2. As a group, list the steps that you need to take to test your hypoth-
cylinder
esis. Be specific, describing exactly what you will do at each step.
water
List your materials.
chalk
piece of quartz 3. Working as a group, use the equation: density " mass/volume.
piece of clay Devise a method of determining the mass and volume of each
small wooden block material to be tested.
small metal block 4. Design a data table in your Science Journal so that it is ready to
small cork use as your group collects data.
rock
ruler

Safety Precautions

WARNING: Be wary of
sharp edges on some of the
materials and take care not
to break the beaker or
graduated cylinder. Wash
hands thoroughly with
soap and water when
finished.

52 CHAPTER 2 Matter
(t)StudiOhio, (b)Matt Meadows
502-S3-MSS05ges 8/20/04 12:07 PM Page 53

5. Read over your entire experiment to make sure that all steps are in a logical
order.
6. Should you run the process more than once for any of the materials?
7. Identify any constants, variables, and controls of the experiment.
Follow Your Plan
1. Make sure your teacher approves your plan before you start.
2. Carry out the experiment as planned.
3. While the experiment is going on, write any observations that you make and
complete the data table in your Science Journal.

Analyze Your Data

1. Observe Do you observe anything about the way objects with greater
density feel compared with objects of lower density?
2. Predict Which of those objects you measured directly would float in
water? Which would sink?
3. Predict how your volume measurements might be affected by using
a tool to push a floating object under water. Explain how this error
might increase or decrease the density you obtained.

Conclude and Apply

1. Form Hypotheses Based on your results, would you hypothesize
that a cork is more dense, the same density, or less dense than
water?
2. Draw Conclusions Without measuring the
density of an object that floats, conclude how
you know that it has a density of less than
1.0 g/cm3.
3. Predict Would the density of the clay be
affected if you were to break it into smaller
pieces? Write an informational pamphlet on
4. Explain why ships float, even though they are different methods for determining the
made mostly of steel that has a density much density of objects. Include equations and
greater than that of water. a step-by-step procedure.

LAB 53
(t)Tim Courlas, (b)Royalty-Free/CORBIS
502-CR-MSS05ges 8/20/04 12:05 PM Page 54

Amazing Atoms
Did you know . . .
. . . Uranium has the greatest
mass of the abundant natural
elements. One atom of uranium has a
mass number that is more than 235 times
greater than the mass number of one
hydrogen atom, the element with the least
mass. However, the diameter of a uranium
atom is only about three times the size of
a hydrogen atom, similar to the difference
between a baseball and a volleyball.

. . . The melting point of

cesium is 28.4°C. It would . . . The diameter of an atom is
melt in your hand if you held about 100,000 times as great as
it. You would not want to hold the diameter of its nucleus. Suppose
cesium, though, because it that when you sit in a chair, you represent
would react strongly with your the nucleus of an atom. The nearest electron
skin. In fact, the metal might in your atom would be about 120 km
even catch fire. away—nearly half the distance across
the Florida peninsula.

. . . More than ninety elements Other elements 1.5%

occur naturally. However, about Potassium 2.6%
98 percent of Earth’s crust consists of Sodium 2.8%
Oxygen
Magnesium 2.1%
only the eight elements shown here. 46.6%
Calcium 3.6%
Iron 5.0%
Looking at the circle
graph, which is the third most abundant element in Silicon
Aluminum 8.1% 27.7%
Earth’s crust?

Find Out About It

Visit earth.msscience.com/science_stats to find out more about atoms and isotopes. What
is a radioactive isotope of an element? How are isotopes used in science?

54 CHAPTER 2 Matter
(t)KS Studios, (b)StudiOhio
502-CR-MSS05ges 8/20/04 12:05 PM Page 55

Atoms Properties of Matter

1. Matter is anything that has mass and takes 1. Physical properties can be observed and
up space. measured without causing a chemical
2. The nucleus of an atom contains protons change in a substance. Chemical properties
with a positive charge and neutrons with can be observed only when one substance
no charge. Electrons, which have a negative reacts with another substance.
charge, surround the nucleus. 2. Atoms or molecules in a solid are in fixed
positions relative to one another. In a liq-
3. Isotopes are atoms of the same element that
uid, the atoms or molecules are close
have different numbers of neutrons.
together but are freer to change positions.
Atoms or molecules in a gas move freely to
fill any container.
Combinations of Atoms
3. Because of Earth’s narrow temperature
1. Atoms join to form compounds and mol- range, water is the only substance known
ecules. A compound is a substance made that occurs naturally as a solid, liquid,
of two or more elements. The chemical and gas.
and physical properties of a compound dif- 4. One physical property that is used to
fer from those of the elements of which it is describe matter is density. Density is a ratio
composed. of the mass of an object to its volume. A
2. A mixture is a substance in which the material that is less dense will float in a
components are not chemically combined. material that is more dense.

Copy and complete the following concept map. Use the terms: liquids, plasma, matter, and solids.

defined

Has mass
and takes up
space

can form

Gases

earth.msscience.com/interactive_tutor CHAPTER STUDY GUIDE 55

(l)Doug Martin, (r)Matt Meadows
502-CR-MSS05ges 8/20/04 12:05 PM Page 56

13. In an atom, what forms a cloud around

the nucleus?
atom p. 34 ion p. 41 A) electrons C) neutrons
atomic number p. 37 isotope p. 37 B) protons D) positive ions
compound p. 40 mass number p. 37
density p. 46 matter p. 34 14. A carbon atom has a mass number of 12.
electron p. 36 mixture p. 43 How many protons and how many
element p. 35 molecule p. 41 neutrons does it have?
heterogeneous mixture neutron p. 36
p. 43 proton p. 36
A) 6, 6 C) 6, 12
homogeneous mixture solution p. 43 B) 12, 12 D) 12, 6
p. 43
15. On Earth, oxygen usually exists as which
of the following?
Explain the difference between the vocabulary A) solid C) liquid
words in each of the following sets. B) gas D) plasma
1. atom—element Use the illustration below to answer question 16.
2. mass number—atomic number
Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese
3. solution—heterogeneous mixture 21 22 23 24 25
Sc Ti V Cr Mn
4. matter—compound—element 44.956 47.88 50.942 51.996 54.938

5. heterogeneous mixture—homogeneous
mixture 16. In the section of the periodic table shown
above, which element has 24 protons?
6. proton—neutron—electron A) titanium C) chromium
7. isotope—atom B) manganese D) vanadium
8. atom—ion 17. An isotope known as iodine-131 has
9. mixture—compound 53 protons. How many neutrons does
it have?
10. neutron—mass number
A) 78 C) 68
B) 53 D) 184
18. Which of the following are electrically
charged?
Choose the word or phrase that best answers the A) molecule C) isotope
question. B) solution D) ion
11. Which of the following contains only one 19. Which of the following is not a physical
type of atom? property of water?
A) compound C) element A) transparent
B) mixture D) solution B) colorless
12. Which of the following has a positive C) higher density in the liquid state than
electric charge? in the solid state
A) electron C) neutron D) changes to hydrogen and oxygen when
B) proton D) atom electricity passes through it

56 CHAPTER REVIEW earth.msscience.com/vocabulary_puzzlemaker

502-CR-MSS05ges 8/20/04 12:05 PM Page 57

20. Infer If an atom has no electric charge, 26. Classify Use the periodic table of the
what can be said about the number of elements, located on the inside back
protons and electrons it contains? cover, to classify the following substances
as elements or compounds: iron, alu-
21. Identify Carbon has six protons and nitro-
minum, carbon dioxide, gold, water,
gen has seven protons. Which has the
and sugar.
greatest number of neutrons—carbon-13,
carbon-14, or nitrogen-14?
22. Explain Would isotopes of the same ele-
ment have the same number of electrons?
23. Infer If a sodium atom loses an electron 27. Will it float? You have a heavy piece of wood
and becomes a sodium ion with a charge that measures 2 cm " 10 cm " 5 cm. You find
its mass is 89 g. Will this piece of wood float?
of 1!, what would happen if a calcium
atom loses two electrons? Use the graph below to answer question 28.

24. Predict You are told that an unknown Percent of Three Isotopes of an Unknown Element
liquid has a density of 0.79 g/cm3 and will
90
not mix evenly with water. Predict what
80
will happen if you pour some of this
liquid into a glass of water, stir, and wait 70
five minutes. 60
Percent

Use the table below to answer question 25. 50

40
Atomic Number v. Mass Number 30
Element Atomic Number Mass Number 20
Fluorine 9 19 10
Lithium 3 7 0
24 25 26
Carbon 6 12
Mass number
Nitrogen 7 14
Beryllium 4 9
28. Interpret Graphs Many elements occur
Boron 5 11 in nature as mixtures of several isotopes. The
graph above shows the distribution in nature
of three isotopes of an element. Assuming that
25. Make and Use Graphs Use the table above to the most abundant isotope has an equal num-
make a line graph. For each isotope, plot ber of protons and neutrons, use the periodic
the mass number along the y-axis table on the inside back cover of this book
and the atomic number along the x-axis. to identify this element and name its three
What is the relationship between mass isotopes.
number and atomic number?

earth.msscience.com/chapter_review CHAPTER REVIEW 57

502-CR-MSS05ges 8/20/04 12:06 PM Page 58

Record your answers on the answer sheet 7. Which of the events described below is an
provided by your teacher or on a sheet of paper. example of a change of state?
Use the figure below to answer question 1. A. river water flowing into an ocean
B. air being heated in a hot air balloon to
make it rise
C. ice being crushed for snow cones
D. a puddle of water evaporating after
a rain
8. Which of the following particles always
1. Which of the following terms best describes
are present in equal number in a neutral
the snack shown above?
atom?
A. heterogeneous mixture
A. protons, neutrons
B. homogeneous mixture
B. electrons, neutrons
C. solution
C. protons, electrons
D. compound
D. electrons, ions
2. Which of the following has a negative charge?
9. In which state of matter do atoms vibrate
A. electron C. nucleus
but remain in fixed positions?
B. proton D. neutron
A. solid C. plasma
3. In which type of bond do atoms share B. gas D. liquid
electrons?
A. metallic C. ionic This block was taken from the periodic table. Use the
illustration below to answer questions 10–12.
B. hydrogen D. covalent
4. Which state of matter consists of ions and
electrons? Carbon
A. solid C. gas 6
B. plasma D. liquid C
12.011
5. Which particle orbits an atom’s nucleus?
A. isotope C. proton 10. What is the chemical symbol for carbon?
B. neutron D. electron A. C C. S
6. Which of the following terms best describes B. H D. Sn
seawater?
11. In which state does pure carbon exist at
A. solution C. isotope
room temperature?
B. ion D. element
A. gas C. solid
B. liquid D. plasma
Instructions Listen carefully to the instructions from the 12. What is carbon’s atomic number?
teacher and read the directions and each question carefully. A. 10 C. 12.011
B. 13 D. 6

58 STANDARDIZED TEST PRACTICE

Ed Young/CORBIS
502-CR-MSS05ges 8/20/04 12:06 PM Page 59

Record your answers on the answer sheet Record your answers on a sheet of paper.
provided by your teacher or on a sheet of paper. Use the illustration below to answer question 22.
13. What is an atom?
14. How is an element different from a
compound?
15. How do homogeneous mixtures differ
from heterogeneous mixtures?
16. Why does ice float in liquid water?
17. What liquid formed channels on the sur-
face of Mars long ago? What property of
22. A balloon contains helium gas. How are
liquids made this possible?
the helium atoms distributed in the bal-
loon? Do the atoms move? If so, how?
Use the table below to answer questions 18–21. Copy the sketch above on your paper
Density of Some Metals and draw the helium atoms inside it.
Metal Density (g/cm3) 23. Compare and contrast protons, neutrons,
copper 8.9 and electrons.
silver 10.5 24. What is an isotope? Why are some iso-
lead 11.3 topes useful to society?
gold 19.3
25. What is the difference between chemical
platinum 21.5 properties and physical properties? List
aluminum 2.7 one example of each type.
18. How much more dense is platinum than 26. How is atomic number different from
gold, in grams per cubic centimeter? mass number?
19. What is the mass in grams of one cubic 27. Explain what happens to water molecules
centimeter of pure gold? Hint: density # when ice melts.
mass $ volume 28. Compare the covalent, ionic, metallic, and
20. How many cubic centimeters of space hydrogen bonds. Explain how these bonds
are taken up by 10.5 g of silver? How form and describe their properties.
many are taken up by the same mass 29. Explain, using examples, how the proper-
of gold? ties of compounds differ from those of
21. An aluminum lid has a mass of 6.5 g. It atoms that combine to form them.
has a volume of 2.4 cm3. Calculate the 30. How does the current atomic model
density of aluminum in grams per cubic describe the movement and location of
centimeter. electrons?

earth.msscience.com/standardized_test STANDARDIZED TEST PRACTICE 59