Chapter

1
Geodesics

1.1 Expanding Summation Notation

One of the fundamental tricks in general relativity is the Einstein

summation convention. It’s a compact way of writing sums without
needing to explicitly write the summation symbol. Let’s break it
down.

The basic idea is that if an index appears both as a subscript (lower

index) and as a superscript (upper index) in a term, the convention
assumes a summation over that index. Here’s a simple example:

X
Aµ B µ = Aµ B µ (1.1)
µ∈{t,x,y,z}

The index µ appears both as a subscript and a superscript, so the

Einstein summation convention automatically tells us to sum over
µ. We can now explicitly write this sum in a more familiar form:

Aµ B µ = At B t + Ax B x + Ay B y + Az B z (1.2)

This expansion clearly shows what the summation means in practice:

it’s just the sum of products over each index—here, the time and
spatial components of the vectors A and B.

1
1.2. Using Index Notation to Reference Entries in the Metric
Quantum
TensorMechanics
and Vectors
By Hand-Holding

Quick example: Expand gµµ Aµ B µ using summation:

X
gµµ Aµ B µ = gµµ Aµ B µ
µ∈{t,x,y,z}

= gtt At B t + gxx Ax B x + gyy Ay B y + gzz Az B z

This type of expansion makes it clear how the summation works

for each of the components of the metric gµν and the vectors Aµ
and B ν . Now let’s move on to a more sophisticated example.

Example 1.1 - Expanding the Summation for a Geodesic Equation

Consider the geodesic equation, which describes the motion of

a particle in curved spacetime:

d2 xλ dxµ dxν
2
+ Γλµν =0 (1.3)
dτ dτ dτ

While this equation might look compact, it actually contains

sums over the indices µ and ν. For simplicity, let’s first focus
on the µ summation. Expanding that summation gives:
3 2  t 2
d2 xλ X λ dxµ d2 xλ

λ dx
+ Γµµ = + Γ tt +
dτ 2 µ=0
dτ dτ 2 dτ
 x 2  y 2  z 2
λ dx λ dx λ dx
Γxx + Γyy + Γzz =0
dτ dτ dτ

This expanded form explicitly shows the terms corresponding

to each component of the Christoffel symbols and the velocity
dxµ
dτ . Breaking down the summation like this helps reveal the
full structure of the equation and makes the implicit summation
more transparent.

By explicitly expanding the sums over time and space, you can see
what each term represents and how they combine to describe the
motion of a particle in spacetime. Let’s practice with a few more
examples to build intuition.

1.2 Using Index Notation to Reference Entries in the

Metric Tensor and Vectors

In general relativity, both the metric tensor and vectors are key
players in describing the geometry of spacetime and the motion of
particles. The index notation provides a systematic way to reference
the individual components of these objects, which allows us to work
flexibly with various coordinate systems.

2
Brandon Wiggins
1.2. Using Index Notation to Reference Entries in the Metric Tensor and Vectors

The Metric Tensor in Index Notation

The metric tensor, gµν , is a mathematical object that encodes

the geometry of spacetime. It describes how distances and time
intervals are measured. The tensor has components that depend on
the spacetime coordinates and takes the following general form:

ds2 = gµν dxµ dxν (1.4)

Here, gµν refers to the individual components of the metric tensor,

and the indices µ and ν run over the spacetime dimensions (typically
t, x, y, z). For example, in flat spacetime, the metric tensor in
Cartesian coordinates is:

 
−1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
gµν =
0

0 1 0
0 0 0 1

Each entry in this matrix corresponds to a specific pair of indices.

For example, gtt = −1, gxx = 1, and so on. In curved spacetimes,
the components gµν can vary with position.

Quick example: In spherical coordinates, the metric tensor

is diagonal:
 
−1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 
gµν = 
 0 0 r2

0 
0 0 0 r2 sin2 θ

Using Index Notation with Vectors

Vectors are described by their components in different coordinate

directions. In index notation, a vector v µ is written as a collection
of components:

vt
 
v x 
vµ =  
v y 
vz

The upper index µ tells us which component of the vector we’re

referring to. If we want the time component, we use v t ; if we want
the spatial component in the x-direction, we use v x , and so on.

3
1.2. Using Index Notation to Reference Entries in the Metric
Quantum
TensorMechanics
and Vectors
By Hand-Holding

When working with vectors in curved spacetime, you’ll also en-

counter the lower-index version of a vector, vµ , which is related to
the upper-index version by the metric tensor:

vµ = gµν v ν

This operation is called lowering the index. The metric tensor allows
us to “raise” and “lower” indices, switching between contravariant
(upper) and covariant (lower) components. Let’s try an example to
see this in action.

Example 1.2 - Raising and Lowering Indices Example

Suppose we have a vector v µ = 1, 2, 3, 4 in flat spacetime.
To find the lower-index version vµ , we use the flat spacetime
metric:

  
−1 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 2
vµ = gµν v ν = 

 
0 0 1 0 3
0 0 0 1 4

Performing the matrix multiplication gives:

 
−1
2
vµ = 
3


Here, the time component has flipped sign, while the spatial
components remain the same. This is a direct result of using
the metric to lower the index.

This example demonstrates the power of the metric in manipulating

the components of vectors. Raising and lowering indices helps
you keep track of how quantities change when you move between
different reference frames in curved spacetime.

Contraction of Indices

One of the most common operations in general relativity is contract-

ing indices—summing over repeated indices. This often happens
when we contract a vector with itself or with a tensor. For example,
consider the following contraction:

v µ vµ = gµν v µ v ν

4
Brandon Wiggins
1.2. Using Index Notation to Reference Entries in the Metric Tensor and Vectors

This is just a sum over the components of the vector v µ with the
corresponding components of the metric tensor. In flat spacetime,
this sum gives the spacetime interval, which is a scalar quantity:

v µ vµ = −(v t )2 + (v x )2 + (v y )2 + (v z )2

In curved spacetime, the contraction will involve the position-

dependent components of the metric, making the result depend on
where you are in spacetime.

Dot Products and Expanding Summations

A common operation in general relativity is taking the dot product

of two vectors. In index notation, the dot product of two vectors
v µ and uν is written as:

vµ uµ = gµν v µ uν

Let’s work through an explicit example with a concrete diagonal

metric. Consider the following dot product of the vector v µ with
itself:

vµ v µ = gµν v µ v ν (1.5)

Using the Einstein summation convention, this expression implies a

sum over the index µ. Now, let’s expand this sum term by term.

Example 1.3 - Expanding a Dot Product in Diagonal Metric

Suppose the metric is diagonal and takes the form:

 
−1 0 0 0
0 4 0 0
gµν =
0

0 9 0
0 0 0 16

Also, let the vector v µ be:

 
1
µ
2
v =
3


The dot product vµ v µ = gµν v µ v ν expands as:

5
1.3. Calculating the Christoffel Symbols for a Diagonal Metric
Quantum Mechanics By Hand-Holding

vµ v µ = gtt v t v t + gxx v x v x + gyy v y v y + gzz v z v z

Let’s now substitute the specific values from the metric and
the vector into this expansion:

vµ v µ = (−1)(1)(1) + (4)(2)(2) + (9)(3)(3) + (16)(4)(4)

Simplifying this gives:

vµ v µ = −1 + 16 + 81 + 256 = 352

Thus, the dot product vµ v µ evaluates to 352. Each term in

the sum corresponds to a product of the metric component
gµν and the corresponding vector components v µ v ν , making it
clear how the components of the metric and vector interact.

1.3 Calculating the Christoffel Symbols for a Diago-

nal Metric

The Christoffel symbols Γλµν are essential for understanding how

vectors and tensors change as you move through curved spacetime.
They help us capture the effects of spacetime curvature in equations
of motion. These symbols are constructed from the metric tensor
gµν , and for a given metric, we can compute the Christoffel symbols
step by step.

Definition of Christoffel Symbols

The Christoffel symbols are defined in terms of the partial derivatives

of the metric tensor. The general formula is:

Christoffel Symbols
1 λρ
Γλµν = g (∂µ gνρ + ∂ν gµρ − ∂ρ gµν ) (1.6)
2

Here: - g λρ is the inverse of the metric tensor gλρ , - ∂µ represents

partial differentiation with respect to the coordinate xµ .

For a diagonal metric, many of the terms in this expression will

vanish, simplifying the calculation considerably.

6
Brandon Wiggins 1.3. Calculating the Christoffel Symbols for a Diagonal Metric

Example: Christoffel Symbols for a Diagonal Metric

Let’s compute the Christoffel symbols for a simple diagonal metric in

spherical coordinates, which is common in many physical scenarios:

 
−1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 
gµν = 
0 0 r2 0 
0 0 0 r2 sin2 θ

Here, the coordinates xµ correspond to t (time), r (radial distance),

θ (polar angle), and ϕ (azimuthal angle).

We’ll start by calculating one of the Christoffel symbols: Γrθθ . Using

the general formula, we need to calculate the partial derivatives of
the metric components:

1 rr
Γrθθ = g (∂θ gθθ )
2

Since g rr = 1 and gθθ = r2 , we have:

∂θ gθθ = ∂θ (r2 ) = 0

This means that Γrθθ = 0, which shows that in this coordinate

system, no Christoffel symbol arises from this particular term.

Example 1.4 - Calculation of Γrrr

Next, let’s compute Γrrr . Using the formula:

1 rr
Γrrr = g (∂r grr )
2
Here, g rr = 1, and grr = 1, so we need to compute ∂r grr :

∂r grr = ∂r (1) = 0

Thus, Γrrr = 0. Again, for this particular Christoffel symbol,

the result is zero.

Nonzero Christoffel Symbols Example

For a nonzero Christoffel symbol, let’s compute Γθrθ , which involves

the metric component gθθ = r2 . Using the general Christoffel
symbol formula:

7
1.3. Calculating the Christoffel Symbols for a Diagonal Metric
Quantum Mechanics By Hand-Holding

1 θθ
Γθrθ = g (∂r gθθ )
2

1
Since g θθ = r2 , and:

∂r gθθ = ∂r (r2 ) = 2r

We substitute into the formula:

1 1 1
Γθrθ = (2r) =
2 r2 r

Thus, Γθrθ = 1r , which is a nonzero Christoffel symbol. This result

tells us that the curvature of spacetime affects how the θ-component
of a vector changes as you move in the r-direction.

General Strategy for Computing Christoffel Symbols

The Christoffel symbols are derivatives of entries of the metric.

Odds are, most of the Christoffel Symbols for a given metric are 0.
To save time, we only want to calculate the non-zero ones.

To identify non-zero christoffel symbols (or choices of λ, µ and ν

such that Γλµν ̸= 0, we look at the metric and identify all instances
where taking the derivative of an entry with respect to one of the
coordinate variables would yield a non-zero result.

Quick example: For the metric

 
−1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
gµν =  
0 0 r2 0
0 0 0 1

that has coordinates t, r, ϕ, θ.

It looks like the only non-zero Christoffel symbols would

be when we take a derivative with respect to the ϕth row
and the ϕth column with respect to r. So the only non-zero
Christoffel symbols will have two ϕs and one r.

We can even do better than this though. We can get more precise
about which Christoffel symbols to try if we consider each term of
the Christoffel symbol definition and when they are non-zero too.

8
 Brandon Wiggins 1.4. Calculating Acceleration

The first term in the Christoffel symbols formula is

∂µ gνρ

To take the derivative of the ϕ, ϕ entry with respect to r we

would have
∂r gϕϕ
which means that µ = r, ν = ϕ, ρ = λϕ (For diagonal metrics
ρ = λ), so
Γϕrϕ
would be non-zero.

We could do this same exercise with the other two terms ∂ν gµρ and
∂ρ gµν and find out which combinations of indices for each would
give ∂r gϕϕ .

Another handy rule:

The Christoffel symbols are symmetric in their lower

indices. This means

Γλµν = Γλνµ

In the contenxt of our last example, this means that if Γϕrϕ is

non-zero, then Γϕϕr is non-zero too (and the same value).

1.4 Calculating Acceleration

To get the acceleration, we use the geodesic equation:

d2 xλ dxµ dxν
2
= −Γλµν (1.7)
dτ dτ dτ
or
d2 xλ
= −Γλµν v µ v ν (1.8)
dτ 2

We need to observe that (stupid) Einstein summation notation, but

other than that, this will be straight-forward to do:

Example 1.5 - S

uppose that we did a problem in a coordinates system with

t, x, y, z and found that

Γxtt = 2x

Γtxt = Γttx = 1

9
1.4. Calculating Acceleration Quantum Mechanics By Hand-Holding

Γxyy = 5x
Suppose that the velocity of this object is v = (5x, 2x, 1, 0).
What is the acceleration?

To get the acceleration in time, we let λ = t. We get

d2 xt d2 t
= = −Γtµν v µ v ν
dτ 2 dτ 2
In words this says ”add up all the terms with Christoffel
symbols that have a t upstairs. We have Γtxt and Γttx . We get

d2 t
= −Γtµν v µ v ν
dτ 2
= −Γtxt v x v t − Γttx v t v x
= −(1)(2x)(5x) − (1)(5x)(2x)
= −10x2

For acceleration in the x, we let λ = x and get.

d2 x
= −Γxµν v µ v ν
dτ 2
= −Γxtt v t v t − Γxyy v y v y
= −(2x)(5x)(5x) − (5x)(1)(1)
= 20x3 − 5x

We have no Christoffel symbols with the other coordinates

(y, z) upstairs, so there is no acceleration in those direction
and we are done.

10