Ecosystems

“An ecosystem is defined as a community of lifeforms in concurrence with non-living

components, interacting with each other.”

 What is an Ecosystem?
An ecosystem is a structural and functional unit of ecology where the living organisms interact
with each other and the surrounding environment. In other words, an ecosystem is a chain of
interactions between organisms and their environment. The term “Ecosystem” was first coined
by A.G.Tansley, an English botanist, in 1935.

 Structure of the Ecosystem

The structure of an ecosystem is characterised by the organisation of both biotic and abiotic
components. This includes the distribution of energy in our environment. It also includes the
climatic conditions prevailing in that particular environment.

The structure of an ecosystem can be split into two main components, namely:

 Biotic Components
 Abiotic Components

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The biotic and abiotic components are interrelated in an ecosystem. It is an open system where
the energy and components can flow throughout the boundaries.

 Biotic Components :
Biotic components refer to all living components in an ecosystem. Based on nutrition, biotic
components can be categorised into autotrophs, heterotrophs and saprotrophs (or
decomposers).

 Producers include all autotrophs such as plants. They are called autotrophs as they can
produce food through the process of photosynthesis. Consequently, all other organisms
higher up on the food chain rely on producers for food.
 Consumers or heterotrophs are organisms that depend on other organisms for food.
Consumers are further classified into primary consumers, secondary consumers and
tertiary consumers.
o Primary consumers are always herbivores as they rely on producers for food.
o Secondary consumers depend on primary consumers for energy. They can
either be carnivores or omnivores.
o Tertiary consumers are organisms that depend on secondary consumers for
food. Tertiary consumers can also be carnivores or omnivores.

o Quaternary consumers are present in some food chains. These organisms’ prey
on tertiary consumers for energy. Furthermore, they are usually at the top of a
food chain as they have no natural predators.
 Decomposers include saprophytes such as fungi and bacteria. They directly thrive on
the dead and decaying organic matter. Decomposers are essential for the ecosystem as
they help in recycling nutrients to be reused by plants.

 Abiotic Components:
Abiotic components are the non-living component of an ecosystem. It includes air, water, soil,
minerals, sunlight, temperature, nutrients, wind, altitude, turbidity, etc.

 Functions of Ecosystem:
The functions of the ecosystem are as follows:

1. It regulates the essential ecological processes, supports life systems and renders stability.

2. It is also responsible for the cycling of nutrients between biotic and abiotic components.

3. It maintains a balance among the various trophic levels in the ecosystem.

4. It cycles the minerals through the biosphere.

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5. The abiotic components help in the synthesis of organic components that involve the
exchange of energy.

So, the functional units of an ecosystem or functional components that work together in an
ecosystem are:

 Productivity – It refers to the rate of biomass production.

 Energy flow – It is the sequential process through which energy flows from one trophic
level to another. The energy captured from the sun flows from producers to consumers
and then to decomposers and finally back to the environment.
 Decomposition – It is the process of breakdown of dead organic material. The top-soil
is the major site for decomposition.

Energy flow in Ecosystem

Energy flow is the flow of energy through living things within an ecosystem. All living
organisms can be organized into producers and consumers, and those producers and consumers
can further be organized into a food chain. Each of the levels within the food chain is a trophic
level. In order to more efficiently show the quantity of organisms at each trophic level, these
food chains are then organized into trophic pyramids. The arrows in the food chain show that
the energy flow is unidirectional, with the head of an arrow indicating the direction of energy
flow; energy is lost as heat at each step along the way.
The unidirectional flow of energy and the successive loss of energy as it travels up the food
web are patterns in energy flow that are governed by thermodynamics, which is the theory of
energy exchange between systems. Trophic dynamics relates to thermodynamics because it
deals with the transfer and transformation of energy (originating externally from the sun via
solar radiation) to and among organisms

 Primary production:
A producer is any organism that performs photosynthesis. Producers are important because
they convert energy from the sun into a storable and usable chemical form of energy, glucose,
as well as oxygen. The producers themselves can use the energy stored in glucose to perform
cellular respiration. Or, if the producer is consumed by herbivores in the next trophic level,
some of the energy is passed on up the pyramid. The glucose stored within producers serves as
food for consumers, and so it is only through producers that consumers are able to access the
sun’s energy. Some examples of primary producers are algae, mosses, and other plants such as
grasses, trees, and shrubs.
One of the factors that controls primary production is the amount of energy that enters the
producer(s), which can be measured using productivity. Only one percent of solar energy enters
the producer, the rest bounces off or moves through. Gross primary productivity is the amount
of energy the producer actually gets. Generally, 60% of the energy that enters the producer goes
to the producer’s own respiration. The net primary productivity is the amount that the plant
retains after the amount that it used for cellular respiration is subtracted. Another factor
controlling primary production is organic/inorganic nutrient levels in the water or soil that the
producer is living in.

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  Secondary production:
Secondary production is the use of energy stored in plants converted by consumers to their own
biomass. Different ecosystems have different levels of consumers, all end with one top
consumer. Most energy is stored in organic matter of plants, and as the consumers eat these
plants they take up this energy. This energy in the herbivores and omnivores is then consumed
by carnivores. There is also a large amount of energy that is in primary production and ends up
being waste or litter, referred to as detritus. The detrital food chain includes a large amount of
microbes, macroinvertebrates, meiofauna, fungi, and bacteria. These organisms are consumed
by omnivores and carnivores and account for a large amount of secondary production.
Secondary consumers can vary widely in how efficient they are in consuming. The efficiency
of energy being passed on to consumers is estimated to be around 10%. Energy flow through
consumers differs in aquatic and terrestrial environments.

 Detritivores:
Detritivores consume organic material that is decomposing and are in turn consumed by
carnivores. Predator productivity is correlated with prey productivity. This confirms that the
primary productivity in ecosystems affects all productivity following.
Detritus is a large portion of organic material in ecosystems. Organic material in temperate
forests is mostly made up of dead plants, approximately 62%.
In an aquatic ecosystem, leaf matter that falls into streams gets wet and begins to leech organic
material. This happens rather quickly and will attract microbes and invertebrates. The leaves
can be broken down into large pieces called coarse particulate organic matter (CPOM). The
CPOM is rapidly colonized by microbes. Meiofauna is extremely important to secondary
production in stream ecosystems. Microbes breaking down and colonizing this leaf matter are
very important to the detritovores. The detritovores make the leaf matter more edible by
releasing compounds from the tissues; it ultimately helps soften them. As leaves decay nitrogen
will decrease since cellulose and lignin in the leaves is difficult to break down. Thus, the
colonizing microbes bring in nitrogen in order to aid in the decomposition. Leaf breakdown
can depend on initial nitrogen content, season, and species of trees. The species of trees can
have variation when their leaves fall. Thus, the breakdown of leaves is happening at different
times, which is called a mosaic of microbial populations.
Species effect and diversity in an ecosystem can be analysed through their performance and
efficiency. In addition, secondary production in streams can be influenced heavily by detritus
that falls into the streams; production of benthic fauna biomass and abundance decreased an
additional 47–50% during a study of litter removal and exclusion.

Food Chain
A food chain explains which organism eats another organism in the environment. The food
chain is a linear sequence of organisms where nutrients and energy are transferred from one
organism to the other. This occurs when one organism consumes another organism. It begins
with the producer organism, follows the chain and ends with the decomposer organism. After
understanding the food chain, we realise how one organism is dependent upon another
organism for survival.

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  What is a Food Chain?
A food chain refers to the order of events in an ecosystem, where one living organism eats
another organism, and later that organism is consumed by another larger organism. The flow
of nutrients and energy from one organism to another at different trophic levels forms a food
chain. The food chain also explains the feeding pattern or relationship between living
organisms. Trophic level refers to the sequential stages in a food chain, starting with producers
at the bottom, followed by primary, secondary and tertiary consumers. Every level in a food
chain is known as a trophic level.

The food chain consists of four major parts, namely:

 The Sun: The sun is the initial source of energy, which provides energy for everything
on the planet.
 Producers: The producers in a food chain include all autotrophs such as phytoplankton,
cyanobacteria, algae, and green plants. This is the first stage in a food chain. The
producers make up the first level of a food chain. The producers utilise the energy from
the sun to make food. Producers are also known as autotrophs as they make their own
food. Producers are any plant or other organisms that produce their own nutrients
through photosynthesis.
 Consumers: Consumers are all organisms that are dependent on plants or other
organisms for food. This is the largest part of a food web, as it contains almost all living
organisms. It includes herbivores which are animals that eat plants, carnivores which
are animals that eat other animals, parasites that live on other organisms by harming
them and lastly the scavengers, which are animals that eat dead animals’ carcasses.
Here, herbivores are known as primary consumers and carnivores are secondary consumers.
The second trophic level includes organisms that eat producers. Therefore, primary consumers
or herbivores are organisms in the second trophic level.

 Decomposers: Decomposers are organisms that get energy from dead or waste organic
material. This is the last stage in a food chain. Decomposers are an integral part of a
food chain, as they convert organic waste materials into inorganic materials, which
enriches the soil or land with nutrients.
Decomposers complete a life cycle. They help in recycling the nutrients as they provide
nutrients to soil or oceans, that can be utilised by autotrophs or producers. Thus, starting a
whole new food chain.

 Types of Food Chain

There are two types of food chains, namely the detritus food chain and the grazing food chain.
Let’s look at them more closely:

 Grazing food chain: The grazing food chain is a type of food chain that starts with
green plants, passes through herbivores and then to carnivores. In a grazing food chain,

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 energy in the lowest trophic level is acquired from photosynthesis. In this type of food
chain, the first energy transfer is from plants to herbivores. This type of food chain depends on
the flow of energy from autotrophs to herbivores. As autotrophs are the base for all ecosystems
on Earth, the majority of ecosystems in the environment follow this kind of food chain.
 Detritus food chain: The detritus food chain includes different species of organisms
and plants like algae, bacteria, fungi, protozoa, mites, insects, worms and so on. The
detritus food chain begins with dead organic material. The food energy passes into
decomposers and detritivores, which are further eaten by smaller organisms like
carnivores. Carnivores, like maggots, become a meal for bigger carnivores like frogs,
snakes and so on. Primary consumers like fungi, bacteria, protozoans, and so on are
detritivores which feed on detritus.

Food Web
Several interconnected food chains form a food web. A food web is similar to a food chain but
the food web is comparatively larger than a food chain. Occasionally, a single organism is
consumed by many predators or it consumes several other organisms. Due to this, many trophic
levels get interconnected. The food chain fails to showcase the flow of energy in the right way.
But the food web is able to show the proper representation of energy flow, as it displays the
interactions between different organisms. When there are more cross-interactions between
different food chains, the food web gets more complex. This complexity in a food web leads
to a more sustainable ecosystem.

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 Ecological Pyramid
An ecological pyramid is also integral to a biological ecosystem. In 1939, Charles
Elton previously presented the idea of the ecological pyramid. An ecological pyramid is a
graphical portrayal of the dispersion of biomass or energy inside an ecosystem. The biomass
is disseminated by the number of individual creatures at each trophic level. Each step or level
of the order of the food chain frames a trophic level. Ecological pyramids conformed to the
trophic construction of the ecosystem. The pyramid in the biological system comprises
various layers starting from the earliest stage to the top. The autotrophs or the producers are
at the main trophic level. They fix up the sun-powered energy and make it accessible for
heterotrophs or consumers. The herbivores or the primary consumers come at the second,
little carnivores or the secondary consumers at the third, and bigger carnivores or the tertiary
consumers structure the fourth trophic level. Taking a gander at the trophic levels from the
beginning to the highest point of the pyramid, it is seen that the quantity of life forms in each
trophic level is a step-by-step diminishing. The foundation of the pyramid is shaped by the
producers and the progressive supplement layers ascend to the top. At long last, the apex
predators are the greatest top consumers.

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The theory of the ecological pyramid was recommended by Raymond Lindeman and G.
Evelyn Hutchinson. The ecological pyramid is additionally known as the energy pyramid.
The lower part of the pyramid, which is likewise the broadest part is involved by the ones at
the main trophic level, that is the producers. A higher level of the pyramid is involved by
primary consumers, secondary, and then tertiary consumers.
The ecological pyramid is additionally used to make sense of how different living beings in
an environment are connected with each other. The pyramid in a perfect world shows who is
consumed by whom, while likewise showing the flow in which the energy streams. The
progression of energy in an ecological pyramid is from base to top, and that implies energy
from the autotrophs, who are likewise the essential makers, goes to the primary consumers,
meaning the people who consume these plants. At the following stage, the energy goes to the
secondary consumers who eat the primary consumers.

 Features of the Ecological pyramid:

 Living beings reliant upon a similar class of food-consumer connections are

situated at a similar level of the pyramid.
 The ecological pyramid situated inside the environment comprises two to four
layers.
 The producers are situated at the least level of an environmental pyramid. The
number and amount of producers at this level are exceptionally high.
 The apex predators exist at the most elevated level of an ecological pyramid.
 The number and amount of consumers at the most elevated level of the ecological
pyramid are low.
 The inventory of food energy steadily diminishes at the highest point of the
pyramid. So, the highest point of the pyramid has a limited and sharp shape.
 The number of living beings at the highest point of the environmental pyramid bit
by bit diminishes, however, their size and volume rise.

 Classification:
The ecological pyramid is mainly divided into three parts.

1. Pyramid of Number

The ecological pyramid that is shaped by organizing the number of living creatures of various
supplement levels in an ecological system is known as the pyramid of numbers. The
producers are situated on the foundation of the pyramid.
The pyramid of numbers can be both upstanding and inverted. The upstanding pyramid has
the largest number of makers at the base level and the quantity of creature’s step by step
diminishes at a higher level. In any ecological system, the pyramid of numbers in the parasitic
food chain is constantly transformed. In the inverted pyramid, the number of living beings in
various supplement levels starts from the earliest stage to the top step-by-step increments. As
per the ecological pyramid, the number of living creatures in a trophic level relies upon the
number of past supplements or nutrients. Inland ecosystems, the quantity of herbivores is not
exactly that of grass plants. Since carnivores feed on herbivores, so the quantity of carnivores
is lower than that of herbivores. Likewise, the quantity of carnivores at the most significant
level ward on carnivores is the least.

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 2. Pyramid of Biomass

The ecological pyramid that is framed by sequencing how much dry weight of various
creatures as per the trophic level in an ecological system is known as a pyramid of biomass.
Contingent upon the trophic level of an environment, the dry weight of various living
creatures is organized in stages, with 15 to 20% of biomass per layer going to the following
layer.
Like a pyramid of numbers, this pyramid can be both upstanding and inverted. Forests and
grasslands ecological systems are instances of upstanding biomass pyramids. The
environment of the lake is an illustration of an inverted biomass pyramid. Biomass pyramids
are extremely fundamental in the food chain. The size of living beings together is known as
this biomass pyramid. The pyramid that demonstrates the total weight of every food layer in
a specific food chain in an ecosystem is the biomass pyramid. From the primary trophic level
of the food chain to the higher trophic level the biomass progressively diminishes. At the
foundation of this ecological pyramid, the biomass of the producer is at the top and the
biomass of the tertiary consumer is the least. In the forest ecosystem, the biomass of the
producer is most elevated and the biomass of tertiary consumers is low. The pyramid of
biomass might be reversed in the aquatic ecosystem.

3. Pyramid of Energy
The ecological pyramid which is shaped by organizing how much energy is in various trophic
levels in an environment is known as the pyramid of energy. The producers situated at the
foundation of the pyramid of energy have the highest measure of energy and the trophic level
at the top has the least measure of energy.

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The pyramid of energy is generally upstanding. This pyramid addresses the complete energy
content of each trophic level in an ecological system. The foundation of this pyramid has the
most measure of energy acquired from the sun. Yet, as indicated by Lindeman’s 10%
regulation law, how much energy at a higher level steadily diminishes. A portion of the
energy that is found in natural food is lost as heat energy in breath, some are utilized in
physiological cycles, and the rest is utilized by decomposers. In the pyramid of energy, some
energy is lost as energy is moved starting with one trophic level and then onto the next. Each
level of this pyramid loses 60 to 90% of energy during energy moves.

 Ecological Pyramid Importance:

The ecological pyramid is important in a biological system and the reasons made sense
underneath:
 An ecosystem pyramid gives thought to the dietary patterns of various living
creatures.
 The ecological pyramids are the number of living creatures in an ecosystem.
 It gives a little clarity of how much energy moved to start with one trophic level
and then onto the next in the biological system.
 It gives data about the biodiversity of a region.
 The ecological pyramid is framed based on the food-consumer relationship.
 If the food chain order is annihilated, the biological pyramid will be obliterated
and the entire environment will be seriously harmed.
 It helps in keeping up with equilibrium and helps in checking the entire state of a
biological ecosystem.

 Ecological Pyramid Limitations:

The ecological pyramid accompanies its own arrangement of constraints since it neglects
several significant viewpoints. These have been talked about underneath:
 The biological pyramid doesn’t think about saprophytes and expects them as
immaterial in the environment, despite the fact that they assume a profoundly
significant part in keeping up with the equilibrium of the environment.
 There is no notice of diurnal or occasional varieties in this pyramid, the idea of
environment or seasons is totally unassumed here.
 The ecological pyramid is just relevant in the event of straightforward food chains.
 This pyramid specifies nothing about the pace of energy move that happens from
one trophic level to the next trophic level.

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  Significant sources of energy like litter and humus are totally overlooked in the
ecological pyramid despite the fact that their significance in the environment is
unrivalled.

Types of Ecosystem
An ecosystem is a structural and functional unit where living things interact with one another
and their surroundings. The different types of ecosystems can range in size from a little oasis
in the middle of a desert to an ocean covering thousands of miles. In this article, we will
explain the five types of ecosystems and the difference between them.

An ecosystem can be as small as an oasis in a desert, or as big as an ocean, spanning thousands

of miles. There are different types of ecosystem :

1. Forest ecosystems :

Forest ecosystems are an incredibly complex web of different tree and animal species, plus
many fungi and bacteria species interacting with one another. These types of ecosystems vary
according to the climate it is in; the world’s most biologically diverse ecosystems are found
in tropical rainforests, which have many tree and animal species. However, temperate and
boreal forests also have their own respective flora and fauna species.

Key characteristics of forest ecosystems include:

 Canopy: Forests are defined by their dense canopies, formed by tall trees that
compete for sunlight. The canopy provides shade and creates a unique microclimate,
influencing temperature and humidity within the ecosystem.
 Layers: Forests have distinct vertical layers, including the emergent layer (topmost),
canopy layer, understory, and forest floor. Each layer supports different species, from
towering trees to smaller plants and various animals.
 Biodiversity: Forests boast incredible biodiversity, housing countless species of
plants, animals, and microorganisms. They provide habitats for a diverse range of
creatures, from large mammals to insects and birds.
 Nutrient cycling: Forest ecosystems excel in nutrient cycling, where organic matter
decomposes and releases essential nutrients back into the soil. This process ensures
the continuous growth and sustenance of the forest community.

2. Grassland ecosystems:

Grassland ecosystems are found across a variety of the world’s different climate zones, from
tropical savannas to mid-latitude steppes and even across sections of the tundra biome.

A variety of different grass species make up much of grassland ecosystems, along with
different species of small plants, shrubs, and sometimes the occasional tree. As a result, these
types of ecosystems have lower biological diversity than forests. However, a range of animal

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species, from mammals to insects, inhabit grasslands, with herbivores feeding off the grass
and carnivores consuming other animal species.

Key characteristics of grassland ecosystems include:

 Grasses: Grasses, both tall and short, form the primary vegetation in grassland
ecosystems. They have adapted to withstand most harsh effects of grazing and fire,
and their extensive root systems enable them to survive in nutrient-poor soils.
 Herbivores: Grasslands support a diverse array of herbivores, including zebras,
bison, antelopes, and prairie dogs. These animals play a crucial role in shaping the
grassland ecosystem by grazing on the abundant grasses.
 Fire adaptations: Grasslands are often subject to natural fires, and many plant
species have evolved adaptations to survive and even benefit from these fires. Some
grasses and wildflowers have fire-resistant tissues or produce heat-activated seeds.
 Seasonal changes: Grasslands experience distinct seasons, with periods of intense
growth during the wet season followed by dry seasons. These seasonal variations
influence the abundance and behaviour of both plants and animals in the ecosystem.

3. Desert ecosystems:

Deserts are all over the world. These are arid areas with scanty amounts of flora. The nights
are chilly, and the days are scorching.

The desert ecosystem is the driest ecosystem on Earth, which accounts for its lack of
vegetation and low biological variety. It is a component of the terra firma ecosystem. Desert
ecosystems' flora and animals have learned the skill of enduring extreme environments.

Key characteristics of desert ecosystems include:

 Water scarcity: Deserts receive minimal rainfall, and water availability is a crucial
limiting factor for life. Desert plants have evolved strategies such as deep root
systems, succulent leaves, or the ability to remain dormant for extended periods to
conserve water.
 Xerophytic adaptations: Xerophytes, plants adapted to arid conditions, often have
small leaves, thick cuticles, and spines to reduce water loss. Some desert animals, like
camels, have specialised physiological mechanisms to conserve water and tolerate
high temperatures.
 Nocturnal activity: Many desert animals have adapted their behaviour to the extreme
temperatures of the desert by becoming nocturnal creatures. They are active during
the cooler nighttime hours, conserving energy and avoiding the scorching heat of the
day.
 Sand dunes and rock formations: Deserts are often characterised by iconic features
such as sand dunes and unique rock formations. These geological structures are
shaped by wind and water erosion over thousands of years, adding to the scenic beauty
of the desert landscape.

4. Tundra ecosystems:

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The tundra ecosystem has a relatively low biological diversity due to the incredibly harsh
cold conditions that occur in these ecosystems during much of the year. Typical plant species
include low-lying grasses, plants, and shrubs, which are designed to withstand the frequent
winds and heavy snowfalls that occur.

Any trees are coniferous and found in slightly warmer parts of the tundra. The ecosystem is
well-timed so that, during the short summer, the tundra bursts into life—plant species bloom
and grow, insect pollination takes place, and animals give birth to their young. Many
migratory bird species call the tundra their home during the summer.
Key characteristics of tundra ecosystems include:

 Permafrost: Tundra regions have a layer of permanently frozen subsoil called

permafrost. This frozen ground restricts the depth of plant roots and influences
drainage patterns, shaping the overall ecosystem structure.
 Low vegetation: Tundra vegetation consists of hardy plants like mosses, lichens, and
dwarf shrubs that can tolerate cold temperatures and short growing seasons. These
low-lying plants form intricate mats that insulate the soil and provide habitats for
small organisms.
 Migration and hibernation: Many tundra animals, such as caribou and Arctic foxes,
undertake long-distance migrations to find food during the brief summer months.
Others, like bears, enter a state of hibernation to conserve energy and survive the
harsh winters.
 Fragile balance: Tundra ecosystems are particularly vulnerable to climate change.
As temperatures rise, permafrost thaws, altering drainage patterns and impacting the
delicate balance of the ecosystem. This makes preserving tundra regions crucial for
mitigating climate-change effects.

5. Aquatic ecosystems:

An aquatic ecosystem is defined as a community of organisms that live and interact with each
other in a water-based environment. This encompasses a wide range of environments,
including (but not limited to) marshlands, lakes, rivers, estuaries, seas, and oceans.
However, aquatic ecosystems have become increasingly threatened in recent decades due to
pollution, vegetation removal, over-fishing, and invasive species. There are numerous
approaches toward conserving marine ecosystems based on the nature of both the problem
and the type of watercourse.

 Saltwater and freshwater: Aquatic ecosystems can be divided into saltwater

(marine) and freshwater (inland) ecosystems. Each has unique characteristics and
supports different organisms adapted to their specific salinity levels.

Freshwater Ecosystem

The freshwater ecosystem is an aquatic ecosystem that includes lakes, ponds, rivers, streams
and wetlands. These have no salt content in contrast with the marine ecosystem.

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Marine Ecosystem

The marine ecosystem includes seas and oceans. These have a more substantial salt content
and greater biodiversity in comparison to the freshwater ecosystem.

 Coral reefs and kelp forests: Coral reefs, found in tropical and subtropical regions,
are hotspots of biodiversity, providing habitat to numerous fish, corals, and other
marine organisms. Kelp forests, in colder coastal waters, create underwater forests
that shelter a wide range of marine life.
 Wetlands and mangroves: Wetlands, including marshes, swamps, and bogs, are
vital ecosystems that serve as nurseries for many species and provide essential
services like water filtration. Mangroves in coastal areas act as protective barriers
against storms and provide a habitat for diverse marine life.
 Adaptations to water: Aquatic organisms have evolved various adaptations for
living in water, such as streamlined body shapes for efficient swimming, gills for
extracting oxygen from water, and specialised organs for buoyancy control.

In conclusion, the conservation of ecosystems, regardless of their type, is of utmost

importance. Forests, grasslands, deserts, tundras, and aquatic ecosystems all play vital roles
in maintaining biodiversity and providing essential services to our planet. By reducing,
reusing, and recycling our waste, we can minimize the negative impact on the environment
and prevent pollution. Additionally, conserving water and energy resources is vital to ensure
the sustainability of our ecosystems. Implementing eco-friendly practices, such as using
energy-efficient appliances and adopting water-saving measures, can significantly contribute
to this cause. Furthermore, planting native trees and vegetation in our surroundings not only
enhances the beauty of the landscape but also provides a habitat for various species and helps
to maintain biodiversity. Finally, spreading awareness and educating others about the
importance of preserving our ecosystems will foster a collective effort toward their
protection. By implementing these measures, we can create a harmonious and thriving
ecosystem for generations to come.

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 Ecological succession

Ecological succession is the process of change in the species that make up an ecological
community over time.
The process of succession occurs either after the initial colonization of a newly created habitat,
or after a disturbance substantially alters a pre-existing habitat. Succession that begins in new
habitats, uninfluenced by pre-existing communities, is called primary succession, whereas
succession that follows disruption of a pre-existing community is called secondary succession.
Primary succession may happen after a lava flow or the emergence of a new island from the
ocean. Surtsey, a volcanic island off the southern coast of Iceland, is an important example of
a place where primary succession has been observed. On the other hand, secondary succession
happens after disturbance of a community, such as from a fire, severe windthrow, or logging.
Succession was among the first theories advanced in ecology. Ecological succession was first
documented in the Indiana Dunes of Northwest Indiana and remains an
important ecological topic of study. Over time, the understanding of succession has changed
from a linear progression to a stable climax state, to a more complex, cyclical model that de-
emphasizes the idea of organisms having fixed roles or relationships.

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  Types

1. Primary succession :

Successional dynamics beginning with colonization of an area that has not been previously
occupied by an ecological community are referred to as primary succession. This includes
newly exposed rock or sand surfaces, lava flows, and newly exposed glacial tills. The stages
of primary succession include pioneer microorganisms, plants (lichens and mosses), grassy
stage, smaller shrubs, and trees. Animals begin to return when there is food there for them to
eat. When it is a fully functioning ecosystem, it has reached the climax community stage.

2. Secondary succession :
Secondary succession follows severe disturbance or removal of a preexisting community that
has remnants of the previous ecosystem. Secondary succession is strongly influenced by pre-
disturbance conditions such as soil development, seed banks, remaining organic matter, and
residual living organisms. Because of residual fertility and preexisting organisms, community
change in early stages of secondary succession can be relatively rapid.
Secondary succession is much more commonly observed and studied than primary succession.
Particularly common types of secondary succession include responses to natural disturbances
such as fire, flood, and severe winds, and to human-caused disturbances such as logging and
agriculture. In secondary succession, the soils and organisms need to be left unharmed so there
is a way for the new material to rebuild.
As an example, in a fragmented old field habitat created in eastern Kansas, woody plants
"colonized more rapidly (per unit area) on large and nearby patches".

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An example of secondary succession by stages:

1. A stable deciduous forest community

2. A disturbance, such as a wild fire, destroys the forest
3. The fire burns the forest to the ground
4. The fire leaves behind empty, but not destroyed, soil
5. Grasses and other herbaceous plants grow back first
6. Small bushes and trees begin to colonize the area
7. Fast-growing evergreen trees develop to their fullest, while shade-tolerant trees
develop in the understory
8. The short-lived and shade-intolerant evergreen trees die as the larger deciduous
trees overtop them. The ecosystem is now back to a similar state to where it
began.

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