CODE:

GST211

COURSETI
TLE:
INTRODUCTI
ONTOLOGI
CANDPHI
LOSOPHY

I
NTRODUCTI
ON

GST211:I ntroduct i
ont oLogi candCr i
ti
calThi nkingisaonesemest er,2cr edi
tuni tcour se.Iti
s
madeupof21uni tswhi chanal yzet hecr iti
calnatureoft hinkingandcl ari
tyoft hought.Italso
analyzesar gumenti ntoi t
sbasi cpar ts.Soundandunsoundar gument s,Logi calpr oofsand
symbol i
zingar eemphasi zed.Ther ear eno compul sorypr e-requisitesf ort hiscour se.The
coursegui det ellsy oubr i
eflywhatt hecour seisallabout ,whaty ouar eexpect edt oknow i n
eachuni t,whatcour semat eri
alsy ouwi l
lbeusi ngandhow y oucanwor ky ourwayt hrough
these mat erials.I tal so emphasi zes t he need f ort utor-mar ked assi gnment s.Det ail
ed
i
nfor mati
onont utor-mar kedassi gnment si sfoundi nasepar atef i
le,whi chwi l
lbesentt oy ou
l
ater.Ther ear eper i
odict utor i
alclassest hatarelinkedt othecour se.WhatYouwi l
lLearni nthi
s
Cour seTheov erallai m ofGST201:I ntroductiontoLogi candCr it
icalThi nkingi st ointroduce
yout otheact ualdef init
ion,nat ureandScopeofLogi c.Thiscour seal soat t
empt stoanal yzethe
meani ngofsoundandunsoundar gument s,usesofl anguage, fall
acies, definit
ions, propositi
ons
andt helawsoft hought .Thi scour sewi llalsoteachy ouhowt odi fferentiatear gumentf r
om non
-argument .Thusy ourunder standingofLogi candcr iti
calt
hinkingwi llequipy ouwi thknowl edge
ofwhatLogi ci sal laboutaswel lasi tsinf l
uenceinot herdisciplines.

3.
1WHATI
SPHI
LOSOPHY?

Whenev eraquesti
onsuchaswhati sphil
osophy ?Isasked,nostrai
ghtf
orwar danswercanbe
gi
ven.Becauseoft hecompl exnat ureoft hediscipl
ineiti
snoteasyt odef i
nephilosophyina
wayaccept abl
etoev er
yphi losopher .Forinstance,iti
seasyt oaskast udentofbi ol
ogyor
physi
cswhatt hedefinit
ionoft heirrespecti
vediscipl
inesar
eandgetast rai
ghtf or
war danswer.
Butthisisnotpossiblewi thphilosophy .Phil
osophyasadi sci
pli
nedoesnothav eauni ver
sal
def
init
ion.Sothefirstpr obl
em ast udentofphi l
osophyencountersisthatoft hedefini
ti
onof
phi
losophy.

Phi
losophersdonotagr eeamongt hemselv
esonwhatphi l
osophyi
s.Eit
hertheyrunawayfrom
def
ini
ngt hesubjectortheymostl
ydosoaccor di
ngtothei
rvari
ousschool
soft hought
,cul
tur
e
andevent radi
ti
on.Thatiswhyformosti nt
roductor
ytext
booksonphil
osophy,thebestwayto
def
inephilosophyist
odophilosophy,(
Popkin1982:XV).

Buty oushouldrememberthatev enifthereisanel ementoftrut

hi nt hi
sapproach,thelogic
behinditi
snothundr edpercentcor r
ect.Youdonotnecessar il
yneedt opracticesomething
beforeyouexplai
norunderstandit.Forinst
ance,someoneinter
est edinthedefinit
ionofdeath
doesnotnecessaril
yneedtodi ebeforeheexplai
nsorunderstandsi t
.Ifheistoldthattheonly
wayt odefinedeathistodiefirst
,heisl i
kel
ytogi veuptheattempt .Evenifthebestwayt o
defi
nephilosophyistoexposet hestudenttotherigour
sofdeepphi l
osophizi
ng,thisremains
parti
al.Whaty oushoul
dal wayshav einmi ndist hatwhenast udentofphi l
osophyasksa
quest
ion“whatisPhil
osophy”hehasstar
tedphi
l
osophi
zi
ngandt ophi
l
osophi
zei
stowonder
aboutli
feandaboutt
hefundamental
probl
emsofhumanexi
stence.

Whati
sphi
l
osophy
?

Lay
man’
sUnder
standi
ngofPhi
l
osophy

Intheabsenceofauni v
ersaldefi
niti
onorunderst
andi
ngofphi losophy,t
hedisci
pli
nehasbeen
giv
env ari
ousmeani ngsanddef ini
tions.Thi
ssect
ionfocusesononeaspectonl ywhichisthe
concepti
onoft hedisci
pli
nebyt hel ayman.Andbylayman,Imeant heav er
ageman–i nthe
str
eet.AccordingtoWi l
li
am Halverson,ther
eisapopularbel
iefoft hemeaningofphilosophy,
and since thi
si s one oft he common way sin which people who are notpr of
essional
phil
osophersunderstandanduset het er
m,iti
soneoft hestrongestimpressi
onsthatpeople
haveofphilosophy(1967:4)
.

MyPhi
l
osophyofLi
fe

Totheaverageman- in-
thest r
eet,phil
osophyi
susedfir
sttomean“anatti
tudetowar
dsacert
ain
l
ineofaction”,a‘generalview oflif
eorageneraltheoryorpr
inci
plesabouthow weoughtto
conductourli
ves”(Halverson,1967:4).

Thatiswhyi nthest r
eetifyouaskacommonman:“ Whatisy ourphil
osophyofl i
fe”?Youwi ll
getanswerssuchas:“ Myphi losophyofl i
feistot aket hingsgent l
y”or“ Idon’ tli
ket he
phil
osophyoft hecapi t
ali
stsyst em ofgov ernment”
.Youcanseeher et hatf oral ayman,a
person’
sphil
osophybecomes“ thesum t otalofhi
sfundament albeli
efsandconv ict
ions”thatis,
themainprinci
plesthatguideorcont rolhislif
e.ToHalversont hisimpressionofphi losophyis
underst
oodt ohav eaverypract
icalorientati
on.Andaphilosophyofl if
e…i ncludev i
ewsonsuch
thi
ngsast henat ureofmanandman’ spl aceintheuniverse,someconv i
ctionsaboutwhat
thi
ngsarewor t
hf orandsoon( 1967:4).

Taki
ngThi
ngsPhi
l
osophi
cal
l
y

Thisisanot herwayt hecommonmanunder st andsphi losophy .Youcanr emembert hatinour

dai
lylivessomet imeswhensomeonel oosesav er
ycl oser elati
on,hei sadv isedt otakei t
phi
losophically.ForH.Har ol
d,t hi
simpl iest hatt hei ndividualseest hepr oblem ini tsbroad
perspecti
vesoraspar tofal argeschemeoft hi ngs:hencehef acest hesituationcal mlyand
ref
lecti
velywi t
hpoi seandcomposur e( 1997: 10) .Int hissituation,“taki
ngt helossofsomeone
phi
losophically“si
mpl ymeanst hattheper sonr ational i
zeddeat hbelievi
ngthatwhat everwi l
lbe,
wil
lbei r
respect i
veofwhat everanymanmayt hinkordo.Andf orJosephI .Omor egbe, whatever
happens happens necessar i
lyand “ therei s not hing anyman can do t o pr eventi tfrom
happening”( 1989:26).Theper son’sintent i
onher eist oseebi rt
handdeat has bpar toft he
uni
v er
salscheme.I notherwordsbi r
thanddeat har eal lpartofl i
fe.

Bei
ngaPhi
l
osopherorGet
ti
ngPhi
l
osophi
cal
Youcanr emembert hati nourdailylives,whent woi ndi
vi
dual sengaget hemselvesinan
argumentonagi vent opicandoneexcel sinsustaini
nghi sposi
tioninasy stemati
c,logi
caland
consi
stentmanner ,theper sonisoft
enqual i
fi
edas“ beingaphilosopher”.Atot herti
mes,when
someonemakesani mpr eciseandvaguest atementaboutsomet hi
ng,thatis,ast at
ementthat
cannotbe easily expl ai
ned orunder stood,t oal ayman,the per son i s simply“getti
ng
Phil
osophical
”.I
nconcl usi
on,y oushoul
dal way sremembert hatt othel ayman,phi l
osophyis
concer
nedwi thmat tersthatareuncommon, prof
ound, beyondtheunder standingofmostmen,
oratworstsimpl
yv agueandi mpreci
se.

ACADEMI
CCONCEPTI
ONOFPHI
LOSOPHY

Asst atedear l
ier
,thereisnost raightf orwar danswert ot hequest ion:“ whati sphi l
osophy ? ”We
hav et woway stounder standphi losophy .Thef i
rstwayi st hatoft hel aymanasdi scussed
abov e.The second i st he concer n oft hi
s sect ion t hati s,t he academi c orpr of essional
concept ionofphi l
osophy .Youshoul dal way sbeari nmi ndt hatt hepr ofessionaloracademi c
under standingofphi losophyi sal mostt heopposi teoft hatoft hel ay man.Unl i
ket hel ayman, the
professionalphi losopherbegi nst odef i
nephi losophyf rom itsor igin.Accor dingt oacademi c
philosopher s,philosophyor igi
nat edf rom t heAnci entGr eekCi tySt ateofMi letus.Thi swas
aroundt hel ate5andear ly6cent uryB. C.Buty oushoul dal soqui cklyr emembert hatt hi
s
Eurocent ricv i
ewwhi chl i
mi tstheOr iginofPhi losophyt ot heAnci entGr eekshasbeencr it
icized
andr eject edbysomecont empor aryAf ricanphi l
osopher s.TosomeAf ri
canPhi l
osopher ssuch
asEboussiBoul aga,Mar cienTowa,E.Nj ohMouel leandP. O.Bodunr in,phi l
osophyal sohasan
Africanor i
gin.Thereexi stedear lyintellectual
,sci entificandphi losophi calact ivit
iesi nAnci ent
Africalongbef oretheirEur opeanorWest erncount er partsbegananymeani ngfulphi l
osophi cal
i
nqui ry.Itisonr ecordt hatI onianPhi l
osopher sespeci all
yPy thagor asandThal esv isitedAf ri
ca
notably Anci entEgy ptand“ wer eeducat edinal ldisciplinesofknowl edgebyAf ri
cant eacher s
“(
I.C.Ony ewueny i
,1987:44) .Inthepr efacet otheAf ricanOr i
ginofGr eekPhi losophyt hisiswhat
P.OBodunr insays:Itisi mpossi blet ot hinkthatt heGr eekorwest ernPhi losopher swoul dnot
hav ebeeni nfl
uencedbyAf ricant hought( I.COny ewueny i
,1987: 8).

Accor dingtoOnyewuenyi,“
whati scal
ledGreekPhilosophyshoul
dber egardedashav enbeen
stolen from Afri
ca”(1987:
8).Anyonet hatclaimst hatGr
eeceist heonl ybirt
h placeof
philosophycommi t
sanunf orgiv
ablehist
ori
calmi stake.Iti
salsoanunf or
tunatedeli
berate
attemptt o di
scr
editthe achievementoft he bl
ack people and a gross inj
usti
ce tot he
cont r
ibuti
onsofAfri
canPhil
osophy .

“
Lov
eofWi
sdom”

Youshoul dalwaysbearinmindt hatdespi

tethecr i
ti
cofEur ocent
ri
sm asaf orementioned,
Anci entGreeceremainsthefi
rstplaceinEuropewher ephil
osophywassy st
emat izedasa
discipli
ne.Pythagor
aswast he fi
rstto make a standar
d commentaboutt he nat ur
e and
definiti
onofphil
osophy.HewasaGr eekmyst
ic,mathemati
cianandphilosopher
.Itisonr ecor
d
that“ whenhewascal l
edWiseman,hesaidthathiswisdom onlyconsist
edinknowi ngthathe
wasi
gnorantandt
hatheshoul
dther
efor
enotbecal
l
edawi
semanbuta“
lov
erofwi
sdom”(
A.C.
Ewi
ng,1951:
9).

HI
STORI
CALBACKGROUNDOFPHI
LOSOPHY

PHI
LOSOPHYt
hepar
entofal
ldi
sci
pli
nes

Tot hel ay man, wheny ousayt hatphi losophyi st hepar entofal ldisciplines, i
tsoundst ohi ml ike
asaj oke.Tohi mi tisabsur dt oseeanyr elationbet weent hatabst ractsubj ectcal ledphi losophy
andeconomi cs,phy si cs,politicalsci ence,et c.I nordert oknowi ft hisposi t
ioni sdef endabl e,I
believ et hatt hehi storicalbackgr oundofphi losophyi sv er ynecessar y.Asal readyment ionedi n
unit1,i twascur iosityandt hedesi ref orknowl edgef ori tsownsake,f ol l
owedbyaf eel ingof
wondert hatact uallyt r
igger ed of fphi losophy .Iti s on r ecor dt hatt he f ir
stphi losopher s
especi allytheI oniansorMi l
etianswer emai nlyconcer nedaboutt henat ur eoft heuni ver se.For
i
nst ance,t heywer ewonder ingaboutt heconst antpr ocessofchange,oft ransitionf rom dayt o
night ,from l if
et odeat handv icev er saet c.Thal esofMi l
et uswast hef irstt oident i
f ywat eras
the“ pr imar ysubst ance”oft heuni v er se.Thati swhyev ent oday ,someschol arsst i
lladdr ess
him ast he“ f
atherofphi losophy ”.Onot herhand,Anaxi menessai dt hepr i
mar yst uf fwasai r,
Anaxi mandersai ditwas“ theunl imi ted”or“ thei ndet ermi nat eboundl ess”andHer acl i
tussai di t
wasf ire.Whaty oushoul dal way srememberher eist hatt hemai npur poseofal ltheseI onians
was“ tounder stand” ,“toknow”andi ti sont hist hatphi l
osophyi sgr ounded.And,t hiswast he
begi nni ngofphi losophi cent erpr i
se.Att hatpar t
icularper iod,t her ewasnodi ff
er encebet ween
philosophyandsci enceor ,asBer tr
andRussel lputsi t,“Phi losophyandsci encewhi chwer enot
original lysepar ated–wer et her eforebor nt oget her”( 1945: 3).Ti l
ltoday ,theI oniant hinker sar e
bestknown as “ Gr eek Phi losopherSci ent ists”.Fori nst ance,Thal es i s credi ted wi tht he
predi ctionoft heecl i
pseof585B. C.Anaxi manderi sknownt ohav emadeani ngeni ousguessas
tot heor iginofman.Hewast hef irstt omai nt ainthatmanwasor iginallybor nfrom ani mal sof
anot herspeci es.Anaxi menesi sknownt obet hef i
rstsci ent i
stt oexpl aint hecauseofr ai nbow.
Accor dingt ohi m,r ainbow i st her esul toft hesun’ sr ayf alli
ngont het hi ckcl oudwhi cht hey
cannotpenet rate.Alway sbeari nmi ndt hatdur i
ngt heer aofI onianspecul ations, allknowl edge
wasone.Ther ewasnodi ff
er encebet weensci entifi
cpr ocedur esandmagi calpr ocedur es.I n
Copl est one’ swor d:“ t heear l
yI onian t hinker sorwi semen pur sued al lsor tsofsci enti
f i
c
consi der ation…andt hesewer enotcl ear l
ysepar atedf rom phi losophy .”( 1962:32)t hati swhy ,
event oday ,noser iousast r
onomer ,geogr apher ,phy sicist ,histor i
an,et ccanr esi stt opay i
ng
homaget oI onianphi losopher s.

Gest
ati
onPer
iod/
Era

Youshoul dbeari nmindthatevenaft

ertheI oni
anthi
nkers,phil
osophyremainedpregnantwit
h
sci
encef orav er yl
ongtime.Infact
,sciencei stheoldestchildofphi
losophy.InPlat
o’sand
Ari
stot
le’swritings,f
orinstance,i
twasdi ffi
cul
ttodi f
ferenti
atethephil
osophicalfr
om the
sci
enti
fic.Theset wophil
osophersconsideredsomanyi ssues,someofwhi chnow belongto
thespecialsciences.Ari
stot
leismostlyknownt ohavedel vedint
oalmostal ldi
sci
pli
nes.He
dealtwi thvari
oussubj ect
ssuchasl ogic,Biology,Met a-
Phy sics,Poli
ti
cs,Anatomy ,andsoon.I t
i
sonr ecordt hathi swr i
ti
ngswer eusedasEncy clopediaofphi losophyint hemi ddleAges.
Becauseal mostal lt
heuni v ersit
iesint hatper i
odconsi deredphi losophyasanal lembr aci
ng
discipli
ne.Thisi soneoft her easonswhy :“t
hehi ghestdegreeawar dedinthear t
sandsci ences,
regardlessoft hespeci alfieldofconcent rati
on,st i
llbearst het i
tl
eof“ DoctorofPhi l
osophy ”
(Lewi s,1973:770) .Youshoul dal waysbeari nmi ndt hatt hiswasbecausemostsci enti
fi
c
l
ear ningunt i
lGal i
leowasl ar gelyspecul ati
ve,therefore,itwaseasi erforphil
osophyt ocont ai
n
them.Ev eninmoder nper i
od, phi
losophyi sstil
lseenasanency clopedicdi
scipli
ne.Alldegrees,
nomat terthedi scipl
i
ne, f
rom Medi cine,Lawt oEngi neeri
ng, Pharmacy ,Nat
uralSciences,Social
Sciences, all
endwi thDoct orofPhi l
osophy ,Ph.D.

TheEr
aofDel
i
ver
yandSet
tl
ement

Whent hepr egnancyofphi losophywasdue,t hemomentofdel iveryandset t

lementbecame
unav oidable.Manydi scipl
inest hatwer est illunderphi l
osophyt heybr okeawayanddeci dedt o
stayon t heirown.The18 cent ur
ycan beconsi der ed ast he‘ takeof f
”of“ del i
very”and
settlement .Iti sint hisper iodt hat“ naturalphi l
osophy ”whi chl aterbecame“ natur alscience”
begant ost andoni tsown.Thi sspl itwast her esultoft heor ientationofsomeear l
yGr eek
Philosophersci enti
stssuchasDemocr it
us, Epi curus, Leuci ppus, Lucr etiusandPy thagor as.You
shoul dalway sr emembert hat“ naturalphi l
osophy ”l aterspl itint owhatt odaywecal l,chemistry
,
Phy sics,Biology ,et
c.The19cent urywi t
nessedt hebr eaki ngawayandset tl
ementoft hesocial
sciencesf ormt hepar entdi scipli
ne.Youshoul dknowt hati tist aut ological tosayt hatt hesocial
sciencesor i
gi natedf rom Gr eekphi losopher s.Youshoul dal soknow t hatt hebi rthofsoci al
scienceswasagr adualpr ocess.Apar tf rom t heanci entGr eekphi losopher s,t hebi rthand
settlementoft hesoci alsci enceswashast enedi nt he19t hcent urybyt hewor ksofsome
philosopher ssuchasMal thus, Ricardo, Kar lMar x, August eComt e, etc.Youshoul dal waysbear
i
nmi ndthatt hebi rt
hoft hesoci alsci encescameal ongwi thsomepr oblemsamongsoci al
scient i
ststhemsel ves.Theywer etwof actions.Thef irstf act ionchampi onedt hecauseofa
singlesoci alsci encewhi l
et hesecondchampi onedt hedi versit yoft hedi scipl
ine.Thesecond
factionwont hebat t
le.Thus,Economi csbecamet hef irstt oat t
aint hest atusofsi nglesocial
science.Thenextwaspol iticalscience,f ollowedbyant hropol ogy .Soci ologyandPsy chology
camemuchl ater.

DOESPHI
LOSOPHYSTI
LLREMAI
NTHEPARENTDI
SCI
PLI
NE?

Theanswert othisquest i
onisy es.Howev erthisdoesnotmeant hatalliswellwi t
hphi l
osophy .
Thebr eaki
ngawayofnat uralandsoci alsciencesf rom phi l
osophycannotbeov erl
ooked.Ev en
todaysomecr i
ti
csclaimt hatinf ut
ureotherdi sciplineswillalsospri
ngf rom philosophy ,si
nce
somequest ionswenowconsi derasphi l
osophi calwi lli
nfuturenotbesor egarded.I ti
si nli
ne
withthiscl
aimt hatJ.LAustin,forinst
ance, maint ai
nedt hatPhi l
osophyisatt hev ergeofgi v
ing
bir
thtoanewt ypeofl i
nguisti
ct heory
.Nowaday s,somephi l
osophers,themselves, expr
esst he
senti
mentt hatevenlogic,whichi soneofthet radi t
ionalbranchesofphi l
osophywi l
lsoonbr eak
awaybecauseofi tsstrongaf fi
nitytomat hemat i
cs.Buty oushouldal waysbeari nmi ndthat
despit
eallthis,phi
losophywas, i
s,andr emainstheparentdiscipli
ne.Thisisoneofther
easons
whyAr ist
otl
eal most3000y earsago,cal l
edi t“thefi
rstandt helastscience”
.Accor
dingto
Ari
stotl
e,philosophyi sthe“ fi
rstscience”becausei tislogicall
ypr esupposedbyever
yother
sci
ence.Itisalsothe“ lastscience”becausei nordertounderstanditwemust ,t
osomeextent
,
havemast eredtheot herscience(Passmor e,
1972:219).

InAr istotl
e’sv iew,al lsciencesshar ei nphi losophy.Ther efor e,i tist heonl ydi sci pli
net hati s
univer sal
.Ot herspeci alSci encesconcer nt hemselveswi thapar tofbei ngorr eal ity.Itisthe
dutyofaPhi l
osophert oco- or
dinatet hef undament alpr i
ncipl esoft hev ari
oussci ences.The
phil
osopheri dent if
ies and of fers sol uti
ons t o cer t
ai n pr obl ems of wor l
d out look and
met hodol ogywhi chal lsciencesshar eandwhi chcannotbesol vedwi t
hint hef ramewor kof
speci ali
zedresear ch( Konst antinou,1982: 16) .Inconclusi on,youmustal waysr emembert hatno
mat terwhat ,phi l
osophycanbecompar edt oShakespear e’sKi ngLear .Itisonr ecor dthati twas
from Py t
hagor ast hatphi losophyder iveditsor i
ginandmeani ng.I nacademi ccircl es,therefore,
phil
osophy comes f rom t wo Gr eek wor ds “ Phil
o”meani ng “ love”and “ Sophi a”meani ng
“Wisdom” .Hence,et ymologi callyphilosophymeans“ loveofwi sdom” .IntheOxf or dAdv anced
Learner sDictionar yf orinst ance, t
hewor d“ wise”lit
erallymeans“ havingorshowi ngex perience,
knowl edge,goodj udgment ,prudenceet c“ ifyouf ollow cl osel yt he Oxf ordDi ctionary,iti s
i
mpl iedt hatani ndividualcanbeknowl edgeabl ebutl ackwi sdom.Her ewisdom si mplemeans
thatt heindividualhascer t ainqual i
ti
eswhi chsomeot her sdonothav e.Howev er,inPy thagoras’
opinion, i
tisimpossi blef orani ndivi
dualt obewi sebutl ackknowl edge.Thet erm wi sdom goes
beyondmer eknowl edge.Thebasi cai m ofphi l
osophyi st o“deal withpul sati
ngpr obl emsofl ife”
.
Thati swhyear l
yGr eekphi losopher sdidphi losophizepr imar ilyt osat isfytheircur iouslyt oknow
theor i
ginoft heobj ectiver eali
tysuchast heper pl
exingf eatur esandi mmensi t
yoft henat ural
wor l
d, thefact sofman’ sbirth,growt h,deathanddel ay .

WONDERABOUTMANANDWONDERABOUTTHEWORLD

Alwaysr emembert hatt he desir

et o know and t o sat
isf
yt hei
rcur i
osi
tyl ed earl
yGr eek
phil
osopherst obegint owonderaboutmanandt hewor l
d.Accordingtothem,al lknowledge
beginsi
nwonder ,doubtandcur i
osity
.Thuswheny ouwonderaboutmanandt hewor l
dy ouare
phil
osophizing.Ari
stotl
eemphasi zedthat:“itisowi
ngt otheirwonderthatmennowbegi nand
fi
rstbegant ophi l
osophize”
.Bef or
eAr ist
otle.Pl
atohadal r
eadyputi tt
hisway :“t
hissenseof
wonderist hemar kofthePhi l
osopher.Philosophyindeedhasnoot herori
gin”
.I nl
inewiththis,
i
tisobvioust hatphil
osophyisallembr aci
ng.Theent i
reuni
verseisi
tsscopeandsubj ectmat t
er.

BRANCHESOFPHI
LOSOPHY

3.
1Logi
c

3.
2Met
aphy
sics

3.
3Epi
stemol
ogy
3.
4Et
hics

Logi
c

Youshoul dal way sr emembert hatwhenev eraquest ionsuchaswhati slogi ci saskedno

straightf or
war danswercanbegi v
en.Logi chasbeenv ariouslydef inedbydi f f
er entscholar s.
Copif ori nst ance,def i
nes “ logic as t he st udy oft he met hods and pr i
nci ples used i n
distinguishinggood( correct)from bad( incorrect)reasoning”( 1972) .Ont heot herhand,Nancy
seesLogi c“ ast hesci encet hatappr aisesr easoni ngascor r ectori ncorrect”(1990: 34).Kahane
onhi spar tdef inesl ogicas“ anat t
emptt odi stingui
shbet weencor r
ect( valid)andi ncorrect
(i
nv ali
d)ar gument s”( 1968:2).Logi ccan al so bedef ined ast hesci enceofgood orbad
reasoni ng.Et y mologically,logicasadi scipli
neder i
vesf rom t heGr eekwor d Logos,whi ch
meansst udy ,wor dordi scour se.Basi call
y,y oucannot icet hati nal ldef initi
onst hemai n
concept swhi chst andoutcl ear l
yar er easoni ngandar gument ati
on.Ther eforewecansayt hat
l
ogi cist hest udyoft hecr i
teriaofdi fferentiati
ngcor r
ectf r
om i ncor r
ectar gument s.Thel ogician
i
smostconcer nedwi thar gumentwhi chi sagr oupofpr oposi ti
onswhosef unctioni stomakea
claim aboutsomet hing.Al way sr emembert hatany ar gumentmusthav e pr emises and
concl usion.Andt heconcl usionofanyar gumentmustf oll
oworbei nferredf r
om t hepr emises.
Forexampl e:

P1Ify
oudonotat tendl
ogiccl
ass,
youwil
lfai
lP2Youhav enotattendedlogi
cclassCtheref
ore
youwil
lfai
lArgumentsareeit
her“
Deduct
ive”or“
Induct
ive”
.Inlogic,anargumentisdeducti
ve
whentheconcl
usionfol
l
owsf r
om i
tspr
emiseswit
habsolutenecessityorcer
tai
nty.

Deductionist heprocessofmov i
ngf rom thegener altothespecific.Inotherwor ds,i
nl ogicwe
deducewhenwemov ef r
om apr opositi
ondescr ibi
ngacondi t
ionthatholdsi nallinst
ancest oa
parti
cularinstance.Forexampl e:P1Al lmenar emor t
alP2Socr atesi samanC t herefore
Socratesismor t
al.Howev er
,inducti
v eargument saret hoseinwhi cht hepremisesdonotl ead
totheconcl usionwithcertai
nty.Inducti
oni sbasedon“ probabil
it
y”.Forinstance,wheny ousay
Peterisdrunkmostoft het i
me.Todayhewi l
lbedr unkaswel l.Heremostoft het i
me, doesnot
entai
lallthetime.Therefore,onecannotconcl udewi thcertai
ntythatPet erwil
lbedr unkt oday.
Youcanseet hatthereisnonecessi tyinthi
sconcl usion.Probabil
it
yiswhatchar act er
izesit.

METAPHYSI
CS

Unlikelogic,met aphysicsisthest udyoft he“fir

stprinciple”orul timatereality
.Itisal
socal led
thet heoryofBeing.Itistheonl ysciencethatdealswi ththest udyoft hebasi candfundament al
i
ssuesoft heuni verse.Accordingt oAr i
stotl
e,allotherdi scipli
nesst udy“ aspectsofreali
tyor
being,butnoneoft hem concer nsitsel
fwi ththest udyofbei ngassuch”( Mann,1966:18) .
Howev er
,ther emustbeasci enceofbei ng,“ascienceoft hef i
rstthingsoroft hemostr eal ”
(Mann,1966: 16)
.Indeed,thescienceofbei ngwoul dbet hemostbasi cforinasenseal lot her
speci alsciencespr esupposed i t”(Mann,1966: 16).Thatsci enceaccor ding to Ar
ist
otlei s
Met aphysics.Inhi sv i
ew,met aphy si
csst udi
est het otalit
yoft hingsint heuni ver
sebotht he
possi bl
eandt hereal,thevisi
bleandt hei nvi
sibl
e.Met aphy sicsi sagener alst udyofexi
stence
andr eality
.Andr oni clesi scr editedwi tht hecoi ningoft hewor d“ metaphy sics” .Histor ytellsus
thatt hewor d“ Met aphy sicswasact uallyanedi torialmi stake.I ti sonr ecor dt hatsev er al
decadesaf terAr i
st otle’sdeat hAndr oni cl
esdeci dedt osor tt hroughhi swor ksandgav et hem
ti
tles.Ar istot l
ewr ot easer i
esofbooksdeal ingwi thnat urewhi chhehi msel fcal led“ thephy sics” .
WhenAndr oniclesr eachedt hebat chofwr iti
ngst hatf oll
owed“ thephy sics”hedi dnotknow
whatt ocal lthem,sohei nvent edawor d“ met aphy sics”Et ymol ogically,thewor dmet aphy si cs
camef rom t woGr eekwor dsMETAwhi chmeans“ af ter”andPHYSI KAwhi chmeans“ Phy sics”
or“ nat ure”.Sot heGr eekwor dMETAPHYSI KAmeans“ aftert het hingsofnat ur eoraf terphy sics.
Youshoul dal sobeari nmi ndt hatev eni fAr i
st otlei sconsi deredast hef oundi ngf atherof
met aphy si
csasasci enceofr ealit
yhewasnott hef irstt or ai
semet aphy si
calpr oblems.
Met aphy si
csasani nt el
lectualent erprisedat esbackt ot hepr e-Socraticphi losopher ssuchas
Thal es,Anaxi mander ,Anaxi menesaswel lasPy thagor as,Par meni desandHer aclitus.The
concer noft hesephi l
osopher swast hesear chf ort hepr imar yst uffoft heuni verse.Theywer e
alsoconcer nedwi thdet erminingt heul timat econst itutiveel ement sandgr oundsf ort heuni tyof
things.Met aphy sicsdeal swi thquest ionssuchas:whati sr eal i
ty?Whysomet hingi nsteadof
not hing?I sr ealityoneormany .”Ist heuni v ersesel f-
causedordoesi tinvolvet heconceptofa
creat or?Whati st het ranscendentor iginandf oundat ionoft hi sexistence?I sr eali
tyessent ial ly
spiritualormat erial?Doper sonshav emi ndsdi st i
nctf r
om t heirbodi es?Whati smi nd?I si ta
seriesofexper iences?Whati smat ter?Whi chi spr i
mar y?Whatar etheirrelationshi ps?Ar emen
free?DoesGodexi st?Whati sthedi vine?I fy oul ookdeepi nt ot hesequest i
ons, youwi lldiscov er
thatt heanswer sl i
ebey ondt heboundar i
esofourexper ience.Thi ssi mpl ymeanst hatt he
criterion forset t
ling such quest ion is notempi ricalpossi bili
ty,butf reedom f r
om l ogi cal
cont radiction.

.
3.3Epi
stemol
ogy

Epist
emol
ogyi
soneoft
hemosti
mpor
tantbr
anchesofphi
l
osophy
.Et
ymol
ogi
cal
l
y,i
tder
ives
fr
om two

Gr eekwor ds“ Epi

steme”whi chmeans“ knowledge”and“ l
ogos”whi chmeans“ st
udy ,discour se
orr easoni ng”Epi st
emol ogyi sbestknownast hebranchofcr i
ticalphi
losophywhi chconsi stsin
i
nv est igatingt hescope,sour ceandl i
mi t
ationsofhumanknowl edge.Epi stemol ogyt riest o
discov erwhatknowl edgei sandhowi tdiff
ersf r
om mer eopi nionorbel ief.Thatiswhyi tisal so
cal l
edt heoryofknowl edge.Accor di
ngt oAr i
stotl
e,“ever ymanwant st oknow, ”andt hisisv ery
relev antt oman’ slif
e.Asadi scipli
ne,itdeal swithquest i
onssuchas:Whati sthenat ureof
humanknowl edge?Whati sther el
ationbet weenknowl edgeandbel ief?Whatmakessome
bel i
ef st r
ueandot hersf alse?I sthehumanmi ndcapabl eofknowi ng?Canweknow any thing
wi thcer t
aintyormustwebesat isfi
edwi thmer eguessesandopi ni
ons?Howar ewet odef ine
truth?Howdoy ouknowt hatthephy si
calwor ldexi
sts?Whati st herelationbetweenknowl edge
andr eali
ty ?Doesal lknowl edgeoft her ealwor l
dar iseoutofexper i
enceordowehav e
knowl edget hatisi
nsomedegr eeindependentofexper ience?Ifallknowl edgedoesar i
seoutof
exper i
enceandi fexper i
encecangi v
eussomedegr eeofpr obabil
ity,how i si tpossi blet o
achi ev et heabsol utecer taint
yt hatwecl aimt ohav eachi evedi nt her ealmsofl ogicand
mat
hemat
ics?

3.
4Et
hics

Ethi
csismost
lyknownas“t
hebr anchofphi
l
osophywhi
chdeal
swi
tht
hemor
ali
tyofhuman
acti
onsi
nsoci
ety
”(Omor
egbe,1989:2)
.

Etymol ogi cal

lyet hicscomesf rom theGr eekwor d“ Et
hos”whichmeans“ custom”or“ char act
er”
.
Somet i
mesi tiscal led“ mor alphilosophy ”.Andy oushouldalway sremembert hatSocr ateswas
thef ir
stt osy stemat i
zet hedi scipli
ne.Hewast hef ir
sttoclaimt hat“t
heunexami nedl if
ei snot
wor thliving”.Socr atesdev otedal lhislif
et oacr i
ti
calexaminati
onofhumanbehav iour.Hewas
thef ir
stt oconf esst hat“ theonl ythingIknowi sthatIknownot hi
ng”.Inhi sopi nion,ethicsis
alsor efer redtoast hesci enceofhumanconduct ”.Thesubj ectmat terofet hicsi shuman
conductandpr eci selythoseact i
onswhi chweper form consciouslyandwi l
lfully.Themaj or
busi nessofet hicsi stocompar ewhaty oudoandwhaty ououghtt odo.Et hicsi snotpr imaril
y
concer nedwi thf actsort he“ i
s”,butr atherwi ththe“ ought”
.I not herwor ds,et hi
csi snot
i
nt erestedi ntheont icbuti nt heont ologicalquest i
on.Thus,thef ocusont he“ ought ”aspr i
mary
mi ssioni swhatdi fferentiatesethicsf rom ot herdiscipl
i
nes.Youshoul dal soknowt hatet hi
csis
dividedi ntodescr i
ptive,prescr i
ptiveornor mat ive,andmet a-
ethi
cs.

*
Descr
ipt
iveEt
hics

Thedutyofdescri
pti
veethi
csistoexami nethemoralvi
ewsheldbymenorthesocietyandto
confi
rm whet
hertheseviewsar euniver
salornot
.InUdoi dem’
swords:Thestudyofhuman
acti
onscentr
esont hedescr i
pti
onof… How humanbei ngsbehaveoractwithoutactual
l
y
makingval
uejudgmentsorprescri
bingwhathumanbeingsshoul
dorshoul
dnotdo.

*
Nor
mat
iveorPr
escr
ipt
iveEt
hics

Themai ndutyofnormati
veet
hicsi
stoprescr
ibewhatoughtt
obebothf
orhumansandsoci
ety
.
I
not herwords,i
tprescr
ibest
hatcr
it
eri
aforhumanactionspr
oper
lybej
udgedasmoral
lygood
orbad.

*
Met
a-Et
hics

I
tist hepar tofethicst hatdeal
swi ththelogicandlanguageofethicalconcept sandterms.In
otherwor ds,meta-ethicsismost lyconcernedwiththeeluci
dati
onordescr i
ptionoft hepreci
se
meani ngoft hekeyt ermsofmor alapprai
salsuchas“good”,“bad”
,“ri
ght”“wrong”,“ought
”,etc.
I
nt hi
ssense, meta-
et hi
csi smorall
ydescripti
ve.Fori
nstance“Godisgood”.Int hi
ssentencethe
term“ good”simplydescr ibehowGodi s.

Asanormati
vedisci
pli
ne,et
hicsdeal
swithquesti
onssuchas:Howdomenoughtt obehave”
Whatismoral
it
y?Whati sthenatur
eofmor alresponsibi
l
ity
?Whati st hedefi
nit
ionofgood?
Whatisthechi
efgoalf orwhichal
lmenshouldst riv
e?Isi taccumulati
onofweal t
hori sit
pl
easur
eorhappiness?Hasmananyf i
nalend?Ist hereanyrealdif
ferencebetweenmor al
ly
r
ightandwrongact
ions?Ori
sitmer
elyamatt
eroffeel
ing?Whatistherol
eofpuni
shment
?Ar
e
moralj
udgmentsonwhatweoughtt
odoobject
iveorsubject
iveorar
etheyar
bit
rar
y?

UNI
T4:
PHI
LOSOPHYANDOTHERDI
SCI
PLI
NESCONTENTS1.
0Int
roduct
ion

2.
0Obj
ect
ives

3.
0Mai
nBody

3.
1Phi
l
osophyandsci
ence

3.
2Phi
l
osophyandRel
i
gion

3.
1Phi
l
osophyandSci
ence

Youshoul dbearinmindt hatuntill

ate16andearly19centuriesallscient
ifi
cknowledgewas
withi
nt heambitofphi l
osophicalinqui
ry.I
notherwor ds,phil
osophywast he“sci
ence”per
excel
lence.Butaccor
dingtoAr chieJ.Bahm:Asrefl
ecti
onsuponpr oblemsbecamei ncr
easing,
complexandasspeci altechniqueswer edev
eloped,special
i
stslimitedt herangeoft hese
i
nquiri
es,andthepart
icul
arscienceswereborn.

Among the fi
rstwere mechani
cs,mat hemati
cs and ast
ronomy .Among t
he l
atestwere
psy
chologyandsociol
ogy.Ther omanceoft hemat uri
ngoft heseoff
spr
ingofthefecund
mothermustbelef
ttothehi
stor
yofscience(1995:
10).
33

TheNat
ureofSci
ent
if
icKnowl
edge

Unli
kephil
osophy,sci
enceisbestknownas“ anexactdisci
pli
ne” .I
nl i
newi t
ht his,TheOxf
ord
Advanced Di
cti
onary al
so defi
nes sci
ence as “knowledge arranged in an orderlymanner
,
especi
all
yknowledgeobtai
nedbyobser vat
ionandt est
ingoff acts….”ForFrolov,thenat
ureof
sci
enti
fi
cknowledgegoesbey ondt
his“posi
tiv
ist
”defini
ti
on.

Accor
dingt ohi m,scienceisal so“ thefiel
dofr esear
chdirect
edt owardsobt
aini
ngf ur
ther
knowledgeofnat ure,societ
yandt hought”
…I t(sci
ence)isnotl i
mit
edt onat
uralorexact
sci
ences.Scienceisani nt
egralsystem withit
scomponent sf
lexi
blycorr
elat
edi
nhistor
y,study
ofnat
ur e,
studyofsociety,
naturalscience(1984:
372).

Therei snodoubtt hatsciencestemmedf rom phil

osophy .I
tisalsotruethatasadi scipl
ine,
sci
encebear ssomespeci fi
ccharacteri
sti
csdiff
erentfrom phil
osophy.Accordi
ngt oHaroldH.
Tit
us,scienti
f i
cknowl edgecanbedef inedas:A sy st
em ofman’ sunderst
andingofnat ure,
societyandt hought .I
tr eflect
sthewor l
di nconcepts,categori
esandl awswhoset ruthis
veri
fiedbypr acti
calexperience.Scienceisthestudyoft het
otali
tyoftheconcretespheresof
mater i
alr
eali
ty.Itisconcer nedtoinvesti
gateandestablishobject
ivel
awsofnat urebyforming
workinghy pothesisbywhi chmanmaybeenabl edt ohar nessnaturetohi spurposesand
tr
ansfor
m hisenvi
ronment( 1997:65).Fr
om theabovedefi
nit
ionofscience,i
tshoul
dbecl eart
o
youthatthemainpurposeofsci enceasdisci
pli
neistoobserve,under
standnat
uralphenomena
andthencontrolprocesses.Toanysci enti
stitisassumedt hattheuniver
se,theorderl
yand
natur
alphenomenaar epredict
ableandlawful.

Conv
ergencesandDi
ver
gencesbet
weenPhi
l
osophyandSci
ence

Al way sr emembert hati ti simpr opert oconsi derphi losophyandsci enceascompet itors.Ev en
thoughsci enceor i
gi natedf rom phi losophyasadi scipli
net heirsubj ectmat t
erisdi fferent .The
scient i
stmai nbusi nessi st oexpl ainnat ur alphenomena, whileaphi l
osopherdoesnoti ntendt o
doso.Anav eragesci ent istalway sseeksf orexpl anat i
onwhi let hephi losopherbasi cal lyseeks
forjust i
fication.Youshoul dal soknowt hatt het womai nsci ent if
icpur posesar epr edi ctionand
cont rolov erphenomena.Ther eareal sosi xst epspr ocedur esi nanysci entif
icinquir ywhi chone
cannot av oid. These ar e: obser vati
on,i nduct iv
e gener alization,hy pothesis,at tempt ed
verifi
cationofhy pothesi s,pr oofordi sproofandknowl edge.Thuspr edictionandcont rolbased
ont hel awsofi nduct ionar ewhatmakessci encenotonl yor i
ginalbutal sodi f ferentf rom
philosophy .Asacademi cdi scipli
nes,t hei rmet hodologiesar equi tedifferent.Thephi l
osopher ’
s
i
nqui rybegi nswher et hatoft hesci entistst ops.I tmaybedi f f
icultforasci entistt oanswer
philosophi calquest ions.Phi losophyoper atesatadi f
ferentl evel.A sci entistcannotanswer
philosophi calquest i
onssuchas:i st hewor lddi vi
dedi ntomi ndandmat terori sitpossessedof
i
ndependentpower ”.Ist hemi ndsubj ectt omat terori si tpossessedofi ndependentpower ?
Hast heuni verseanyuni tyorpur pose?I si tev ol vi
ngt owar dssomegoal ?Ar etherer eal l
yl awsof
natur eordowebel ievei nt hem onl ybecauseofouri nmat elov eofor der?DoesGodexi st ?You
canseet hatnoneoft hesequest ionscanf i
ndansweri nt hesci ent i
st’
sl aboratory.Youshoul d
alsobeari nmi ndt hatev ent hought heki ndofknowl edget hatt hesci entistandphi l
osopher
seeki sdi fferent,t hepur poseoft heirdi sciplinesi sof tensi mi l
ar.Becausebot hoft hem ar e
mot ivatedbysheercur iosi t
yandt hesat i
sf actionofhav i
ngknowl edgeoft heuniver sepur elyfor
thepl easur eoft heunder standi ng.

3.
2Phi
l
osophyandRel
i
gion

Thepur posesofphi losophyandr eli

gionaref undament allyopposed.Aphi l
osopheri salway s
criti
calwhi lea reli
gioni stisnot .Fora r eligioni
st,t her oleofr eason i sbasi call
yoneof
i
nt erpr etinganddef endi ngt hedogmader i
vedf r
om sour ceswhoseaut hori
tyandt ruthistaken
onf aith.Whi leanyser iousphi losopherbegi nshi sinvest igationsf r
om aposi ti
onofi ntel
lectual
neut ralityr egardl
essofwher ehi sper sonalsy mpathiesmayl ie.Inphi losophy ,anyknown
assumpt i
on is subjectt o criti
calscr uti
ny.Whi l
er eligion i s purel
y dogmat i
c.I nreligi
on
knowl edgei ssoughtpr incipal
lyasameanst oachi ev
ewhatagi venreli
giont akest obehuman
kind’ sf i
nalhappi nessordest iny .Whileinphi l
osophy ,knowl edgeissoughtsi mplyforitsown
sake.Phi losophyoftenquest ionst heassumpt ionsofr eligion.Youshoul dal soknow t hatthe
pur posesofphi l
osophyshoul d notbeconf used wi tht hoseoft her el
igiousmi nist
er,the
theol ogi ans,thepsy cho- analy
st ,pastorsandi mams.Aphi losopheri snotamagi cian.Criti
cal
reasoni ng,neutrali
tyandt hedesi reforknowl edgef oritsownsakear ethebasi cconcernsofa
phi
l
osopher
.Iti
sint
hissenset
hatphi
l
osophyi
sver
ydi
ff
erentf
rom r
eli
gion.

UNI
T5:
SOURCESOFKNOWLEDGEANDCRI
TERI
AFORKNOWI
NG

CONTENT

1.
0Int
roduct
ion

2.
0Obj
ect
ives

3.
0Mai
nBody

3.
1Di
ff
erencebet
weenknowl
edge,
opi
nionandbel
i
ef3.
1.1Commonsenseunder
standi
ng

ofknowl
edge,
opi
nionandbel
i
ef3.
1.2Phi
l
osophi
cal
under
standi
ngofknowl
edge,

opi
nionandbel
i
ef3.
1Sour
cesofknowl
edge

3.
2.1Reason

3.
2.2Senseexper
ience

3.
2.3I
ntui
ti
on

3.
2.4Aut
hor
it
y

3.
2.5Rev
elat
ionandf
ait
h.

3.
1Di
ff
erencebet
weenKnowl
edge,
Opi
nionandBel
i
efI
nor
dinar
ylanguagei
tseems

t
her
eisnodi
ff
erence,
atal
l
,bet
weenknowl
edge,
opi
nionandbel
i
ef.Of
tent
imes,
they

ar
eusedi
nter
changeabl
y.I
nthedai
l
yli
fe,
iti
seasyf
orsomeonet
osayhe“
knows”

whenheshoul
dsayhe“
bel
i
eves”
.Ont
heot
herhandhe“
bel
i
eves”whenheshoul
d

sayhe“
knows”
.Youshoul
dal
way
sremembert
hatt
hequest
ionofknowl
edgei
snot

aneasyone.I
tisnoteasyt
oal
i
gnourt
hought
swi
thr
eal
i
ty.Ourmi
ndi
sal
way
spuzzl
ed

wheni
tcomest
oadj
ust
ingourbel
i
efst
otheknowl
edgeoft
hingsi
nthewor
ld,
sot
hatour

bel
i
efsbecome37

gr
oundedi
nev
idence.Ther
efor
e,t
her
elat
ionshi
pandt
hedi
ff
erencebet
weenknowl
edge,

opi
nionandbel
i
efdependont
heper
son’
sposi
ti
on.
3.1.
1CommonsenseUnder
standi
ng
ofKnowl
edge,
Opi
nionandBel
i
ef

Asst
atedear
li
er,
oft
ent
imesknowl
edge,
opi
nion

andbel
i
efar
eusedi
nter
changeabl
y.Thi
sconf
usi
onmost
lyappear
sincommonsense

usage.Toal
aymanknowl
edgei
mpl
i
esmanyt
hings.Fori
nst
ance,
knowl
edgecanev
en

besy
nony
mouswi
thacquai
ntance.Whenal
aymanasksaquest
ionsuchas:
“Doy
ou

knowt
heVi
ce–Chancel
l
oroft
heNat
ional
OpenUni
ver
sit
yofNi
ger
ia?
”Inhi
smi
nd

t
hisquest
ioni
sthesameas“
arey
ouacquai
ntedwi
tht
heVi
ce-
Chancel
l
or?
”Howev
er,

t
het
rut
hist
haty
oumi
ghtknowt
heVi
ce-
Chancel
l
ori
nthesenseofbei
ngacquai
nted

wi
thhi
m wi
thoutknowi
ngmuchabouthi
m.Ont
heot
herhand,
iti
sal
sopossi
blet
oknow

agr
eatdeal
aboutsomeot
herper
sonwhi
chy
ouhav
enev
ermet
.Fori
nst
anceasast
udent

ofphi
l
osophy
,youknowagr
eatdeal
aboutPl
atobutIam sur
ethaty
ounev
ermet

hi
m.Al
so,
indai
l
yli
fe,
somepeopl
esayt
hey“
know”whi
l
etheymean“
bel
i
eve”or

“
thi
nk”
.Fori
nst
ance,
whenal
aymansay
sthatapar
ti
cul
armedi
cinei
sgood.Whathe

hasi
nmi
ndi
s“t
hink”becausehemi
ghthav
esomeaut
hor
it
ati
veper
sonssay
ingi
tthat

t
hatmedi
cinei
sgood.Mostoft
het
imewehearpeopl
esay
ingt
hatt
hey“
know”t
hat

Bl
ackmenar
ecur
sed,
not
hinggoodcancomeoutoft
hem.They“
know”t
hatt
hings

wi
l
lnev
erwor
kwel
lfort
hem.I
tiscl
eart
hati
ntheabov
est
atement
sther
eisanobv
ious

conf
usi
onbet
weenknowl
edge,
opi
nionandbel
i
ef.And,
thi
siswhathappensi
nthedai
l
y

l
i
feofal
ayman.

Phi
l
osophi
cal
Under
standi
ngofKnowl
edge,
Opi
nionandBel
i
ef

Thephi
l
osophi
cal

under
standi
ngofknowl
edgei
sver
ydi
ff
erentf
rom t
hatoft
hel
ayman.Foral
ayman,

knowl
edge,
opi
nionandbel
i
efar
eint
erwov
en.Buti
tisnotpossi
blei
nphi
l
osophy
.Fora

phi
l
osopher
,yousay“
know”wheny
oupossessi
nfor
mat
iont
hati
sbey
onddoubt
.

Phi
l
osophi
cal
knowl
edgef
oll
owst
hel
ogi
cofpr
oposi
ti
on.i
.e.“
Iknowt
hat
…”f
or
exampl
e,“
Iknowt
hatNi
ger
iai
sthemostpopul
atedcount
ryi
nAf
ri
ca”
.“Iknowt
hat

Camer
oonandNi
ger
iaar
enei
ghbour
s”.Accor
dingt
oJohnHosper
s,i
fwet
aket
hel
ett
er

“
X”t
ost
andf
oranypr
oposi
ti
on,
somer
equi
rement
smustbemeti
nor
derf
orust
o

asser
t,t
rul
ythatweknow“
X”:
“X”mustbet
rue”
,“
Wemusthav
eev
idencef
or

‘
X’,
thati
s,r
easont
obel
i
eve‘
X’,
“Notonl
ymust‘
X’bet
rue,
wemust

bel
i
evet
hat‘
X’i
str
ue”
,“Ther
emustbenocount
er–ev
idence”
.

Hoper
saddst
hat
:

t
hemomenty
ouhav
esomer
easonst
obel
i
evet
hatapr
oposi
ti
oni
snott
rue,
thi
s

i
mmedi
atel
ynegat
esaper
son’
scl
aimt
oknowi
t.Youcannotknow‘
X’i
fXi
snott
rue.I
f

IsayIknow‘
X’,
but‘
X;i
snott
rue,
myst
atementi
ssel
f–cont
radi
cti
ngf
orpar
tofwhat

i
sinv
olv
edi
nknowi
ng‘
X’i
sthat‘
X’i
str
ue(
1956:
144)
.

Accor
dingt
ohi
m,“
ther
emaybenumer
ousst
atement
sthaty
oubel
i
evebutdonotknow

t
obet
rue,
butt
her
ecanbenone,
whi
chy
ouknowt
obet
ruebutdon’
tbel
i
eve.
..f
or

bel
i
evi
ngi
sadef
ini
ngchar
act
eri
sti
cofknowi
ng.Butbel
i
evi
ng‘
X’i
snotadef
ini
ng

char
act
eri
sti
cof‘
X’bei
ngt
rue.‘
X’canbet
rueev
ent
houghnei
therhenorInorany
one

bel
i
evesi
t.Af
teral
l
,theear
thwasr
oundev
enbef
oreany
onebel
i
evedt
hati
twas

(
1956:
145)
.

Whatmat
ter
sher
eist
hatknowl
edgei
mpl
i
esbei
ngsur
e,bei
ngcer
tai
n.Al
sobel
i
evi
ngcan

beseenasapr
e-condi
ti
onf
orknowl
edge.Becausewheny
ouknowsomet
hing,
youhav
e

ar
ightt
oacer
tai
nconf
idencei
nyourbel
i
efasat
rueandr
eli
abl
egui
det
oact
ion.

Thus,
youcannotsayy
ouknowsomet
hingwhi
chy
ouar
enotsur
eof
.Buti
tispossi
blet
o

bel
i
evesomet
hingy
ouar
enotsur
eof
.Youcanbel
i
evei
ntheexi
stenceofGod,
yety
ou

ar
enotsur
eofhi
sexi
stence.Ther
eisnopr
obl
em i
nast
atementsuchas“
Ithi
nkt
hatGod

exi
stsbutIam notsur
e”.Buty
oucansayf
ori
nst
ancet
hat“
Iknowhewi
l
lcomebutIam

notsur
e”.Knowl
edgei
smor
equal
i
tat
ivet
hatopi
nionandbel
i
ef.Anopi
nionorbel
i
ef
cannotbet
rueunl
essi
tisgr
oundedorsuppor
tedwi
thev
idence.Ev
idencei
stheuni
que

char
act
eri
sti
cofknowl
edge.Thati
swhycust
omsandsomeher
edi
tar
ymat
ter
sar
eal
way
s

atoddswi
thknowl
edge.Youshoul
dknowt
hati
tisnotbecausesomecust
oms,
bel
i
efsor

her
edi
tar
yaf
fai
rsar
eunquest
ionabl
ethatt
heyar
esy
nony
mouswi
thknowl
edge.Some

unquest
ionabl
ebel
i
efsar
enotwel
lfoundedorgr
oundedi
nev
idence.Ther
efor
e,t
heydo

notconst
it
uteknowl
edge.Al
way
sremembert
hatt
heknowermustnotonl
ybeabl
eto

adducesuf
fi
cientev
idencebutmustal
soknowt
hatheknowshi
sbel
i
efs.Fort
oknowi
s

t
oknowt
haty
ouknow.I
tmustbecl
eart
oyounowt
hatknowl
edgei
squi
tedi
ff
erent

f
rom opi
nionorbel
i
ef.Wehav
eknowl
edgeonl
ywhenwecanpr
ovi
der
easonsand

ev
idencef
orourcl
aims.Ont
hecont
rar
y,bel
i
eforopi
nioni
sbasedoni
nner
,per
sonal

cer
tai
ntyandconv
ict
ion.Knowl
edgei
sobj
ect
ivei
.e.i
tmustbecommuni
cabl
eand

v
eri
fi
abl
e.

3.
2Sour
cesofKnowl
edge39

Oneoft
heper
enni
alquest
ionsi
nthehi
stor
yofphi
l
osophyhasal
way
sbeent
his:
How

doesknowl
edgecomeabout
?Howdoweknowpr
oposi
ti
onst
obet
rue?Orbywhat

meansdowecomebyourknowl
edgeoft
her
eal
wor
ld?Answer
stot
hesequest
ionshav
e

beengi
vent
hrought
hef
oll
owi
ngmeans:
(a)Reason,
(b)Senseexper
ience(
c)Aut
hor
it
y

(
d)I
ntui
ti
on(
e)Rev
elat
ion/
fai
thand(
f)My
sti
cal
exper
ience.

3.
2.1Reason

Rat
ional
i
sm i
nthet
heor
ywhi
chbel
i
evest
hathumanbei
ngscanacqui
reknowl
edgeof

r
eal
i
tybyt
heuseofourmi
ndsal
one,
byt
hinki
ngorpur
ereason.Toanyr
ati
onal
i
st,

r
easoni
sanecessar
yingr
edi
entf
oral
lourknowl
edgecl
aims.Thi
sisoneoft
her
easons

whyAr
ist
otl
edef
inesmanas“
arat
ional
ani
mal
”.Thus,
theabi
l
ityt
othi
nki
swhati
s

cal
l
edr
eason.

Anyser
iousr
ati
onal
i
stagr
eest
hatwecannotacqui
reknowl
edget
hroughsense
exper
iencewi
thoutt
hepower
sofr
eason.Fort
hem,
iti
str
uet
hatourper
cept
ual

exper
iencepr
ovi
dest
her
awmat
eri
alf
orj
udgment
s,butwi
thoutr
eason,
wecannotmake

j
udgment
satal
l
.

Fori
nst
ance,
tor
easont
hatt
heobj
ecti
nfr
ontofy
oui
sabl
ackboar
dyoumustf
ir
stofal
l

r
ecogni
zei
tasabl
ackboar
dbasedoncer
tai
nper
cept
ual
char
act
eri
sti
cssuchascol
our
,

smel
l
,tast
e,si
ze,
shapeast
heyr
ecuri
nyourexper
ience.Then,
bywayofabst
ract
ion,

y
ouar
eabl
etor
ecogni
zeabl
ackboar
dwhent
her
eisacombi
nat
ionoft
hese

char
act
eri
sti
cs.Tot
her
ati
onal
i
stt
her
efor
e“…r
easoni
sthepr
ima-
mat
ri
xofhuman

knowl
edgeandwi
thi
tal
onet
hecer
tai
ntyofhumanknowl
edgei
sguar
ant
eed”(
Ayer
,

1956:
54)

.
3.2.
2SenseExper
ience

Senseexper
iencei
sanot
hersour
ceofknowl
edge.Empi
ri
cist
sar
ethepr
oponent
sof

senseexper
iencet
heor
y.Toanyempi
ri
cist
,asf
arasknowl
edgei
sconcer
ned,
onl
ysense

exper
iencemat
ter
s.I
not
herwor
ds,
empi
ri
cism i
sthephi
l
osophi
cal
theor
ywhi
chdeni
es

r
easonwhi
l
einsi
sti
ngt
hatexper
iencei
sal
way
sthenecessar
yingr
edi
enti
nour

knowl
edgecl
aimsoft
henat
ural
wor
ld.

3.
2.3Aut
hor
it
y

Aut
hor
it
yisal
soconsi
der
edasoneoft
hesour
cesofknowl
edge.Aut
hor
it
yassour
ceof

knowl
edgeoccur
swhenwemakecer
tai
ncl
aimst
oknowl
edgebasedont
heaut
hor
it
yof

someonewhoi
saspeci
ali
sti
nthepar
ti
cul
arf
iel
dofknowl
edge.“
Magi
sterdi
xi
t”i
.e.t
he

Mast
‘ ersai
d”.Fori
nst
ance,
Iknowi
tist
ruebecauseDr
.NgamenKouassi
sai
dso.

Her
e,Dr
.NgamenKouassi
becomesanaut
hor
it
yont
hesubj
ect
.Buty
oushoul
dal
way
s

r
emembert
hatev
enasasour
ceofknowl
edge,
40

aut
hor
it
yisar
elat
ivet
erm.Amanmaybeanaut
hor
it
yinacer
tai
nfi
eldofknowl
edge

l
i
keDr
.NgamenKouassi
,i
nphi
l
osophybutnoti
npsy
chol
ogyev
eni
fhecl
aimssome
knowl
edgeofi
t.I
tisf
all
aci
ousr
easoni
ngt
oascr
ibeaut
hor
it
ytosomeonewhoi
snota

speci
ali
sti
napar
ti
cul
arf
iel
dofknowl
edge.

3.
2.4I
ntui
ti
on

Anot
hersour
ceofknowl
edgei
sint
uit
ion;
Bal
m def
inesi
ntui
ti
onast
he“
immedi
acyof

appr
ehensi
on”(
1995:
5).Accor
dingt
ohi
m:…I
ntui
ti
oni
sthenamewegi
vet
otheway

awar
enessappr
ehendswhenawar
enessappr
ehendsappear
ancedi
rect
ly.Noi
ntui
ti
ng

exi
stsapar
tfr
om awar
eness,
noawar
enessexi
stswi
thouti
ntui
ti
ng(
1995:
5).Thati
swhy

y
ousomet
imeshearpeopl
esay
:“Ihav
easenseofi
ntui
ti
on”
.“Iknowbyi
ntui
ti
ont
hat

Dr
.NgamenKouassi
wil
lbeher
esoon.

3.
2.5Rev
elat
ionandFai
thThesear
eal
soconsi
der
edassour
cesofknowl
edge.I
tis

commont
ohearpeopl
e:“
itwasr
eveal
edt
omei
nadr
eam”or“
itwasr
eveal
edt
ome

byGodandIhav
efai
thi
nit
”.“
Myf
ait
hgui
desmei
nthi
smat
terandIknowt
hati
tis

cer
tai
nlyt
rue”
.

UNI
T1:
DEFI
NITI
ONANDSCOPEOFLOGI
CCONTENTS

3.
1Def
ini
ti
onofLogi
c

3.
2Logi
cal
processes

3.
3Whyst
udyl
ogi
c?

3.
4Logi
candot
herdi
sci
pli
nes3.
5Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionofl
ogi
c

3.
1Def
ini
ti
onofl
ogi
c

Unli
kephi losophyi t
self
,logi
ciansseem t oagreeonwhatl ogi
cmeansorwhati tisabout .Logic
hasbeenv ari
ouslydef i
nedbydi f
ferentschol
ars.Forinst
ance,Copidefi
nesl
ogicast hestudyof
themet hodsandpr inci
plesusedi ndist
ingui
shinggood( cor
rect)f
rom bad/i
ncorrectreasoning
(1972).Ont heot herhand,Nancyseesl ogic“asthesciencethatappr
aisesr
easoningascor rect
orincorrect”(1990:3.4)
.Kahaneonhi spartdefi
neslogicas“anattempttodist
inguishbetween
correct(vali
d)from incorr
ect(inv
alid)ar
gument s”

1968:2).
Ety
mologi
cal
l
y ,Logi
cisder
ivedfr
om Gr dLogos,whi
eekwor chmeansst
udy,wordor
di
scourse.Basi
cal
l
y,youcannoticethati
ntheabov
edefi
nit
ionst
hewordswhichstandout
cl
ear
lyarer
easoningandar gument ati
on.Ther
efor
e,wecansayt
hatt
hest
udyofl
ogi
cist
he
st
udyofcor
rectandincor
rectreasoningandargument
s.

3.
2Logi
cal
Processes

Si
mple apprehensi
on,j
udgment
,reasoni
ng and ar
gumentconst
it
ute whatwe cal
llogi
cal
pr
ocesses.

Si
mpl
eAppr
ehensi
on

Simpleapprehensionist heactbywhi chthemindformstheconceptofsomet hi

ngwi t
hout
aff
ir
mi ngordenyingany thingabouti t.Fori
nst
anceifIsay“l
ookatt hatShip”andst opthere.
Thisisasimpleappr ehensi onbecauseIhav enotsai
danythi
ngaboutt heShi p.Ihaveneit
her
aff
ir
mednordeni edany thingaboutt heShip.Somephil
osopher
sandl ogici
anshav edeniedthe
possibi
li
ty ofa si mple appr ehension.Accordi
ng tothem,t her
ei s not hi
ng li
ke simple
apprehensi
on.

Judgment

Inlogi
c,j
udgmenti sknownast heactbywhi cht
hemi ndaff
ir
msordeniessomet
hingof
somethi
ngelse.Forinst
ance,i
fIpr oceedtosay“l
ook,t
hatshi
pi sbi
g”t
henIhavemadea
j
udgmentbyaffi
rmingthe“bi
gness”oftheShi
p.

Reasoni
ngandAr
gument

Reasoningandargumentconsti
tutesthet hi
rdandlaststageofanyl ogicalpr
ocess.I
tisalso
know ast heactbywhicht hemi ndpassesf rom one,twoormor ejudgmentstoaf urt
her
j
udgmentdi st
inctfr
om theprecedingonesbuti mplici
tl
ycont ainedinthem.Besidessimple
apprehensi
onandjudgment,
logi
cisstrict
lyconcer
nedwi t
hr easoningandargument.

3.
3WhySt
udyLogi
c?

I
tisv eryi mportanttost udyl ogic.Becausei tistheonl ydi sci
plinethatst ri
ct l
yl aysdownt he
rul
eswhi cht hemi ndmustf oll
owi nor dert oar riveattruthandt her
ebymi nimi zeer ror.Inot her
words, l
ogicistheonl ydi scipl
inet hatt eachesushowt of ormulatedifferenttypesofar gument s.
Asadi scipli
neitwillalsoequi py ouwi tht heski ll
sneededf oreffecti
veandf orcef ulpresent ation
ofyourv iewsi nanar gument .Logi ci ssomet i
mesper ceiv edbyi tscriti
csasasubj ectthathas
nopr acti
caluse.Thi si snott rue.Theabst ractnessofl ogicdoesnotmakei tirrelevantatal l.
I
ndeed, itisnotcont radictoryt osayt hatl ogici stoli
fewhatoxy genist olif
e.Weal lneedl ogic
i
nonewayort heot her,inonef orm oranot her.Weal lneedl ogictocommuni cat eandi nt
eracti n
thesoci ety.Event obei ll
ogicalpr esupposesal ogicalact i
onordeci si
on.Logi cispar tof
phil
osophy .Itisani mpor tantar eaofphi losophy .Thereisnowayy oucandet ermi necor rector
i
ncorrectr easoningwi thoutconst ructingar gument s.Andl ogi
c,beingt hedi sciplinet hatdr aws
theboundar ybet weencor rectori ncor rectr easoning,isv eryessentialtophi l
osophy .Ther efor e,
i
tisnotev enanexagger ationt ocl aimt hatl ogicistophi losophywhatmat hemat i
csi stot he
sciences.Logi cisev enatt hebackgr oundofmat hemat i
cs.Apar tf r
om phi l
osophy,logici s
i
mpor t
antt o otherdi scipli
nes as wel l
.Anygood soci ologist,historian,lawy er
,pol i
ti
cian,
phy sicianandsoon, requirestheservicesoflogicli
kephil
osophy .Solongast hereisreasonf or
argument s,classi
fi
cationandor der
ingoft hi
ngs,logicisalway sneeded.Asear li
erstated,i
ti s
onlyl ogict hatcanbr inglight,t
hegener allawsandcannonst owhi chr easonmustconf orm.
Otakporpassi onatelyt er
msl ogicast he“Queenofal ldiscipl
ines”(1985: 85-98).Tohi m,iti s
obv ioust hat“noscientist
,histor
ian,
lawy er
,engineer,et
c.canaf fordtopr esenthis/herwor ki
na
disor derl
ymannerandexpectt obet akenseriousl
ybecauset obel ogicalmeanst obeor derly”
(2000: 5)

3.
5Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionofLogi
c

Tr
adi
ti
onal
l
y,l
ogi
cisdi
vi
dedi
ntot
womai
nbr
anchesnamel
yfor
mal
andi
nfor
mal
logi
c.

For
mal
Logi
c

FormalLogi ci
st hedomainpr oper,generalmethodologyandmet a-l
ogi
c.Logicproperishere
understoodas“thescienceoft helawsont hebasisofwhi chf
rom somethinggiv
ensomet hing
elsefoll
owsinunt r
ueofthegiven”(Otakpor2000:11).Logi
cproperisint
urnsubdivi
dedintothe
foll
owing:Logi
cofpr oposi
ti
ons, l
ogicoftermsi
.e.predicat
esandclassesandlogi
cofr el
ati
ons.

I
NFORMAL:

1)Concept
ual
Anal
ysi
s

Logi
c

FORMAL:

1)
Met
hodol
ogy

2)
Met
alogi
c

3)
Logi
cpr
oper

(
a)Logi
cofpr
oposi
ti
ons

(
b)Pr
edi
cat
elogi
c

(
c)Logi
coft
erms

(
d)Logi
cofcl
ass

(
e)Logi
cofr
elat
ions

UNI
T2:
LOGI
C’SVOCABULARYI

3.
1St
atementorpr
oposi
ti
on
3.
2Pr
emi
se

3.
3Concl
usi
on

3.
4Inf
erence

1.
0INTRODUCTI
ON

3.
1St
atementandPr
oposi
ti
on

Ther eisnodi ff
erencebet weenast atementandapr oposit
ioninl ogi
c.Thet wot ermsar e
synony mous and t hereupon i nt
erchangeabl e. However,logicians di ff
erentiat
e bet ween
statementandsent ence.Tot hem,ev ent hought hetwot ermsar ei nt
erwov en,theyar enot
actuall
yt hesame. Forinstance,inev er
y dayEnglish,asent
encei sasetofwor dsexpressinga
statement ,aquest i
onoracommand.Thuswhenev erasent enceexpr essesast atement
withoutquest i
onorcommandi tcanal sobecal l
edlogi
calstat
ement .Itshouldalsobecl eart o
yout hatinordi
nar yEngl i
sh,everylogi
cal statementisasentence.Butasst atedear l
i
ernotev ery
sentencei salogicalst atement.Itisonlywhenasent encecanbot hbedeni edorasser t
edt hat
i
squal if
iedasl ogicalstatementorpr oposition.For

exampl
e,t
hesent
ence“
Niger
iai
sri
ch”canbeasser
tedasf
oll
ows:
yesNi
ger
iai
sri
ch.I
t

canal
sobedeni
edbyst
ati
ngasf
oll
ows:
No,
Niger
iai
snotr
ich.Thust
hesent
ence

“
Niger
iai
sri
ch”becausei
tcanbe

asser
tedandcanal
sobedeni
ed,
isal
ogi
cal
stat
ementorpr
oposi
ti
on.Anysent
ence

expr
essi
ngquest
ions,
commandset
cdoesnotqual
i
fyasl
ogi
cal
stat
ementorpr
oposi
ti
on.

3.
2Pr
emi
se

Pr
emi
sei
sal
sooneoft
hebasi
cconcept
sinl
ogi
c.I
tisknownasev
idenceorconcl
usi
on.

Basical
ly
, apremiseref
erstothatpr
oposi
ti
onorstat
ement,wit
hinanargument
,whi
chpr
ovi
des
supportfororgroundsforasser
ti
ngtheconcl
usi
onofthatar
gument.(
Meneye

Eze,
2003:
18)
.Inav
ali
dar
gument
,thepr
emi
sesi
mpl
ytheconcl
usi
on.

Pr
emi
seandconcl
usi
onar
erel
ati
vet
erms.Concl
usi
ondoesnotnecessar
il
ymeant
hel
ast

sent
ence.Thepr
emi
sei
nanar
gumentAcanbet
heconcl
usi
oni
nar
gumentBandv
icev
ersa.

Forexampl
e:Al
lmenar
emor
tal

Abi
olai
saman

Ther
efor
eAbi
olai
saman.
I
nthi
sexampl
e,t
hef
ir
stt
wost
atement
sorpr
eposi
ti
onsar
ethepr
emi
seswhi
l
ethel
ast

onei
stheconcl
usi
on.

Pr
emi
se-I
ndi
cat
ors

Thesear
ewor
dsandexpr
essi
ont
hati
ndi
cat
ethepr
emi
seswi
thi
nanar
gument
.The

f
oll
owi
ngar
esomeoft
hepr
emi
sei
ndi
cat
ors.“
since”
,“f
or”
,“as”
,“because”
,“i
nasmuch

as”
,“f
ort
her
easont
hat
”et
c…Whenast
atementf
oll
owst
hewor
d“si
nce”t
hatst
atement

i
sapr
emi
se.Forexampl
e,“
sincet
heVi
ce-Chancel
l
ori
sinSchool
,ther
ewi
l
lbel
i
ght

t
oday
”,i
nanyar
gument
,thest
atementorpr
oposi
ti
ont
hatcomesaf
tert
hewor
d

“
because”i
susual
l
yapr
emi
sef
ori
nst
ance:
Ther
ewi
l
lbel
i
ghtt
odaybecauset
hev
ice–

chancel
l
ori
sinschool
.Whenev
ert
hewor
d“f
or”i
sused,
itsi
mpl
ymeanst
hatt
he

sent
encef
oll
owi
ngi
tist
hepr
emi
seoft
heabov
ear
gument
.Forexampl
e:t
her
ewi
l
lbe

l
i
ghtt
odayf
ort
heVi
ce-
Chancel
l
ori
sinSchool
.

Def
ineapr
emi
seandst
atesomepr
emi
sei
ndi
cat
ors.3.
3CONCLUSI
ON

I
nlogi
c,concl
usi
oni
sthatpr
oposi
ti
on,
wit
hint
hear
gument
,thati
sar
ri
vedatont
he

st
rengt
horbasi
soft
hei
nfor
mat
ionpr
ovi
dedbyt
hepr
emi
ses.Si
mpl
yput
,concl
usi
on

meanst
ocomeorbr
ingst
oanend.Youshoul
dal
way
sremembert
hati
nanyv
ali
d

ar
gument
,theconcl
usi
onf
oll
owsf
rom t
hepr
emi
ses.Fori
nst
ance,

Al
lphi
l
osophyst
udent
sar
ewi
se

Ai
nai
saphi
l
osophyst
udent

Ther
efor
eAi
nai
swi
se

Her
e,i
tiscl
eart
hatt
het
hir
dpr
eposi
ti
on“
Ainai
swi
se”
,whi
chi
stheconcl
usi
onoft
he

ar
gument
,isar
ri
vedatont
hebasi
soft
hei
nfor
mat
ionpr
ovi
dedbyt
hef
ir
stt
wo

pr
eposi
ti
ons,
whi
char
ethepr
emi
ses.

Concl
usi
on–i
ndi
cat
orsTher
ear
esomeexpr
essi
onsandwor
dst
hatf
unct
iont
oindi
cat
e

t
heconcl
usi
onwi
thi
napassage.Thesear
egener
all
ycal
l
edCONCLUSI
ON–
I
NDI
CATORS.Forexampl
e:“
hence”
,“consequent
ly’
,“t
her
efor
e”,
“wemay

concl
ude”
,“wemayi
nfer
”,“
thus”
,“so”et
c.whenev
eranyoft
hesewor
ds

begi
nsast
atementorpr
oposi
ti
on,
iti
sobv
ioust
hatsuchpr
oposi
ti
oni
saconcl
usi
on.

Def
ineconcl
usi
onandst
atesomeconcl
usi
on–i
ndi
cat
ors.

3.
4Inf
erence

I
nlogi
ctoi
nfermeanst
oder
ivet
heconcl
usi
onofanar
gumentf
rom t
hepr
emi
sesoft
hat

ar
gument
.Forexampl
e:

Al
lCamer
ouni
ansar
est
rong

Songi
saCamer
ouni
an

Ther
efor
e,Songi
sst
rong

Her
eyoucanseet
hatt
heconcl
usi
on“
Songi
sst
rong”i
sder
ivedf
rom t
hef
ir
standsecond

pr
emi
sesoft
hear
gument
.Thi
spr
ocessofder
ivat
ioni
scal
l
edi
nfer
ence.

UNI
T3:
LOGI
C’SVOCABULARYI
I

3.
1Ar
gument

3.
2Val
i
dandi
nval
i
dar
gument

3.
3Subj
ectorpr
edi
cat
eter
m

3.
4Maj
or,
minorandmi
ddl
eter
ms

4.
0Concl
usi
on

5.
0Summar
y

3.
1Ar
gument

Anar
gumenti
sagr
oupofpr
oposi
ti
ons,
oneofwhi
ch,
cal
l
edt
heconcl
usi
on,
isaf
fi
rmed

ont
hebasi
soft
heot
her
s,whi
char
ecal
l
edpr
emi
ses.Anar
gumenti
sal
way
sthesmal
l
est

uni
tofar
gument
ati
on.Atl
eastt
wopr
oposi
ti
onsorst
atement
sfor
m anar
gumentot
her

wi
sei
tisnotar
gument
.Butnotal
lthest
atement
sar
ear
gument
s.Somenon

ar
gument
ati
veusesofst
atement
ssuchasi
nrepor
ts,
il
lust
rat
ion,
expl
anat
oryst
atement
s,
condi
ti
onal
stat
ementet
c…ar
esomet
imesconf
usedwi
thar
gument
s.Asear
li
erst
ated,
at

l
eastt
wost
atement
sorpr
oposi
ti
onsf
orm anar
gument
.Int
hecaseoft
wopr
oposi
ti
ons

onl
yonemustbet
hepr
emi
sewhi
l
etheot
hermustbet
heconcl
usi
on.

Fori
nst
ance:
“AssoonasDrOf
otokuncomes,
hemar
kshi
sscr
ipt
s.”Her
etheconcl
usi
on

i
s“hemar
kshi
sscr
ipt
s”whi
l
ethepr
emi
sei
s“Dr
.Of
otokuncomes”
.Theexpr
essi
on“
as

soonas”st
andsaspr
emi
se–i
ndi
cat
or.Whenmor
ethant
wo52

pr
oposi
ti
onsorst
atement
sfor
m anar
gument
,onemustbeaconcl
usi
onwhi
l
etheot
her
s

mustbepr
emi
sesExampl
e;Al
lwomenar
ecar
ingCar
ineNgameni
samot
her

Ther
efor
e,Car
ineNgameni
scar
ing

Youshoul
dal
way
sremembert
hatnomat
terhowmanypr
emi
sesf
orm anar
gument
,an

ar
gumentcannev
erhav
emor
ethanoneconcl
usi
on.Sel
f–AssessmentExer
cise3.
1

Whi
choft
hef
oll
owi
ngpassagesar
ear
gument
s?Whi
char
enotar
gument
s?I
fapassage

i
sanar
gument
,ident
if
yit
sconcl
usi (
on.Theseexer
cisesar
efr
om C.St
ephenLay
man.PP

52–53)1.
Amer
icansar
emat
eri
ali
sti
cbecauset
heyar
eexposedt
omor
eadv
ert
isi
ngt
han

anyot
herpeopl
eonear
th.

2.
Wagi
ngwari
sal
way
swr
ongbecausei
tinv
olv
eski
l
li
nghumanbei
ngsandki
l
li
ng

humansi
swr
ong.

3.
War
soccurbecausehumansdesi
ret
ocont
rol
otherhumans.
4.I
foneset
sone’
shear
t

onhumani
ti
es,
onewi
l
lbewi
thoutev
il–Conf
uci t
us,heAnal
ect
s.NewYor
k:Oxf
ord

Uni
ver
sit
yPr
ess,
1993,
p.135.
Thegooddon’
tal
way
sdi
eyoungbecauseMot
her

Ter
esawasagoodper
son.

3.
2Val
i
dandI
nval
i
dAr
gument
s

Anar
gumenti
ssai
dtobev
ali
dwhent
heconcl
usi
onoft
hatar
gumenti
sder
ivedf
rom or

f
oll
owsf
rom t
hepr
emi
ses.I
not
herwor
ds,
inav
ali
dar
gument
,iti
snecessar
ythati
fthe

pr
emi
sesar
etr
ue,
thent
heconcl
usi
oni
str
ue.Thus,
inanyv
ali
dar
gument
,ther
eisan
absol
uteconnect
ionbet
weent
hepr
emi
sesandt
heconcl
usi
on.I
nanyv
ali
dar
gument
,iti
s

i
mpossi
blef
ort
heconcl
usi
ont
obef
alsewhent
hepr
emi
sesar
etr
ue,
forexampl
e:

Al
lAmer
icansar
epr
oud,
Pet
eri
sanAmer
ican

Ther
efor
e,pet
eri
spr
oud.

Whatmat
ter
smosther
eist
hel
i
nkbet
weent
hepr
emi
sesandt
heconcl
usi
onr
athert
han

ont
het
rut
horf
alsi
tyoft
hest
atement
scompr
isi
ngt
hear
gument
s,Exampl
e:Al
lbi
rds

hav
ebeaks.Somecat
sar
ebi
rds.So,
somecat
shav
ebeaks.Her
eyoucanseet
hat

al
thought
hesecondpr
emi
sei
sfal
se,
thear
gumenti
sst
il
lval
i
d.Becausewhent
he

pr
emi
sesar
eassumedt
obet
ruet
heconcl
usi
onmustbet
rueal
so.

I
nlogi
cpr
oper
,anar
gumentcanst
il
lbev
ali
dwhenal
lthepr
emi
sesar
efal
se.For

exampl
e:Al
lmenar
emonkey
s.Al
lmonkey
sar
epol
i
tici
ans.Soal
lmenar
e53

pol
i
tici
an.Howev
er,
iti
snotal
soadv
isabl
etohast
il
yconcl
udet
hatanar
gumenti
sval
i
d

si
mpl
ybecausei
tspr
emi
sesar
eal
ltr
ue.Exampl
e:SomeNi
ger
iansar
ebad.Ukwai
sa

Ni
ger
ian.Ther
efor
eUkwai
sbad.
Anar
gumentcanhav
etr
uepr
emi
sesandt
rue

concl
usi
onbutmaynotnecessar
il
ybev
ali
d.Becausesomet
imes,
thepr
emi
sesmaynot

suppor
ttheconcl
usi
oni
nther
ightway
.

“
Aret
hepr
emi
sesact
ual
l
ytr
ue?
”“I
sthear
gumentv
ali
d?”Thesear
etwodi
sti
nctand

f
undament
alquest
ionsi
nlogi
c.I
nlogi
cpr
oper
,val
i
dit
yonl
ypr
eser
vest
rut
hbutcannot

pr
eser
vef
alsehood.

Ani
nval
i
dar
gumenti
stheopposi
teofv
ali
done.Buti
nval
i
dar
gumenthasapecul
i
ar

char
act
eri
sti
c:f
ori
nst
ance:
iti
snotnecessar
ythati
fthepr
emi
sesar
etr
ue,
thent
he

concl
usi
oni
str
ue.

I
nconcl
usi
on,
anyv
ali
dar
gumentwi
thal
lpr
emi
sest
ruei
sasoundar
gument
.Anyv
ali
d

ar
gumentwi
thatl
eastonef
alsepr
emi
sei
nanunsoundar
gument
.Al
li
nval
i
dar
gument
s

ar
eunsound.
3.
3Subj
ectorpr
edi
cat
eTer
m

Remembert
hatwecant
alkei
theroft
hesubj
ectt
erm ofapr
oposi
ti
onort
hesubj
ectort
he

subj
ectt
erm ofasy
ll
ogi
sm orofanar
gument
.Butal
way
sremembert
hati
nlogi
cpr
oper
,

y
oumustt
alkoft
hesubj
ectt
erm ofapr
oposi
ti
on.Sy
ll
ogi
sm i
smor
ethanapr
eposi
ti
on

sy
ll
ogi
sm i
sanar
gumentt
hatcont
ainsandmustcont
aint
hreepr
oposi
ti
ons,
twoofwhi
ch

ar
ecal
l
edt
hepr
emi
sesandonet
heconcl
usi
on.At
ypi
cal
caseofasy
ll
ogi
sm i
s:

Al
lBl
ackwomenar
ebeaut
if
ul

CacyNgameni
sabl
ackwoman

Ther
efor
eCacyNgameni
sbeaut
if
ul

I
nthi
ssy
ll
ogi
sm “
CacyNgameni
sbeaut
if
ul”i
sknownasconcl
usi
onandi
tnecessar
il
y

f
oll
owsf
rom t
hef
ir
standsecondpr
eposi
ti
ons,
whi
chser
veaspr
emi
sesoft
hesy
ll
ogi
sm.

Youcanseet
hatawhol
esy
ll
ogi
sm cannei
therbeasser
tednordeni
ed.Butt
hesent
ence

“
CacyNgameni
sbeaut
if
ul”whi
chst
andsher
easapr
eposi
ti
oncanbeasser
tedordeni
ed.

Ast
hesubj
ectoft
hepr
oposi
ti
oni
t54

i
scal
l
edt
hesubj
ectt
erm so“
CacyNgameni
sbeaut
if
ul”i
sthesubj
ectt
erm oft
heabov
e

pr
oposi
ti
on.

Asi
tiswi
tht
hesubj
ectt
erm,
soi
tiswi
tht
hepr
edi
cat
eter
m.Thel
ogi
ciandoesnott
alk

oft
hepr
edi
cat
eter
m ofanar
gumentorsy
ll
ogi
sm.I
nlogi
c,wet
alkoft
hepr
edi
cat
eter
m

ofapr
eposi
ti
on.Fori
nst
ance,
int
hepr
eposi
ti
on‘
CacyNgameni
sbeaut
if
ul,
”the

pr
edi
cat
eoft
hepr
eposi
ti
oni
s‘beaut
if
ul”
.I
nconcl
usi
on,
youshoul
dal
way
sremember

t
hati
nlogi
cpr
oper
,subj
ectandpr
edi
cat
eter
m ar
eassoci
atedwi
thi
ndi
vi
dual

pr
oposi
ti
onsonl
y.I
tdoesnotmat
terwhet
hert
hati
ndi
vi
dual
proposi
ti
oni
sapr
emi
seora

concl
usi
on.

.
3.4Maj
or,
MinorandMi
ddl
eTer
msMaj
orTer
m Maj
or,
minor

andmi
ddl
eter
msar
eal
lpar
tsofasy
ll
ogi
sm.Butunl
i
kepr
edi
cat
eorsubj
ectt
erm asseen
ear
li
er,
alogi
ciancannev
ert
alkofmaj
or,
minorormi
ddl
eter
m ofapr
eposi
ti
on.For

i
nst
ance,
inanar
gumentori
nasy
ll
ogi
sm,
thepr
edi
cat
eter
m oft
heconcl
usi
onbecomes

aut
omat
ical
l
ythemaj
ort
erm oft
hesy
ll
ogi
sm.Forexampl
e:

Al
lCamer
ooni
ansar
efoot
bal
l
ersEt
ooi
saCamer
ooni
anTher
efor
e,Et
ooi
sa

f
oot
bal
l
er“
foot
bal
l
er”i
sthepr
edi
cat
eter
m oft
heconcl
usi
on,
int
heabov
eexampl
e.Buti
t

aut
omat
ical
l
ybecomest
hemaj
ort
erm oft
hesy
ll
ogi
sm.So,
“foot
bal
l
er”i
sthemaj
ort
erm

oft
hesy
ll
ogi
sm.Youshoul
dal
way
srememberal
sot
hati
nlogi
c,t
hepr
emi
secont
aini
ng

t
hemaj
oroft
hesy
ll
ogi
sm i
sref
err
edt
oast
hemaj
orpr
emi
seoft
hatsy
ll
ogi
sm,
thusi
n

t
heabov
eexampl
e,t
hepr
emi
se“
all
Camer
ooni
ansar
efoot
bal
l
ers”
,whi
chcont
ainst
he

maj
ort
erm oft
hesy
ll
ogi
sm (
foot
bal
l
er)becomest
hemaj
orpr
emi
seoft
hesy
ll
ogi
sm,

becausei
tcont
ainst
hemaj
ort
erm oft
hatsy
ll
ogi
sm.

Mi
nort
erm

Asi
tiswi
tht
hemaj
ort
erm,
soi
tiswi
tht
hemi
nort
erm.Thati
s,t
hel
ogi
ciandoesnot

t
alkoft
hemi
nort
erm ofapr
oposi
ti
on,
butr
atheroft
hemi
norf
ir
m ofasy
ll
ogi
sm.

Al
way
sremembert
hati
nanysy
ll
ogi
sm,
thesubj
ectort
hesubj
ectt
erm oft
heconcl
usi
on

becomesaut
omat
ical
l
ythemi
nort
erm oft
hatsy
ll
ogi
sm,
fori
nst
ance:

Al
lCamer
ooni
ansar
efoot
bal
l
ers

Et
ooi
saCamer
ooni
an

Ther
efor
e,Et
ooi
saf
oot
bal
l
er

55

I
ntheabov
eexampl
e,Et
ooi
sthesubj
ectt
erm oft
heconcl
usi
onandi
taut
omat
ical
l
y

becomest
hemi
nort
erm oft
hatsy
ll
ogi
sm.SoEt
ooi
sthemi
nort
erm oft
heabov
e

sy
ll
ogi
sm.I
nlogi
c,t
hepr
emi
set
hatcont
ainst
hemi
nort
erm oft
hesy
ll
ogi
sm i
scal
l
edt
he

mi
norpr
emi
seoft
hatsy
ll
ogi
sm.Thusi
ntheabov
eex
ampl
ethepr
emi
se“
Etooi
sa

Camer
ooni
an”whi
chcont
ainst
hemi
nort
erm oft
hesy
ll
ogi
sm (
Etoo)i
scal
l
edt
hemi
nor
pr
emi
sebecausei
tcont
ainst
hemi
nort
erm oft
hatsy
ll
ogi
sm.

Mi
ddl
eTer
mAsi
tiswi
tht
hemaj
orandmi
nort
erms,
soi
tiswi
tht
hemi
ddl
eter
m.That

i
s,t
hel
ogi
ciandoesnott
alkoft
hemi
ddl
eter
m ofapr
oposi
ti
on,
butr
atheroft
hemi
ddl
e

t
erm ofasy
ll
ogi
sm.Al
way
sremembert
hati
nanysy
ll
ogi
sm,
thet
ermt
hatoccur
sinbot
h

pr
emi
sesbutdoesnotoccuri
nconcl
usi
oni
ncal
l
edt
hemi
ddl
eter
m oft
hatsy
ll
ogi
sm.For

i
nst
ance:

Al
lCamer
ooni
ansar
efoot
bal
l
ers

Et
ooi
saCamer
ooni
an

Ther
efor
eEt
ooi
saf
oot
bal
l
er

Youcanseet
hati
ntheabov
esy
ll
ogi
sm,
”Camer
ooni
ans”i
sthemi
ddl
eter
m becauset
he

t
erm(
Camer
ooni
an)occur
sinbot
hthemaj
orandmi
norpr
emi
sesbutdoesnotoccuri
n

t
heconcl
usi
on.

Sel
f–assessmentexer
cise3.
4

Whatdoy
ouunder
standbymaj
or,
minorandmi
ddl
eter
msofa

sy
ll
ogi
sm?
4.0CONCLUSI
ON

Thi
sst
udyuni
tdeal
twi
tht
hedef
ini
ti
onofanar
gumenti
nlogi
c,i
tsv
ali
dit
yand

i
nval
i
dit
y.I
tdeal
tal
sowi
tht
hel
ogi
cianunder
standsbypr
edi
cat
e,subj
ect
,maj
or,
minor

andmi
ddl
eter
ms.

UNI
T4:
VALI
D,I
NVALI
D,DEDUCTI
VEANDI
NDUCTI
VE

ARGUMENTSCONTENTS

3.
1Induct
iveAr
gument

3.
2Deduct
iveAr
gument
s

3.
3Val
i
dAr
gument
s

3.
4Weakandst
rongi
nduct
ivear
gument

3.
5Soundandunsoundar
gument
3.
1Induct
ivear
gument

Ani
nduct
ivear
gumentast
hatki
ndofar
gumentt
hatpr
oceedsf
rom t
heexper
ienced

(
par
ti
cul
ar)t
othei
nexper
ienced(
gener
al)
;fr
om t
heknownt
otheunknown.For

i
nst
ance;
Mr.RogerMi
l
leri
saCamer
ooni
anandaf
oot
bal
lpl
ayer
.Mr
.Et
ooFi
l
sisa

Camer
ooni
anandaf
oot
bal
lpl
ayer
.Mr
.Ri
gober
tSongi
saCamer
ooni
anandaf
oot
bal
l

pl
ayer
.Ther
efor
e,Al
lCamer
ooni
ansar
efoot
bal
lpl
ayer
s.Youcanseet
hati
ntheabov
e

exampl
e,t
heconcl
usi
ont
hatal
lCamer
ooni
ansar
efoot
bal
lpl
ayer
s(gener
alpr
oposi
ti
on)

i
sar
ri
vedatbysampl
i
ngsomemember
sof58

t
hecl
assofper
sonswhoar
eCamer
ooni
ans.Butf
orsomel
ogi
cians(
Mini
mah&I
noka,

1997)t
her
ear
eal
sosome“
casesi
nwhi
cht
hepr
oposi
ti
onsofani
nduct
ivear
gument

whi
char
eusedaspr
emi
sesandconcl
usi
onsmayal
lbeei
thergener
alpr
oposi
ti
onsor

par
ti
cul
arpr
eposi
ti
ons”
.Thi
sisev
identi
nthef
oll
owi
ngar
gument
s:

a)
All
bir
dsgr
owf
rom i
nfancyt
oadul
thood;
All
treesgr
owf
rom i
nfancyt
omat
uri
ty;
All

mengr
owf
rom i
nfancyt
oadul
thood;
Ther
efor
eal
ll
iv
ingt
hingsgr
owi
nfancyt
o

adul
thood(
Mini
mahandI
noka,
1997:
72)
b)I
diAmi
nwasadi
ctat
orandwas

r
uthl
ess;
Samuel
Doewasadi
ctat
orandwasr
uthl
ess;
Kabi
l
aisadi
ctat
or,
Ther
efor
e

Kabi
l
aisr
uthl
ess.

3.
2Deduct
iveAr
gument

Logi
ciansdef
inededuct
ivear
gumentast
hatki
ndofar
gumenti
nwhi
chwemov
efr
om

gener
alpr
oposi
ti
onsaspr
emi
sest
oapar
ti
cul
arpr
oposi
ti
onast
heconcl
usi
on.I
na

deduct
ivear
gumentt
heder
ivat
ionofaconcl
usi
onf
rom t
hepr
emi
sesf
oll
owswi
th

absol
utecer
tai
ntyandnecessi
ty,
nomat
terwhat
.Butt
hisi
snott
hecasei
nani
nduct
ive

ar
gument
.Fori
nst
ance:

Al
lmenar
emor
tal

Dr
.NgamenKouassi
isaman
Ther
efor
eDr
.NgamenKouassi
ismor
tal
.

Sel
f-
AssessmentExer
cise3.
2

Def
ineanddi
scussdeduct
ivear
gument

3.
3Val
i
d(deduct
ive)ar
gument

Foradeduct
ivear
gumentt
obev
ali
datl
eastt
hef
oll
owi
ngcondi
ti
onsmustbef
ulf
il
led.I
n

ot
herwor
ds,
adeduct
ivear
gumenti
sval
i
difonl
yif
:a)
Thepr
emi
sesi
mpl
ythe

concl
usi
on;
orb)
Thepr
emi
sesent
ail
theconcl
usi
on,
orc)
Theconcl
usi
onf
oll
owsf
rom t
he

pr
emi
ses,
ord)
Thepr
emi
sesnecessi
tat
etheconcl
usi
on,
ore)Theconcl
usi
oncanbe

i
nfer
redf
rom t
hepr
emi
ses.
Youcanseet
hatf
rom t
heabov
econdi
ti
ons,
aval
i
ddeduct
ive

ar
gumenti
sanar
gumenti
nwhi
cht
heconcl
usi
oni
simpl
i
edbyori
sent
ail
edby
,ori
s

necessi
tat
edbyt
hepr
emi
sesort
hepr
emi
sesar
efol
l
owedbyt
heconcl
usi
on.Youshoul
d

al
soknowt
hati
nlogi
cpr
oper
,thewor
ds“
true”or“
fal
se”ar
eusedt
oqual
i
fy59

st
atement
sorpr
oposi
ti
ons.Whi
l
e“v
ali
d”or“
inv
ali
d”ar
eusedt
oqual
i
fyar
gument
s.I
n

ot
herwor
dswet
alkof“
true”or“
fal
se”st
atement
sorpr
oposi
ti
onsand“
val
i
d”or

“
inv
ali
d”ar
gument
s.

3.
4Weakandst
rongi
nduct
ivear
gument
sAsnot
edear
li
er,
val
i
dori
nval
i
dar
ewor
ds

r
eser
vedf
orar
gument
sonl
ywhi
l
e‘weak’
or‘
str
ong’
areusedt
oqual
i
fyi
nduct
ive

ar
gument
s.Asst
atedear
li
er,
oni
nduct
ivear
gumenti
sbasedonpr
obabi
l
ity
.Thati
swhy

l
ogi
ci
ansr
atheruset
hewor
dsweakandst
rong.I
nani
nduct
ivear
gument
,thewor
ds

st
rongandweakar
eusedt
oindi
cat
ethel
evel
andst
rengt
hofev
idenceordat
ausedas

pr
emi
sesandt
hedegr
eeofcer
tai
ntycont
ainedi
ntheconcl
usi
on.Anyi
nduct
ivear
gument

i
sbasedonpr
obabi
l
ity
.Ther
efor
e,i
tsweaknessorst
rengt
hdependsont
hedegr
eeof

ev
idencecont
ainedi
ntheconcl
usi
on.

3.
5SoundandUnsoundAr
gument

Fi
rstofal
l
,thewor
ds“
sound”and“
unsound”hav
enot
hingt
odowi
thani
nval
i
d
ar
gument
.Theyar
eonl
yusedt
oqual
i
fyav
ali
d(deduct
ive)ar
gument
.Al
sobeari
nmi
nd

t
hatbef
oreanar
gumentbecomessoundorunsoundi
tmustbev
ali
dbef
orehand.Thusa

v
ali
dar
gumenti
ssai
dtobesoundi
fthepr
emi
sesoft
hatar
gumentaswel
last
he

concl
usi
onar
eal
ltr
uepr
eposi
ti
ons.Onot
herhand,
aval
i
dar
gumenti
ssai
dtobe

unsoundi
fthepr
emi
sesoft
hatar
gumentar
eei
theral
lfal
seorcont
ainami
xtur
eoft
rue

andf
alsepr
eposi
ti
ons,
notwi
thst
andi
ngt
het
rut
hval
ueofi
tsconcl
usi
on(
Mini
mahand

I
noka,
1997:
74)
.Whyi
sitpossi
blet
hatadeduct
ivear
gumentwi
thf
alsepr
emi
sescanbe

descr
ibedasv
ali
d?Mi
nimahandI
nokagi
veusasi
mpl
i
fiedanswer
:

Thepoi
nti
sthatt
hev
ali
dit
yori
nval
i
dit
yofanar
gumentdoesnotdependupont
het
rut
h

orf
alsi
tyofi
tspr
emi
ses;
sinceanar
gument(
deduct
ive)i
ssai
dtohav
eapat
ter
nor

st
ruct
ureorf
orm,
anar
gumenti
sther
ebyv
ali
difi
tconf
ormsort
all
i
eswi
tht
hatst
ruct
ure

orf
orm orpat
ter
n.(
1997:
74)
Inadeduct
iver
easoni
ng,
thepat
ter
norst
ruct
urei
swhatwe

meanbywor
dssuchasi
mpl
y,necessi
tat
e,f
oll
owedby
,ent
ail
etc.Mi
nimal
andI
noka

f
urt
heri
nsi
stt
hat“
thesewor
dspoi
ntt
othef
actt
hati
tisi
mpossi
blef
ort
hepr
emi
sesofan

ar
gumentt
obeal
ltr
uewhi
l
etheconcl
usi
oni
sfal
se.Oncet
hathappenst
hent
hat

ar
gumenti
sinv
ali
d”(
1997:
75)
.Howev
er,
int
hei
rownunder
standi
ng,
“thosewor
dsdi
d

notsayt
hatt
hepr
emi
sescoul
dbeami
xtur
eoft
rueandf
alsepr
oposi
ti
onsorf
alse60

pr
eposi
ti
onst
hroughoutwhi
l
ethear
gumentst
il
lremai
nval
i
d”(
1997:
75)Ther
efor
e,as

st
atedear
li
er,
thewor
dssoundandunsoundonl
yser
vet
oshowt
het
rut
hval
ueoft
he

pr
emi
sescont
ainedi
nanyar
gument
.Forexampl
e:a)
All
Niger
iansar
esai
nts

Al
lsai
ntsar
eangel
s

Ther
efor
eal
lNi
ger
ianar
eangel
s

b)
All
Niger
iansar
eAf
ri
cans

Al
lAf
ri
cansar
ewhi
tes

Ther
efor
eal
lNi
ger
iansar
ewhi
tes(
1979:
75)
Youcanseet
hati
nexampl
e(a)
,bot
hthe
t
wopr
emi
sespl
ust
heconcl
usi
onar
efal
sepr
oposi
ti
onsy
ett
hear
gumenti
sval
i
d,because

t
heconcl
usi
onnecessar
il
yfol
l
owsf
rom t
hepr
emi
ses.Agai
n,i
nexampl
e(b)
,thef
ir
st

pr
emi
seshasat
ruepr
oposi
ti
on,
thesecondhasaf
alsepr
oposi
ti
on,
whi
l
etheconcl
usi
on

i
sal
soexpr
essedi
naf
alsepr
oposi
ti
on.Buther
eagai
n,t
hear
gumenti
sval
i
dbecause

despi
tet
hef
alsi
tyoft
hesecondpr
emi
seandt
hef
alsi
tyoft
heconcl
usi
on,
theconcl
usi
on

i
sval
i
dlyder
ivedf
rom t
hecombi
nat
ionoft
hef
alseandt
ruepr
emi
ses.Soi
nbot
h

exampl
es(
a)and(
b),
thear
gument
sar
eval
i
dbutunsound.Unsoundi
nthesenset
hatt
he

v
ali
dar
gumenthasf
alsepr
emi
seandf
alseconcl
usi
on(
a),
andonet
ruepr
emi
sesandone

f
alsepr
emi
sewi
thaf
alseconcl
usi
on(
b).
Wher
eav
ali
dar
gumenthasal
li
tspr
emi
sesand

concl
usi
onast
ruepr
oposi
ti
ons,
thent
hatv
ali
dar
gumenti
sal
soasoundar
gument
.

Howev
er,
youshoul
dal
way
sbeari
nmi
ndt
hatt
hef
actt
hatanar
gumenthasal
li
ts

pr
emi
sest
ruedoesnotnecessar
il
ymeant
hati
tmustbev
ali
d.I
tispossi
blet
oan

ar
gumentt
oremai
ninv
ali
dev
eni
fal
li
tspr
emi
sesar
etr
ue.

Forexampl
e:Al
lboy
sar
edr
essedi
nshi
rt
sSomegi
rl
sar
edr
essedi
nshi
rt
s

Ther
efor
esomegi
rl
sar
eboy
s

Thusanyar
gumenti
nwhi
chal
lthepr
emi
sesar
etr
uebuthast
heconcl
usi
onasf
alse

pr
eposi
ti
onmustbeani
nval
i
dar
gument
.

UNI
T5:
LANGUAGEANDI
TSFUNCTI
ONS

(
a)I
nfor
mat
ivef
unct
ion

(
b)Di
rect
ivef
unct
ion

(
c)Expr
essi
vef
unct
ion

(
d)Emot
ivef
unct
ion

(
e)Commi
ssi
vef
unct
ion

(
f)Decl
arat
ivef
unct
ion
(
g)Mul
ti
plef
unct
ion

3.
2SomeModel
sofLi
ngui
sti
cAnal
ysi
s

l
3.1Funct
ionsofLanguage

Asani
mpor
tantaspectof

humancul
tur
e,l
anguagehasunl
i
mit
edf
unct
ions.
(a)
Inf
ormat
iveFunct
ion:

Her
e,t
hesol
epur
poseofl
anguagei
stogi
vei
nfor
mat
ion.Thei
nfor
mat
ioncanbe

gi
vent
hroughwhat
evermeans:
poet
ry,
rel
i
gion,
etc.Thei
nfor
mat
ionmaybet
rue

orf
alse.

(
b)Expr
essi
vef
unct
ion:
Her
e,t
hesol
epur
poseofl
anguagei
stoexpr
essf
eel
i
ngsat
ti
tudes.

Whenwegr
eet
,thankorcur
sesomebodyweexpr
essourf
eel
i
ngs.

Howev
er,
iti
simpor
tantt
onot
ethatexpr
essi
vear
enoti
dent
ical
wit
hinf
ormat
ionabout

peopl
e’
sfeel
i
ngs(
Otakpor
,2000:
23)
(c)Di
rect
iveFunct
ion:
Her
e,t
hesol
epur
poseof

l
anguagei
stodi
rect
.Forexampl
ewhenweaskquest
ions,
maker
equestorquest
ioni
s

t
rueorf
alse.Theyar
erat
herr
easonabl
e,pr
operornot
.(Ot
akpor
,2000:
23)
(d)Emot
ive

Funct
ion:
Thi
siswhenl
anguagei
susedt
oev
okeorpr
opagat
efeel
i
ngsorat
ti
tudesi
n

humanbei
ngs.Forexampl
e,whenwesaysomeonei
sasoci
ali
stmani
sreal
l
yonl
ydust

orGodi
syourf
atherweev
okeorpr
opagat
efeel
i
ngs.(
Otakpor
,2000:
23)
(e)Commi
ssi
ve

Funct
ion:
Thi
siswhenweusel
anguaget
ocommi
tour
sel
ves.Forexampl
e,wheny
ou

makeapr
omi
se,
voworgi
vey
ourwor
d.Comi
ssi
vesar
eei
thersi
ncer
e,pr
operornot
”

(
Otakpor
,2000:
24)
(f)Decl
arat
iveFunct
ion:
‘Thi
siswher
e“say
ingmakesi
tso”For

exampl
e,“
Inamet
hispl
aceOkada,
”“Iher
ebydecl
aret
hismeet
ingcl
osed”
,“Ir
esi
gn”
,

(
Otakpor
,2000;
24)
(g)Mul
ti
pleFunct
ion:
Thi
siswhenl
anguagei
susedf
orsev
eral

pur
posessi
mul
taneousl
y.

3.
3SomeModel
sofLi
ngui
sti
cAnal
ysi
s3.
3.1Chomsky
’sSt
ruct
ural
Anal
ysi
soft
he
Uni
ver
sal
sofSy
ntaxI
t

i
snotpossi
blei
nthi
suni
ttoexpl
oreal
lthecl
assi
fi
cat
ionsof

l
anguageuse.Chomskyi
sknownast
hef
orer
unneri
nther
evol
uti
onofl
anguagei
nrecent

t
imes.Accor
dingt
oChomskyandhi
sfol
l
ower
s,ahumanchi
l
disequi
ppedwi
th

i
nfor
mat
ionaboutt
hest
ruct
ural
char
act
eri
sti
cscommont
oal
ll
anguages(
Synt
act
ic

St
ruct
ures,
TheHague:
Mout
on,
1957)
.Theyar
guet
hatt
hepr
ocessofl
anguagel
ear
ning

i
sbestst
udi
edbycompar
ingi
nputwi
thout
put(
thati
s,compar
ingt
hel
anguageani
nfant

i
sexposedt
owi
tht
hel
anguaget
hei
nfantpr
oduces)
.

Howev
er,
wecannotact
ual
l
yknowt
hebr
ainacqui
resl
anguagecompet
ence.Thet
erm

“
languageAcqui
sit
ionDev
ice”(
L.A.
D)i
sappl
i
edt
othi
sunknownqual
i
tyofacqui
sit
ion.

Accor
dingt
othem,
theL.
A.Di
sinnat
elypr
ogr
ammedandsour
ced,
andi
tisov
ert
ly

sensi
ti
vet
otheUni
ver
sal
deepst
ruct
ureofl
anguagei
ngener
al.Themai
nfunct
ionof

“
LanguageAcqui
sit
ionv
icei
stodi
scov
eri
nanypar
ti
cul
ar64

nat
ivel
anguaget
hegr
ammat
ical
rul
esbywhi
cht
hel
anguagest
ruct
uresar
emani
fest
.

3.
3.2Aust
in.
J.L

I
nthebookHowt
odoThi
ngswi
thWor
ds(1962)
,Aust
incl
aimst
hatl
anguagei
snota

mer
esetofsy
ntact
icr
ulesf
orconst
ruct
ingsent
encesbutr
atheraser
iesofact
s(speech

act
s)meantf
orachi
evi
ngt
hecommuni
cat
ivedi
stor
ti
onsofaspeakeri
nanygi
ven

cont
ext
.Forexampl
e,“
ifIaddr
essaquest
iont
oaf
ri
endi
nanyl
i
vingr
oom i
nthef
orm:

Woul
dn’
titbeni
cet
ogetabr
eadt
hoff
reshai
r?Idonoti
ntentt
obeunder
stoodas

maki
ngi
ninqui
ryi
ntohi
sst
ateofr
espi
rat
oryphy
siol
ogy
,butt
hatIam r
atheraski
nghi
m

t
otakeawal
kwi
thmei
nmygar
dens(
Otakpor
,2000:
26)
.InAust
in’
svi
ew,
wear
e

const
ant
lyf
ulf
il
li
ngl
anguagef
unct
ionsbyourchoi
ceandt
ir
ingofut
ter
ance,
andbyour

ski
l
lini
mpl
ement
ingouri
ntent
ionswi
tht
heappr
opr
iat
ecommuni
cat
iont
hei
rbehal
f.The

useofl
anguagei
spar
tofapol
i
cyf
orachi
evi
ngouri
ntent
ions.Aust
incl
aimst
hatour
sy
ntact
icandsemant
icski
l
lsar
eusual
l
ydepl
oyedi
nor
dert
ogett
hingsdoneandt
oget

l
i
fegoi
ng.
3.3.
3Hal
l
iday
.M.A.K.

Hal
l
idayal
soanal
yzest
hef
unct
ionandusesofl
anguage.I
nhi
svi
ew,
afunct
ioni
ssome

ext
ra-
li
ngui
sti
crol
epl
ayedbyt
heuseofl
anguage(
1973:
201)
.Hol
l
iday
,InExpl
orat
ion

i
ntheFunct
ionsofLanguage,
Hal
l
idaypr
oposessomef
unct
ionsofLanguageasf
oll
ows:

1.
Inst
rument
al:
Her
e,wecommuni
cat
etogetgoodsandser
vices2.
Regul
ator
y:Her
e,we

communi
cat
etocont
rol
thebehav
iourofot
her
s3.
Int
eract
ional
:Her
e,wecommuni
cat
e

t
orel
atet
oot
her
s.4.
Per
sonal
:Her
e,wecommuni
cat
etoexpr
essone’
suni
quest
ateor

f
eel
i
ngs5.
Heur
ist
ic:
Her
e,wecommuni
cat
etogeti
nfor
mat
ionaboutone’
simmedi
ate

sur
roundi
ngs.

6.
Imagi
nat
ive:
Her
e,wecommuni
cat
etocr
eat
easy
mbol
i
cwor
ldwi
thanot
her
.

7.
Inf
ormat
ive:
Her
e,wecommuni
cat
etoi
nfor
m aboutorexami
newhati
snotknown

(1973:
201)
Languagepr
operal
way
sincl
udest
wot
hings:
meani
ngandsound.

Pr
act
ical
l
y,bef
oret
heper
iodofL.
A.D,
weusesoundt
othi
ngsdone,
tocont
rol
andr
elat
e

t
oot
her
sandt
oexpr
essf
eel
i
ngs.Forexampl
e,whenabodycr
ies,
eit
heroft
hef
oll
owi
ng

maybet
hecase;
(a)t
henappi
esmaybewet(
b)t
hebodymaybet
hehungr
y,(
c)t
hebody

i
sinneedofsheepor(
d)anycombi
nat
ionof(
a)-
(c)
,oral
loft
hem t
akent
oget
her
:

(
Otakpor
,2000:
22)wi
tht
ime,
thebabywi
l
lgr
adual
l
yascendt
othel
exi
con-
grammat
ical

l
evel
inv
olv
ingasetofpr
ocedur
eswher
esoundi
sreshapedi
ntowor
dsi
nut
ter
ances.

And,
forHal
l
iday
,iti
sthemet
hat
icst
ageandf
unct
ionwher
e“newl
yacqui
red

v
ocabul
aryi
susedf
ort
hepur
poseofcat
egor
izi
ng65

t
hephenomenaoft
heenv
ironmentandr
eheat
ingt
hem t
oownexper
ience”(
1973:
205)
.

UNI
T1:
FALLACI
ES(
PARTONE)

3.
1Def
ini
ti
onandcl
assi
fi
cat
ionoff
all
aci
es

3.
2Fal
l
aci
esi
nvol
vi
ngi
rr
elev
antpr
emi
ses.
3.
1Def
ini
ti
onandCl
assi
fi
cat
ionoff
all
aci
es

Therei snodoubtt hatsomeer r

orsinr easoningar esoobv iousthatsomeonedoesnotr eadt o
bet old.Thi
sist hecasef orinstanceofonepl usoneequalt wo.Ther eforeNigeri
ai sAmer ica.
Butt hisi
snotthecaseal lthetime.Inlogi cforinst
ance, t
herear esomeer rorsinreasoningt hat
tendt obepsy chological
lypersuasiv
e,l ogici
anscal lsucher r
orsf al
l
acies.Thusaf all
acyi san
errorinreasoni
ngt hattendstobepsy chologicall
ypersuasive.Itisaninvali
dargumentt hathas
thedecept i
veappear anceofbei ngvalid.Thereisnouni versalclassi
ficati
onoff al
lacies.Buti n
mosti ntr
oductorytextbooksi n

l
ogi
c,t
her
ehasal
way
sbeenat
ent
ati
vecl
assi
fi
cat
ion.Ot
akpor(
2000)cl
assi
fi
esi
sas

f
oll
ows:

a)
For
mal
/pur
elyl
ogi
cal
:

I
nthi
ski
ndoff
all
acy
,thedef
ectar
isesasar
esul
tofl
ackofconf
ormi
tywi
that
ypeof

v
ali
dar
gument
.Thi
shappensf
ori
nst
ance,
whent
hemi
ddl
eter
misundi
str
ibut
ed.

b)
Ver
bal
orSemi
-l
ogi
cal

I
nthi
sfor
m off
all
acy
,ther
eisal
way
sasent
enceofsomesor
tofv
ali
dfor
msofar
gument

butnotexact
lybecauseofawor
dorwor
dsusedi
ndi
ff
erentsenses.Thi
sismost

obser
vabl
eint
hef
all
aci
esofambi
gui
ty.
c)Mat
eri
al/i
nfor
mal

Her
ewhet
herv
ali
dornott
hear
gumenti
sfal
l
aci
esbecause:
i)Thepr
emi
sesar
efal
se

i
i
)Appeal
sar
emai
nlyt
ofeel
i
ngs

i
i
i)Ther
eisnost
ruct
ureofar
gumentatal
li
v)Ar
gumenti
snotdi
rect
edt
othet
hesi
sin

quest
ion.

3.2Fal
laci
esInvol
vi
ngIrr
elev
antPr emisesInl
ogic,wehavefor
mal andinf
ormalfal
l
aci
es.Wit
hin
i
nformalfal
laci
esther
earef all
aci
esinvolv
ingir
relev
antpremi
ses,fal
laci
esinv
olvi
ngambigui
ty
andfal
laci
esinvol
vi
ngunwarr ant
edassumpt i
ons.The

di
ff
erencebet
weenf
ormal
andi
nfor
mal
fal
l
aci
esi
sthat
,af
ormal
fal
l
acyal
way
sinv
olv
es

t
heexpl
i
cituseofani
nval
i
dfor
m whi
chi
snott
hecasewi
thi
nfor
mal
fal
l
acy
.Fal
l
aci
es

i
nvol
vi
ngi
rr
elev
antpr
emi
sesar
eki
ndsofi
nfor
mal
fal
l
aci
est
hati
nvol
vet
heuseof

pr
emi
sest
hatar
elogi
cal
l
yir
rel
evantt
othei
rconcl
usi
ons,
butf
orpsy
chol
ogi
cal
reasons,

t
hepr
emi
sesappearr
elev
ant
.Themostcommonofsuchi
nfor
mal
fal
l
aci
esar
easf
oll
ows:
a)
Argumentagai
nstt
heperson(
AdHominem fal
lacy
)Themainbusi
nessoft
hisar
gumenti
sto
at
tackt
hepersonwhoadv
ancesanar
gumentrathert
hanprov
idi
nga

r
ati
onal
cri
ti
queoft
hear
gumenti
tsel
f.Theat
tacker
’smai
nobj
ect
ivei
stomakei
t

asser
ti
onaccept
abl
e,l
ookatt
hisf
ori
nst
ance:

Mr.A:
Presi
dentUmar
uMusaYar
’Aduaoft
heFeder
alTer
ri
tor
yofNi
ger
iawi
l
lbet
henextAf
ri
can
Uni
onChair
man

Mr.B:Mr.UmaruMusaYar’Aduaisthepresi
dentofoneofthemostcor
rupt
edcount
ri
esi
nthe
worl
d.Ther
efor
eiti
simpossibl
eforhimtobecomet hef
utur
eAfr
icanuni
onchai
rman.

Anar gumentagai nstthepersondoesnotal waysi nvolveoutr

ightver
balabuse.Subt lewaysare
somet imesusedbutwi ththesol eaim ofdiscr edit
inganopponentbysuggest ingthatthe
opponent ’sjudgmenti sdistort
edbysomef actori nhi sorherci r
cumst ances.Thisform of
argumenti s somet imes cal l
ed the cir
cumstantialad homi nem.Fori nstance,duri
ng the
celebrati
onoft heirmar r
iage,Mr .andMr s.Kuler efusedtoser vebeert otheirguests.They
clai
medt hatnobor nagai nchildofGodwoul deitherdr i
nkorservebeertoot herpersons.Here,
youcanseet hatMr .andMr s.Kunlecommi tt heci rcumst
antialf
or m ofthear gumentand
homi nem f al
lacy.Youshoul dal waysr emembert hattheattackint heargumentagai nstthe
personcant akethreef or
ms:

i
)Abusi
veadhominem:di
rectpersonalat
tackontheopponent.
ii
)Ci
rcumst
ant
ialadhomi
nem:
at
tempttodi
scr
edi
tbycal
l
ingatt
entiontot
hecir
cumstancesorsi
tuat
ionoft
he

opponent
.i
ii
)Tuquoque:
char
gest
heopponentwi
thhy
pocr
isyori
nconsi
stency
.b)St
rawman

Ast
rawmanf
all
acyoccur
swhenev
ert
hear
guerat
tacksami
srepr
esent
ati
onoft
he

opponent
’sv
iew.Thi
sfal
l
acyi
smost
lyusedi
npol
i
cies.I
tconsi
stent
lymakesuseof

r
het
ori
candEr
ist
ic.Er
ist
icbei
ngt
hedi
sput
ati
onal
artofmaki
ngweakercaset
hest
ronger

onest
rawmanf
all
acyusual
l
yoccur
swhent
hear
guerorat
tackerr
efusest
obef
airand

char
it
abl
eindemandst
hatwer
epr
esentt
heor
igi
nal
accur
atel
yandchar
it
ydemandst
hat

weputanar
gumenti
nit
sbestl
i
ghtwhenwear
econf
ront
edwi
thi
nter
pret
ivechoi
ces.

Thedebat
eov
ert
heEqual
Right
sAmendment(
ERA)br
oughti
nanobv
iousexampl
eof

st
rawmanf
all
acy
.Theent
ir
etextoft
heERAi
sst
atedt
hus:
“Equal
i
tyofr
ight
sundert
he

l
awshal
lnotbedeni
edorabr
idgedbyt
heUni
tedSt
atesorbyanySt
ateonaccountof

.TheGui
sex” det
oAmer
icanLaw:Ev
ery
one’
slegalEncy
clopedi
a,Vol
.4(
NewYor
k:
West
,1984,
p.352)
.

Backer
soft
heEqual
Right
sAmendment(
ERA)deci
dedt
omi
srepr
esentt
het
ext
.Thei
r

bel
i
efi
ntot
alequal
i
tyoft
hesexesal
soi
mpl
i
es“
equal
payf
orequal
wor
k”.I
nthei
rown

under
standi
ng,
50per
centoft
hepl
ayer
sint
heNat
ional
Foot
bal
ll
eagueshoul
dbe

women.Mor
eov
er,
ther
eshoul
dnol
ongerbesepar
atepubl
i
cbat
hroomsf
ormenand

women.Al
way
sremembert
hatwecant
alkofst
rawmanf
all
acywhenav
iewor

ar
gumenti
sal
l
egedt
oinv
olv
eassumpt
ionst
hati
sdoesnotorneednoti
nvol
ve.Lookat

t
hef
oll
owi
ngquest
ions:
Susanadv
ocat
est
hel
egal
i
zat
ionofcocai
ne.ButIcannotagr
ee

wi
thanyposi
ti
onbasedont
heassumpt
iont
hatcocai
nei
sgoodf
ory
ouandt
hatasoci
ety

ofdr
ugaddi
ctscanf
lour
ish.So,
Idi
sagr
eewi
thSusan.(
Lay
man,
2002:
125)Thi
sisa

st
rawmanf
all
acybecauseobv
iousl
y,onecanconsi
stent
lyadv
ocat
ethel
egal
i
zat
ionof

cocai
neandy
etbel
i
evet
hatcocai
nei
snotgoodf
orpeopl
e.69

Al
sobeari
nmi
ndt
hatsomet
imesper
suasi
veorbi
aseddef
ini
ti
oncanbeusedt
osetupa

st
rawmanf
all
acy
.Pr
ofessorAnt
honyFl
ew,
inhi
sbookcapt
ionedADi
cti
onar
yof

Phi
l
osophydef
ines“
empi
ri
cism”as“
thet
hesi
sthatal
lknowl
edgeoratl
eastal
l

knowl
edgeofmat
ter
soff
act
s(asdi
sti
nctf
rom t
hatofpur
elyl
ogi
cal
rel
ati
onsbet
ween

concept
s)i
sbasedonexper
ience(
1979:
p.104)
.Howev
er,
par
ti
sansofst
rawmanf
all
acy

under
standempi
ri
cism ast
hev
iewt
hatnot
hingshoul
dbebel
i
evedi
nunl
essi
tcanbe

di
rect
lyobser
ved.Nownoonecansee,
hear
,tast
e,smel
lort
ouchpr
otons,
elect
rons,
or

quar
ks.So,
whi
l
eempi
ri
cist
spr
etendt
obeadv
ocat
esofsci
ence,
thei
rvi
ewsi
nfactr
ule

outt
hemostadv
ancedphy
sical
sci
enceofourt
imes(
Lay
man,
2002:
126)
.c)
Appeal
to

For
ce(
AdBacul
um Fal
l
acy
)Bacul
um i
saLat
inwor
dwhi
chst
andsf
or“
staf
f”.Her
e,

St
affbei
ngasy
mbol
ofpower
.Theadbacul
um f
all
acyi
smost
lyusedwhenev
era

concl
usi
oni
sdef
endedbyat
hreatt
othewel
l
-bei
ngoft
hosewhodonotaccepti
t.The

t
hreatcanbephy
sical
,mor
alorpsy
chol
ogi
cal
.Itcanbei
mpl
i
citorexpl
i
cit
.Her
eist
he
caseofaphy
sical
thr
eat
:

Mr
.Jones,
youhel
pedusi
mpor
tthedr
ugs.Fort
his,
theBossi
sgr
atef
ul.Butnowy
ouar
e

ent
it
ledt
o50per
centoft
hepr
ofi
ts.TheBosssay
syouar
eent
it
ledt
o10per
cent
.Unl
ess

y
ouseet
hingst
heBoss’
sway
,youar
egoi
ngt
ohav
eav
erynast
yacci
dent
.So,
youar
e

ent
it
ledt
o10per
cent
.Goti
t(Lay
man,
2002:
127)
Youcanseeher
ethatt
her
eisnol
ogi
cal

l
i
nkt
het
hreat
ened“
nast
yacci
dent
”ont
heconcl
usi
on(
“Jonesi
sent
it
ledt
o10per
cent
”.
)

Buti
tispr
obabl
ethatt
het
hreatmi
ghti
nduceJonest
oacceptt
heconcl
usi
on.
Her
eist
he

caseofapsy
chol
ogi
cal
thr
eat
:

Li
sten,
Val
eri
e,Iknowy
oudi
sagr
eewi
thmyv
iewaboutt
hebui
l
dingpr
oject
.Youhav
e

madey
ourdi
sagr
eementcl
eart
oev
ery
one.Wel
l
,itt
imef
ory
out
oseet
haty
ouar
e

mi
staken.Letmegetr
ightt
othepoi
nt.Iknowy
ouhav
ebeenl
yi
ngt
oyourhusband

aboutwher
eyougoonWednesdayaf
ter
noons.Unl
essy
ouwanthi
mtoknowwher
eyou

r
eal
l
ygo,
itst
imef
ory
out
oreal
i
zet
hatIhav
ebeenr
ightaboutt
hebui
l
dingpr
ojectal
l

l
ong.Youf
oll
owme?(
Lay
man,
2002,
p.127)
Youcanseeher
ethatev
ent
hought
he

t
hreatt
oex
poset
hel
i
ehasnor
elat
ionshi
pwi
tht
hebui
l
dingpr
oject
,itmayst
il
lwor
k

becausef
eari
sast
rongmot
ivat
or,
andi
tcani
nfl
uence,
someone’
sthi
nki
ng.

d)
Appeal
tot
hePeopl
e(Adpopul
um f
all
acy
)Remembert
hat“
Popul
um”i
saLat
in

wor
dwi
thst
andsf
or“
peopl
e”or“
not
ion”soadpopul
um f
all
acyoccur
swheny
ou

t
ryt
oper
suadesomeoneoragr
oupbyappeal
i
ngt
otheemot
ion,
feel
i
ng,
sent
iment
sof

t
hepeopl
e.Thi
sismost
lyusedi
n70

pol
i
tical
campai
gns,
publ
i
cdebat
esandadv
ert
isi
ng.Her
eisat
ypi
cal
caseofpol
i
tical

campai
gn:

Il
ookoutaty
oual
l
,andIt
ell
you,
Iam pr
oudt
obeher
e.Pr
oudt
obel
ongt
oapar
tyt
hat

st
andsf
orwhati
sgoodf
orAmer
ica.Pr
oudt
ocastmyl
otwi
tht
heki
ndofpeopl
ewho

maket
hisnat
iongr
eat
.Pr
oudt
ost
andwi
thmenandwomenwhocangetournat
ionback
oni
tsf
eet
.Yes,
ther
ear
ethosewhocr
it
ici
zeus,
whol
abel
ourv
iewoft
radeagr
eement
s

as“
prot
ect
ioni
st”
.ButwhenIl
ookaty
ouhar
d-wor
kingpeopl
e,Iknowwear
eri
ghtand

t
hecr
it
icsar
ewr
ong”(
Lay
man,
2002:
128)
.

Youcanseet
hatt
hesol
epur
poseoft
hisspeechi
stoper
suadet
hecr
owdnomat
terwhat
.

I
tisf
all
acybecausepr
emi
sest
otheef
fectt
hat“
Iam pr
oudt
obeassoci
atedwi
thy
ou”

and“
youar
ehar
dwor
kingpeopl
e”ar
eir
rel
evantt
otheconcl
usi
on:
“ourv
iewoft
rade

agr
eement
sisr
ight
”.

Al
sobeari
nmi
ndt
haty
oudonotnecessar
il
yneedt
oaddr
essal
argegr
oupbef
orey
ou

commi
ttheadpopul
um f
all
acy
.What
every
out
ryt
oconv
incebyappeal
i
ngt
otheneedof

oraccept
anceofy
ourv
iewbyot
herpeopl
e,y
oucommi
ttheadpopul
um f
all
acy
.Her
eis

anexampl
e:

MsRi
l
ey,
arey
ousay
ingt
hatPr
esi
dentBushmadeamor
aler
rorwhenhedeci
dedt
ogo

t
owarwi
thI
raq?Icannotbel
i
evemyear
s.Thati
snothowAmer
ican,
feel
.Nott
rue

Amer
icans,
any
way
.Youar
eanAmer
ican,
aren’
tyouMsRi
l
ey?(
Lay
man2002:
128)
.

Thi
sisaf
all
acybecauset
her
eisnol
ogi
cal
connect
ionbet
weent
hef
actt
hatMsRi
l
eyi
s

anAmer
icant
her
efor
eIr
aqwarmustbej
ust
if
ied.
e)Appeal
topi
ty(
AdMi
ser
icor
dian

Fal
l
acy
)Mi
ser
icor
diani
saLat
inwor
dthatst
andsf
or“
pit
y”ormer
cy”
.So,
ad

mi
ser
icor
dianf
all
acyi
stheat
temptt
osuppor
taconcl
usi
onsi
mpl
ybyev
oki
ngpi
tyi
n

one’
saudi
enceev
ent
hought
hest
atement
sthatev
oket
hepi
tyar
elogi
cal
l
yunr
elat
edt
o

t
heconcl
usi
on.Takef
ori
nst
ancet
hecaseofay
oungmanundert
ri
alf
ort
hemur
derof

hi
spar
ent
swhot
her
eaf
terpl
eadsf
orl
eni
encybecausehei
snowanor
phan.(
Otakpor
,

2002:
31)
.Theappeal
topi
tyi
smost
lyusedbyl
awy
ers.Thel
awy
ermai
nobj
ect
ivei
sto

gett
hecour
ttoacceptt
heconcl
usi
ont
hatacl
i
enti
sinnocentoratl
eastt
oobt
aina

r
educt
ioni
nthemeasur
eofpuni
shment
.f
)Appeal
toI
gnor
ance(
AdI
gnor
ant
ian

f
all
acy
)Theappeal
toi
gnor
ancemeanst
hatt
heconcl
usi
onofanar
gumenti
spr
oven
si
mpl
ybecausenobodyhaspr
ovedt
heopposi
te.Her
eisat
ypi
cal
exampl
e:1)
Aft
er

cent
uri
est
ryi
ng,
noonehasbeenabl
etopr
ovet
hatr
eincar
nat
ionoccur
s.Soatt
hispoi
nt,

It
hinkwecansaf
elyconcl
udet
hatr
eincar
nat
iondoesnotoccur
.

71

2)Af
tercent
uri
esoft
ryi
ng,
noonehasbeenabl
etoshowt
hatr
eincar
nat
iondoesnot

occur
.Ther
efor
e,r
eincar
nat
ionoccur
s.Youcanseet
hatt
hisf
all
acyhasi
tsownl
i
mit
s.I
t

hasnotbeenpr
ovenmaybeer
roneous.Thi
slogi
ccannothol
dinsci
ent
if
icmat
ter
smost
ly

basedonhy
pot
hesi
sand“
wai
tandsee”at
ti
tude.Besi
desi
tisnotmandat
oryt
obel
i
eve

ordi
sbel
i
eveev
eryst
atementweconsi
der
.Neut
ral
i
tyi
sal
ogi
cal
att
it
udeaswel
l
.

Def
ineanddi
scusssomef
all
aci
esi
nvol
vi
ngi
rr
elev
antpr
emi
ses

UNI
T2:
FALLACI
ES(
PARTTWO)

3.
1fal
l
aci
esi
nvol
vi
ngAmbi
gui
ty

3.
2fal
l
aci
esi
nvol
vi
ngunwar
rant
edassumpt
ions

3.
1Fal
l
aci
esi
nvol
vi
ngambi
gui
ty

Ther
ear
esomest
atement
sthati
nvol
veasubt
leconf
usi
onbet
weent
wocl
osel
yrel
ated

concept
sandt
her
efor
ebecomeambi
guous.Logi
cianscal
li
tfal
l
acyi
nvol
vi
ngambi
gui
ty.

Weshal
lfocusher
eonl
yont
hef
our(
04)maj
orf
all
aci
esofambi
gui
ty.

1)
Fal
l
acyofEqui
vocat
ion

Ther
ear
esomewor
dst
hatcont
ainmor
ethanonemeani
ng.Thef
all
acyofequi
vocat
ion

occur
swhensuchawor
disusedi
namannert
hati
mpl
i
esdi
ff
erentmeani
ngsorsensesof

t
hewor
dwi
thi
nthesamecont
ext
.Fori
nst
ance:
onl
ymani
srat
ional
.Butnowomani
sa

man.Ther
efor
e,nowomani
srat
ional
.Thi
sisaf
all
acyofequi
vocat
ionbecauset
hewor
d

“
man”i
susedwi
tht
wodi
ff
erentsenses73

wi
thi
nthesamecont
ext
.Int
hef
ir
stsent
ence,
thewor
d“man”means“
humans”whi
l
ein

t
hesecond,
itmeans“
mal
ehumans”
.2)Fal
l
acyofAmphi
bol
y
Thef
all
aci
esofamphi
bol
yandambi
gui
tyar
ever
ysi
mil
ar.Theonl
ydi
ff
erencei
sthati
n

t
hef
all
acyofamphi
bol
y,t
hedoubl
emeani
ngi
sduet
osy
ntact
icorsent
encest
ruct
ure

suchasagr
ammat
ical
err
ororami
stakei
npunct
uat
ion.Thef
all
acyofamphi
bol
yis

mor
esubt
leandhar
dert
odet
ectt
hant
hatofEqui
vocat
ion.I
tmost
lyoccur
swhenwe

mi
si
nter
pretsomeone’
sor
igi
nal
stat
ementori
ntent
ion.Her
ear
ety
pical
cases.

ı
Prof
essorN.Ot
akporgav
eal
ect
ureonhomi
cidei
ntheUni
ver
sit
yofBeni
nLaw

Audi
tor
ium.Igat
hert
hatal
otofpeopl
ehav
ebeenmur
der
edi
nthathal
l
.ı
“I
fNi
ger
ia

underYar
’Aduagoest
owaragai
nstGeor
geBushofAmer
ica,
thenYar
’Aduawoul
d

dest
royapopul
ousnat
ion”t
hisi
sanamphi
bol
i
cst
atementbecausei
thasmor
ethanone

accept
abl
emeani
ng.Amer
icaandNi
ger
iaar
ebot
hpopul
ousnat
ions.Ther
eisaf
all
acyof

amphi
bol
yher
ebecausei
tisnotcl
earwhet
hert
he“
popul
ousnat
ion”t
obedest
roy
edi
s

Amer
icaorNi
ger
iashoul
dYar
’Adua“
got
owaragai
nstGeor
geBush”
.3)Fal
l
acyof

composi
ti
on

Ther
ear
etwomaj
orway
sofcommi
tt
ingt
hef
all
acyofcomposi
ti
on.Thesear
e:i
)When

apar
tisi
dent
if
iedwi
tht
hewhol
e.Thati
s,t
hepar
tshav
etheat
tri
but
e“X”t
her
efor
ethe

whol
ehasat
tr
ibut
e“X”
.Fori
nst
ance,
eachoft
hepar
tsoft
hiscarengi
nei
sver
yli
ght
,

t
her
efor
ethecarengi
nei
sver
yli
ght
.Eachpl
ayeront
hef
oot
bal
lteam i
sout
standi
ng.

Hence,
thet
eam i
tsel
fisout
standi
ng.
Thef
all
acyofcomposi
ti
oni
scommi
tt
edher
e

becauseev
ent
hought
hecarengi
nei
smadeupofv
eryl
i
ghtpar
tsbutwhenputt
oget
her

t
hecarengi
nei
tsel
fbecomesv
eryheav
y.I
tist
hesamewi
tht
hef
oot
bal
lteam.Ev
en

t
hougheachoft
hepl
ayer
sisout
standi
ngandt
her
eisal
ackoft
eam wor
kori
nsuf
fi
cient

oppor
tuni
tyt
opr
act
icet
oget
hert
het
eam asawhol
emaynotbeout
standi
ng.
ii
)The

secondki
ndoft
hef
all
acyofcomposi
ti
oni
scommi
tt
edwhent
her
eisconf
usi
onbet
ween

t
he“
dist
ri
but
ive”and“
col
l
ect
ive”useofgener
alt
erms,
forexampl
e:

El
ephant
seatmor
ethanhumans.So,
elephantt
akenasagr
oupeatmor
ethanhumans
t
akenasagr
oup.

Ther
eisaf
all
acyofcomposi
ti
onher
ebecausei
nthepr
emi
ses:
“El
ephanteatmor
ethan

humans”
,theat
tri
but
eof“
eat
ingmor
ethan”i
spr
edi
cat
eddi
str
ibut
ivel
y,t
hati
s,each

i
ndi
vi
dual
elephanti
ssai
dtoeatmor
ethananyi
ndi
vi
dual
humaneat
s.Howev
er,
int
he

concl
usi
on,
theat
tr
ibut
e“eat
ingmor
ethan”i
spr
edi
cat
ed74

col
l
ect
ivel
y;t
hati
s,el
ephantt
akenasagr
oupar
esai
dtoeatmor
ethanhumanst
akenasa

gr
oupwhi
chi
snott
rue.Becauset
her
ear
esomanymor
ehumanst
hanel
ephant
.

.
ii
)Fal
l
acyofDi
vi
sion

Thef
all
acyofdi
vi
sioni
snot
hingmor
ethant
heopposi
teofcomposi
ti
on.I
nthef
all
acy

ofdi
vi
sion,
ift
hewhol
ehast
heat
tri
but
e“X”
,ther
efor
ethepar
tsmusthav
etheat
tri
but
e

“
X”aswel
l
.

Exampl
e:t
heai
rpl
anei
sheav
y,soeachofi
tspar
tisheav
y.Ther
eisaf
all
acyofdi
vi
sion

her
ebecausesomeoft
hepar
tsofaheav
yai
rpl
anemaybev
eryl
i
ght
.

Her
eisanexampl
eoft
hesecondt
ypeofdi
vi
sionf
all
acy
;thesoccert
eam i
sexcel
l
ent
.

Hence,
eachmemberoft
het
eam i
sexcel
l
ent
.Ther
eisaf
all
acyofdi
vi
sionher
ebecausea

t
eam maybeexcel
l
entduet
oteam wor
kandf
ewout
standi
ngpl
ayer
sandy
ethav
e

member
swhoar
enott
hemsel
vesex
cel
l
entpl
ayer
s.

3.
2Fal
l
aci
esI
nvol
vi
ngUnwar
rant
edAssumpt
ionsWhatwecal
l

“
unwar
rant
edassumpt
ions’
aresomeer
ror
sinr
easoni
ngwhi
chi
ncont
extst
andi
n

needofsuppor
t,butmostoft
het
ime,
thesuppor
tisnotal
way
spr
ovi
dedt
husmaki
ngt
he

assumpt
ioni
l
legi
ti
mat
eorunj
ust
if
ied.Thi
sunder
minest
hef
orceoft
hear
gument
.Iti
s

notal
way
seasyt
odet
ectf
all
aci
esi
nvol
vi
ngunwar
rant
edassumpt
ions.I
nthi
ssect
ionwe

ar
egoi
ngt
ost
udyatl
eastf
ivemaj
orf
all
aci
esi
nvol
vi
ngunwar
rant
ed

assumpt
ions.
i)
Beggi
ngt
hequest
ion(
Pet
it
ioPr
inci
pii
)Pet
it
iopr
inci
pii
isaLat
in

expr
essi
onwhi
chmeans“
beggi
ngt
hepr
inci
ple”
.Inl
ogi
cwebegt
hequest
ionwhen
weassumet
heconcl
usi
ont
obepr
oven.Ar
gui
ngi
nci
rcl
eisanot
herwayofbeggi
ngt
he

quest
ion.Exampl
e:Thedef
endanti
snotgui
l
tyoft
hecr
ime,
forshei
sinnocentofhav
ing

commi
tt
edi
t.

Ther
eisf
all
acyher
ebecauset
heconcl
usi
onoft
hear
gumenti
sal
mostt
her
ephr
ased

v
ersi
onoft
hepr
emi
se.And,
inl
ogi
cpr
operwecannotr
easonabl
ycl
aimt
odi
scov
era

t
rut
hbyi
nfer
encewhent
hatt
rut
hisi
tsel
fincl
udedi
nthepr
emi
sesofourar
gument
.So,

ev
eni
ftheabov
eexampl
eissound,
youcanst
il
lseei
tisdef
ect
ivei
nthati
tassumest
he

concl
usi
ont
obepr
oven.
ii
)Fal
sedi
l
emma

75

I
nlogi
c,t
hef
all
acyoff
alsedi
l
emmasi
mpl
ymeanst
haty
ouuseapr
emi
set
hat

unj
ust
if
iabl
yreducest
henumberofal
ter
nat
ivest
obeconsi
der
ed.I
not
herwor
ds,
ther
eis

af
all
acyoff
alsedi
l
emmawhent
hear
guerassumeswi
thoutj
ust
if
icat
ion,
ali
mit
ed

numberofpossi
bleal
ter
nat
iveswhenact
ual
l
yther
eismor
ethant
hat
.Her
eisat
ypi
cal

case:

I
’
mti
redofal
lthesey
oungpeopl
ecr
it
ici
zi
ngt
hei
rowncount
ry.WhatIsayi
sthi
s,

“
Niger
ia,
lov
eitorl
eav
eit
!Andsi
ncet
hesepeopl
eobv
iousl
ydonotwantt
oleav
ethe

count
ry,
theyshoul
dlov
eiti
nst
eadofcr
it
ici
zi
ngi
t.
Ther
eisaf
all
acyoff
alsedi
l
emma

her
ebecauset
hear
gumentpr
esupposest
hatt
her
ear
eonl
ytwoopt
ions:
eit
hery
oul
ove

Ni
ger
ia(
uncr
it
ical
l
y)ory
ouemi
grat
e.Howev
ery
oushoul
dknowt
hatt
her
ear
eot
her

possi
bil
i
tiesoral
ter
nat
ives.
Youshoul
dal
soknowt
hatanar
gumentcannotbecal
l
edf
alse

di
l
emmaunl
essy
ouar
eabl
etospeci
fyatl
eastoneal
ter
nat
ivet
hathasbeen

i
gnor
ed.
ii
i
)Appeal
toaut
hor
it
y(Adv
erecundi
am f
all
acy
)AdVer
ecundi
am i
saLat
in

phr
asewhi
chmeans“
appeal
toaut
hor
it
y”.So,
adv
erecundi
am f
all
acyoccur
swhen

y
ouappeal
toanaut
hor
it
yev
ent
hought
her
eli
abi
l
ityoft
hataut
hor
it
ycanber
easonabl
y

doubt
ed.I
not
herwor
ds,
adv
erecundi
am i
scommi
tt
edwhent
her
eisdoubtaboutwhet
her
anaut
hor
it
yisr
eli
abl
eornot
.Al
way
skeepi
nmi
ndt
hatar
eli
abl
eaut
hor
it
yisonewho

canbecount
edont
opr
ovi
decor
recti
nfor
mat
ioni
nagi
venar
ea.Forexampl
e,whenwe

ci
teency
clopedi
as,
dict
ionar
ies,
text
booksormaps.Wedonotcommi
tthead

v
erecundi
anf
all
acy
.

Thef
all
acyofappeal
toaut
hor
it
yismostcommoni
nadv
ert
isi
ng.Somepr
oduct
sar
e

usual
l
yendor
sedbysomecel
ebr
it
iesev
enwhent
heyl
ackt
her
equi
redexper
ti
se.Her
eis

at
ypi
cal
exampl
e:Pr
of.Ot
akporoft
heDepar
tmentofPhi
l
osophyUni
ver
sit
yofBeni
n

say
sRedwi
nei
sver
ygoodf
orbl
oodci
rcul
ati
on.So,
Redwi
nei
sver
ygoodf
orbl
ood

ci
rcul
ati
on.Ther
eisanadv
erecundi
am f
all
acyher
ebecauseev
entt
houghPr
of.Ot
akpor

i
sknownasagoodpr
ofessorofPhi
l
osophy
,ther
eisser
iousdoubtwhet
herhei
san

exper
tinhumanphy
siol
ogy
.And,
ther
ear
emanycasesoft
hisnat
urepar
ti
cul
arl
yin

adv
ert
isi
ng.

Anot
herdi
ff
icul
tyi
ndet
ect
ingadv
erecundi
anoccur
swhenawel
l–knownexper
tinone

f
iel
disci
tedasanexper
tinanot
herf
iel
dev
eni
fheorshel
acksexper
ti
sei
nit
.Thi
ski
nd

off
all
acyeasi
l
yoccur
swhent
het
wof
iel
dsar
erel
ated.
iv
)Fal
seCausef
all
acy

76

Ther
ear
emanyf
ormsoff
alsecausef
all
acy
.Butt
hemostcommonf
ormi
scal
l
edi
n

Lat
inposthoc,
ergopr
opt
erhoc,
whi
chmeans“
aft
ert
his,
ther
efor
ebecauseoft
his”
.

Gener
all
y,af
alsecausef
all
acyoccur
swhent
hear
gueri
l
legi
ti
mat
elyassumesapossi
ble

causeofaphenomenont
obet
heonl
ycauseal
thoughr
easonsar
elacki
ngf
orexcl
udi
ng

ot
herpossi
blecauses.Her
eisanexampl
e:Si
nceIcamei
ntoof
fi
ce2y
ear
sago,
ther
ateof

v
iol
entcr
imehasdecr
easedsi
gni
fi
cant
ly.So,
iti
scl
eart
hatt
hel
ongerpr
isonsent
ences

wer
ecommendedar
ewor
king(
Lay
man,
2000:
151)
.

Ther
eisf
alsecausebecauset
hel
ongerpr
isonsent
encesmaybeacausal
fact
or,
butt
he

si
mpl
efactt
hatt
hel
ongersent
encespr
ecededt
hedecr
easei
nvi
olentcr
imedoesnot
pr
ovet
his.Ther
eisnodoubtt
hatot
hercausal
fact
orsneedt
obeconsi
der
ed.

Youshoul
dal
sor
emembert
hati
tisnotev
eryf
alsecausef
all
acyt
hati
nvol
vest
he

unwar
rant
edassumpt
iont
hati
fXpr
ecedesY,
thenXcausesY.Sl
i
pper
ySl
ope

Thi
sisaspeci
alv
ari
etyoff
alsecause.Thi
sfal
l
acyoccur
swhen“
thear
guerassumest
hat

achai
nreact
iononwi
l
loccurbutt
her
eisi
nsuf
fi
cientev
idencet
hatone(
ormor
e)ev
ent
s

i
nthechai
nwi
l
lcauset
heot
her
s”(
Lay
man,
2000:
153)
.I
tiscl
earf
rom t
heabov
eexampl
e

t
hatgambl
i
ngi
snotar
isk-
fr
eepr
act
ice.Butt
her
eisnol
ogi
cal
causeorsuf
fi
cient

ev
idencet
oshowt
hatbuy
ingal
ott
eryt
icketwi
l
lcausey
out
odi
ehomel
essandl
onel
y.

Thi
sissi
mpl
yasl
i
pper
ysl
opef
all
acy
.Thi
sfal
l
acyhasauni
quequal
i
tyi
nthesenset
hat

i
tmostoft
het
imepl
aysonourdeepestf
ear
s.I
tisonr
ecor
dthatdur
ingt
heVi
etnam

War
,mostpeopl
efr
equent
lycl
aimedt
hat“
IfVi
etnam f
ell
tocommuni
sm,
achai
n

r
eact
ionwoul
doccur
,wi
tht
her
esul
tthatmanycount
ri
eswoul
dcomeundercommuni
st

r
ule”(
Lay
man,
2000:
153)
.Buthi
stor
yshowst
hatt
her
eisnosol
i
dev
idencet
hatsucha

chai
nreact
ionwoul
dhav
eoccur
red.I
ndeed,
manyAmer
icansf
ear
edt
hati
twoul
d.And,

t
hiswassi
mpl
yasl
i
pper
ysl
opef
all
acy
.

v
)Compl
exQuest
ion

I
nlogi
c,aquest
ioni
scompl
exwhent
hequest
ionerpr
esupposessomeconcl
usi
onal
l
uded

t
oint
hequest
ion.Her
ear
ety
pical
exampl
esofcompl
exquest
ions:
a)Hav
eyoust
opped

beat
ingy
ourl
i
fe?
b)Whyi
sphy
sicssobor
ing?

Thesequest
ionscont
aint
hef
all
acyofcompl
exquest
ion.I
n(a)f
ori
nst
ancet
hequest
ioner

hasal
readypr
esupposedt
haty
ouusedt
obeupy
ourwi
fe.I
n(b)heassumest
hatphy
sics

i
suni
nter
est
ing/
bor
ing.
77

UNI
T3:
DEFI
NITI
ONS(
PARTONE)

2.
0Obj
ect
ives

3.
0Mai
nBody
3.
1Ty
pesofDef
ini
ti
ons

3.
2Lexi
cal
Def
ini
ti
ons

3.
3Theor
eti
cal
Def
ini
ti
ons3.
4Int
ent
ional
andExt
ensi
onal
Def
ini
ti
ons4.
0Concl
usi
on

5.
0Summar
y

6.
0Tut
or–Mar
kedAssi
gnment

7.
0Ref
erences/
Fur
therReadi
ng

1.
0INTRODUCTI
ONAdef
ini
ti sasi
oni nequanont
ool
foref
fect
ive

communi
cat
ion.Wecannotav
oidv
agueness,
ambi
gui
tyorequi
vocat
ionunl
esswer
ight
ly

def
ineourwor
dsort
erms.I
tist
hemaj
ormeanst
hroughwhi
chweunder
standt
he

meani
ngofwor
ds.I
tisdi
ff
erentf
rom expl
anat
ion,
biv
erbal
def
ini
ti
on,
transl
ati
onor

mer
eint
erpr
etat
ion.I
tist
ruet
hatdef
ini
ti
oncont
ainsal
loft
hem butt
heyar
enoti
dent
ical
.

Def
ini
ti
oni
sdi
ff
erentf
rom t
hem i
nthesenset
hati
tisshar
p,shor
t,del
i
mit
edand

consi
sti
ngoft
hewor
dtobedef
ined,
thati
s,t
hedef
ini
endum (
whi
chmaybeasi
ngl
e

wor
d)andt
heexpr
essi
onwhi
chdef
inest
heexpr
essi
ont
hati
s,t
hedef
ini
ti
ons(
whi
ch

mustcont
ainmor
ethanonewor
d)(
Stebbi
ng,
1993:
423–425)
.Al
thought
her
ear
eso

manyt
ypesofdef
ini
ti
ons,
thi
ssect
ioni
ntr
oducesy
out
othemaj
ort
ypesofdef
ini
ti
ont
hat

ar
emosthel
pful
incl
ari
fyi
ngandshar
peni
ngar
gument
s.

2.
0OBJECTI
VES

I
tishopedt
hatatt
heendoft
hisst
udy
,youshoul
dbeabl
eto:
•Def
ineanddi
scusssome

t
ypesofdef
ini
ti
ons.3.
0MAI
NBODYAsst
atedear
li
er,
alt
hought
her
esomanyt
ypesof

def
ini
ti
on,
thi
ssect
ioni
stoi
ntr
oducey
out
othemaj
ort
ypesofdef
ini
ti
ont
hatar
emost

hel
pful
incl
ari
fyi
ngandshar
peni
ngar
gument
s.

3.
1Maj
ort
ypesofdef
ini
ti
ons

79

I
nmosti
ntr
oduct
oryl
ogi
ctext
books,
alt
houghi
tisnotuni
ver
sal
,wecani
dent
if
yatl
east
sev
en(
07)maj
ort
ypesofdef
ini
ti
ons.Thi
ssect
ionwi
l
lfocusonl
yont
hel
exi
cal
,

t
heor
eti
cal
,i
ntent
ional
andext
ensi
onal
def
ini
ti
ons.
ıLexi
cal
def
ini
ti
on

Al
exi
cal
def
ini
ti
oni
sident
ical
wit
hadi
cti
onar
ydef
ini
ti
on.I
tist
heconv
ent
ional
or

est
abl
i
shedmeani
ngofat
erm.Her
ear
ety
pical
exampl
esofl
exi
cal

def
ini
ti
ons:
a)“
Immanent
”meansexi
sti
ngorr
emai
ningwi
thi
n,t
hati
s,

i
nher
ent
.b)
“I
mmi
nent
”meansaboutt TheAmer
ooccur( icanHer
it
ageConci
se

Di
cti
onar
y,1997:
417)
Youshoul
dal
soknowt
hatl
exi
cal
def
ini
ti
onshav
ewhati
scal
l
ed

“
trut
hval
ue,
”thati
s,“
theyar
eei
thert
rueorf
alse.Theyar
etr
uei
ftheycor
rect
ly

r
epor
ttheest
abl
i
shmenti
ntent
ionoft
het
erm andf
alsei
ftheyf
ail
todot
his”(
Lay
man,

2000:
98)
.

ı
Theor
eti
cal
def
ini
ti
on

I
nLay
man’
swor
d,“
atheor
eti
cal
def
ini
ti
oni
sani
ntent
ional
def
ini
ti
ont
hatat
tempt
sto

pr
ovi
deanadequat
eunder
standi
ngoft
het
hing(
s)t
owhi
cht
het
erm appl
i
es(
2000:
100)
.

I
tisdi
ff
erentf
rom l
exi
cal
def
ini
ti
oni
nthesenset
hati
tismor
eaccur
ateandi
tgoes

deepert
ounder
standt
henat
ureoft
hings.Ther
ear
esomet
ermst
hatneedt
ogobey
ond

t
hei
rlexi
cal
def
ini
ti
onaccor
dingt
othei
rcont
ext
.Her
ear
esomet
ypi
cal
ter
ms“
vir
tue”
,

“
temper
atur
e”,
“mass”
,“t
rut
h”,
“space”
,“knowl
edge”and“
ti
me”
.Whenev
ert
heset
erms

ar
ement
ionedbyphi
l
osopher
sfori
nst
ance,
thenecessi
tyt
ogobey
ondt
hei
rmer
elexi
cal

def
ini
ti
onsbecomesunav
oidabl
e.Pl
ato’
sdef
ini
ti
onof“
ri
ght
”inoneofhi
sdi
alogues

capt
ioned“
Eut
hypr
o”i
squi
tei
nter
est
ing.Accor
dingt
ohi
m,“
ri
ghtmeansappr
ovedof

t
hegods”(
1981:
12)
.

I
tisonr
ecor
dthatbecauseoft
hepol
ythei
sti
cnat
ureofanci
entGr
eekr
eli
gion,
Socr
ates,

oneofPl
ato’
sher
oesi
nthedi
alogue,
obj
ect
edt
othi
sdef
ini
ti
onbypoi
nti
ngoutt
hatt
he

sameactmaybeappr
ovedbyonegodbutdi
sappr
ovedbyanot
hergod.

3.
4Int
ent
ional
andExt
ensi
onal
def
ini
ti
onsYoucannotat
tai
ncl
ari
tyaboutmeani
ng
unl
essy
ousucceedi
ndi
sti
ngui
shi
ngbet
weeni
ntent
ional
andext
ensi
onal
def
ini
ti
ons.

Accor
dingt
oCopi
,ani
ntent
ional
def
ini
ti
oni
s“t
hecol
l
ect
ionofpr
oper
ti
esshar
edbyal
l

andonl
ythoseobj
ect
sinat
erm’
sext
ensi
on”(
1978:
125)
.Fori
nst
ance,
thei
ntent
ional

def
ini
ti
onofat
erml
i
keZebr
aref
ersust
oacer
tai
nfourf
oot
edani
mal
thathaswhi
teand

bl
ackst
ri
pest
hroughoutt
hebody
.Thi
sist
hei
ntent
ional
def
ini
ti
onofZebr
abecause

Zebr
aasaspeci
esf
all
sundert
hischar
act
eri
zat
ion.

80

Soonl
yZebr
asasaspeci
eshav
ethedi
sti
nct
ivenessanduni
ver
sal
i
tyoft
hedef
ini
ti
onasi
t

appl
i
est
othem.I
not
herwor
ds,
theex
tensi
onofat
erm consi
stsoft
hesetoft
hingst
o

whi
cht
het
erm appl
i
eswhi
l
ethei
ntensi
onofat
erm consi
stsoft
hepr
oper
ti
esat
hing

musthav
einor
dert
obei
ncl
udedi
nthet
erm’
sext
ensi
on.And,
accor
dingt
oSal
mon

Wesl
ey,
sincey
oucanspeci
fyt
hemeani
ngofawor
dthr
oughi
tsext
ensi
onori
ts

i
ntensi
on,
thedi
sti
nct
ionbet
weenext
ensi
onal
andi
ntent
ional
def
ini
ti
onsbecomesv
ery

necessar
yinl
anguage(
1984:
114)
.Ther
ear
etwot
ypesofext
ensi
onal
def
ini
ti
ons:
nonv
erbal

(
orost
ensi
ve)andv
erbal
.Ost
ensi
vedef
ini
ti
onoccur
swheny
ouat
temptt
ospeci
fy

t
hemeani
ngofat
erm bypoi
nti
ngt
oobj
ect
sini
tsext
ensi
on.Fori
nst
ance,
ify
ouwantt
o

t
eachsomeonet
hemeani
ngoft
hewor
d“car
”,y
ousi
mpl
yneedt
opoi
ntt
oacarandut
ter

t
hewor
d“car
”.Keepi
nmi
ndal
sot
hatt
hisdef
ini
ti
ondoesnotgowi
thoutsome

pr
obl
ems.Fori
nst
ance,
ther
ear
ecar
swi
thdi
ff
erentshapes,
sizesandmakes.I
nver
bal

def
ini
ti
onwer
elyonsi
gni
fi
cat
ion,
thati
s,weusev
erbal
def
ini
ti
ont
ospeci
fyt
hemeani
ng

ofat
erm.Her
eisanexampl
eofanenumer
ati
vev
erbal
ext
ensi
vedef
ini
ti
on:

“
Phi
l
osopher
”meanssomeonesuchasSocr
ates,
Plat
o,Ar
ist
otl
e,Descar
tes,
Kant
,or

Hegel
(Lay
man,
2000:
97)
.4.
0CONCLUSI
ONThi
sst
udyuni
tdeal
twi
thsomet
ypesof

def
ini
ti
on.
5.0SUMMARYThi
sst
udyuni
thasat
tempt
edt
oint
roducey
ousomet
ypesof

def
ini
ti
on.Bynowy
ouar
eexpect
edt
o:
ı
DiscussLexi
cal
def
ini
ti
on.

ı
Def
ineanddi
scussTheor
eti
cal
def
ini
ti
on.
ıDef
ineanddi
scussI
ntent
ional
and

Ext
ensi
onal
def
ini
ti
ons.
6.0TUTOR-
MARKEDASSI
GMENTI
nyourownwor
ds,

def
ineanddi
scussLexi
cal
,Theor
eti
cal
,I
ntent
ional
andExt
ensi
onal
def
ini
ti
ons.

7.
0REFERENCES/ NGTheAmer
FURTHERREADI icanConci
se

Di
cti
onar
y.1997Copi
,I
.M.I
ntr
oduct
iont
oLogi
c.NewYor
k:Macmi
l
lan,
1978.
Gor
sky
,

P.Def
D. ini
ti
ons.Moscow:Pr
ogr
essPubl
i
sher
s,1974.
Kahane, d.Logi
Howar cand

Phi
l
osophy
-AModer
nInt
roduct
ion.2ndedi
ti
on.Cal
i
for
nia:
Wadswor
th,
1973.

Pl
ato.Fi
veDi
alogues.Tr
ans.G.
M.A.
.Gr
ube.I
ndi
anapol
i
s,I
N:Hacket
t,1981.
Stebbi
ng.

S.AModer
L. nInt
roduct
iont
oLogi
c.London:Met
huen,
1993.
Wesl
ey, mon.Logi
Sal c.

3r
dedi
ti
on.Engl
ewoodCl
i
ffs,
NJ:
Prent
ice-
Hal
l
,1984.
81

UNI
T4:
DEFI
NITI
ONS(
PARTTWO)
CONTENTS1.
0Int
roduct
ion2.
0

Obj
ect
ives3.
0Mai
nBody
3.1St
ipul
ati
veDef
ini
ti
on.

3.
2Real
Def
ini
ti
on.

3.
3Def
ini
ti
onbyGenusandDi
ff
erence.

4.
0Concl
usi
on5.
0Summar
y6.
0Tut
or-
Mar
kedAssi
gnment
7.0Ref
erences/
Fur
ther

Readi
ng1.
0INTRODUCTI
ONThi
sst
udyuni
tist
hecont
inuat
ionoft
hepr
ecedi
ng

one.I
tint
roducesy
out
othr
eemaj
ort
ypesofdef
ini
ti
ons.

4.
0OBJECTI
VESI
tishopedt
hatatt
heendoft
hisuni
t,y
oushoul
dbeabl
eto:
ı
Def
ine

anddi
scussst
ipul
ati
vedef
ini
ti
on.
ıDef
ineanddi
scussr
eal
def
ini
ti
on.

ı
Def
ineanddi
scussdef
ini
ti
onbygenusanddi
ff
erence.
5.0MAI
NBODY3.
1

St
ipul
ati
veDef
ini
ti
on

Asawr
it
erorspeaker
,youar
efr
eeei
thert
oint
roduceanewwor
dint
olanguageort
o

gi
veawor
danewmeani
ng.Oncey
oudot
hat
,youar
est
ipul
ati
ng.Accor
dingt
oKahane,

ast
ipul
ati
vedef
ini
ti
oni
sonet
hatspeci
fi
esorst
ipul
atest
hemeani
ngofawor
dorphr
ase
(
1973:
238)
.Iti
sonr
ecor
dthatunt
ilt
hey
ear2000,
thewor
d“doubl
e-dodge”hadno

gener
all
yaccept
edmeani
ng.
“Doubl
e–dodge”meanst
heant
ici
pat
orymov
ement
speopl
e

commonl
ymakewhent
heynear
lycol
l
idewi
thsomeper
son(
aswhenwal
ki
ngt
owar
d

eachot
heri
naconf
inedspace)andar
etr
yingt
oav
oidsuchcol
l
isi
on”(
Lay
man,
2000:

98)
Fori
nst
ance:
“RebeccaandEduar
donear
lyr
ani
ntoeachot
heri
nthehal
l
way
;butat

t
hel
astmomentt
heydoubl
e–dodgedandt
hencamet
oaf
ull
stop,
wher
euponRebecca

bur
sti
ntol
aught
er.Thus,
event
hought
he“
doubl
e–dodge”i
sst
ipul
atedher
e,west
il
l

under
standt
hef
ull
meani
ngoft
heabov
eexpr
essi
on.Al
way
skeepi
nmi
ndt
hatany

st
ipul
ati
vedef
ini
ti
oni
sar
ecommendat
ionorpr
oposal
touseat
ermi
nacer
tai
nmanner
.

Thati
swhyasar
ecommendat
ionorpr
oposal
,ast
ipul
ati
ve82

def
ini
ti
oni
snei
thert
ruenorf
alse,
butundersomeci
rcumst
ancesast
ipul
ati
vedef
ini
ti
on

cant
urni
ntoal
exi
cal
one.

3.
2Real
def
ini
ti
ons

Accor
dingt
oD.
P.Gor
sky
,ar
eal
def
ini
ti
oni
sonet
hatspeci
fi
esandunambi
guousl
y

di
sti
ngui
shest
heobj
ecti
nquest
ionf
rom ot
herobj
ect
sofagi
vendomai
n(1974:
12-
19)
.

I
not
herwor
ds,
themai
nbusi
nessofr
eal
def
ini
ti
oni
stor
educet
hev
aguenessofat
erm

byi
mposi
ngl
i
mit
sonconv
ent
ional
meani
ng.Accor
dingt
oGor
sky
,Ar
ist
otl
ewast
hef
ir
st

Eur
opeanl
ogi
ciant
ost
udyt
hel
ogi
cal
procedur
eofdef
ini
ngt
heessenceoft
hings.Pl
ato

wast
hef
ir
stt
otal
kaboutr
eal
def
ini
ti
on:
Ari
stot
leonl
ysy
stemat
izedi
t.Real
def
ini
ti
ons

ar
emostcommonbot
hinsci
enceandl
aw.Fori
nst
ance,
inor
dinar
yEngl
i
sht
hewor
d

“
vel
oci
ty”si
mpl
ymeans“
speed”
.Butphy
sici
stsgobey
ondt
heor
dinar
ydef
ini
ti
on.

Accor
dingt
othem,
“vel
oci
ty”meansr
ateofmot
ioni
npar
ti
cul
ardi
rect
ion.
3.3Def
ini
ti
on

byGenusandDi
ff
erenceI
tisat
aut
ologyt
osayt
hatt
hemet
hodofdef
ini
ti
onbygenus

anddi
ff
erencei
sver
yimpor
tanti
nlanguageandt
hinki
ng.I
ndeed,
iti
sknownasoneof

t
hebeatway
stor
educeambi
gui
tyandv
agueness.Thedef
ini
ti
onbygenusanddi
ff
erence
al
soencompassessomeot
hermet
hodsofdef
ini
ti
onsuchas:
sti
pul
ati
ve,
préci
singorr
eal
,

t
heor
eti
cal
andl
exi
cal
def
ini
ti
ons.

“
Def
ini
endum”and“
def
ini
ens”ar
etwokeywor
dsy
oumustmast
erbef
orey
oucan

under
standt
hemet
hodofdef
ini
ti
onbygenusanddi
ff
erence.The“
def
ini
endum”st
ands

f
ort
hewor
dbei
ngdef
inedwhi
l
ethe“
def
ini
ens”i
sthewor
dorwor
dst
hatdot
he

def
ini
ng.

Youal
soneedsomecl
ari
fi
cat
ionsconcer
ningpr
opersub-
class,
genus,
speci
esand

di
ff
erence.

Foracl
assXt
obeapr
opersub-
classofanot
hercl
assY,
ever
ymemberofcl
assXmust

beamemberofcl
assY.Forexampl
e,t
hecl
assofcol
l
iesi
sapr
opersubcl
assofdogs.

Fort
heabov
eexpl
anat
ion,
iti
scl
eart
hatt
hespeci
esi
ssi
mpl
yapr
opersubcl
assoft
he

genus‘
dog.
’Youshoul
dal
sonot
ethatt
hewayt
heset
ermsar
eusedher
eisdi
ff
erentf
rom

t
heuset
heyar
egi
veni
nbi
ology
.Inl
ogi
c,t
hedi
ff
erencei
stheat
tri
but
ethatdi
sti
ngui
shes

t
hemember
sofagi
venspeci
esf
rom t
hemember
sofot
herspeci
esi
nthesamegenus

(
Lay
man,
2000:
101)
.Thepr
ocessofconst
ruct
ingadef
ini
ti
onbygenusanddi
ff
erencei
s

asf
oll
ows.
1)Chooseat
ermt
hati
smor
egener
alt
hant
het
ermt
obedef
inedandnamei
t

genus.

2)
Findawor
dorphr
aset
hati
dent
if
iest
heat
tri
but
ethatdi
sti
ngui
shest
hespeci
esi
n

quest
ionf
rom ot
herspeci
esi
nthesamegenus.Fori
nst
ance.
83

Speci
esDi
ff
erenceGenus“
Stal
l
ion”=mal
ehor
se“
Kit
ten”
=youngcat

“
Banquet
”=el
abor
atemeal
“Lake”=l
argei
nlandbodyofst
andi
ngwat
er(
Lay
man,

2000:
102)
Ther
ear
eatl
eastsi
x(06)cr
it
eri
aweneedf
ort
hemet
hodofdef
ini
ti
onby

genusanddi
ff
erencet
obeact
ual
l
yadequat
e.

Cr
it
eri
on1:
Adef
ini
ti
onmustnotbeobscur
e,ambi
guous,
orf
igur
ati
ve.Exampl
e“f
ait
h

meanst
ruebel
i
ef”
Cr
it
eri
on2:
Adef
ini
ti
onshoul
dnotbeci
rcul
ar.
Exampl
e:Met
aphy
sics”meanst
he

sy
stemat
icst
udyofmet
aphy
sical
issues.
Cri
ter
ion3:
Adef
ini
ti
onshoul
dnotbenegat
ive

i
fitcanbeaf
fi
rmat
ive.
Exampl
e:“
Mammal
”meansanani
mal
thati
snotr
ept
il
e,notan

amphi
bian,
andnotabi
rd.

Cr
it
eri
on4:
Def
ini
ti
onsshoul
dnotbet
oowi
de(
ort
oobr
oad)Exampl
e:“
Bir
d”means

ani
mal
hav
ingwi
ngs.

Cr
it
eri
on5:
Def
ini
ti
onsshoul
dnotbet
oonar
row.
Exampl
e:“
Bir
d’meansf
eat
her
ed

ani
mal
thatcanf
ly.
Cri
ter
ion6:
Adef
ini
ti
oni
sfl
awedi
fthedef
ini
enspi
cksoutt
her
ight

ext
ensi
onv
iaat
tr
ibut
est
hatar
eunsui
tabl
erel
ati
vet
othecont
extorpur
pose.
Exampl
e:

Sev
en”meanst
henumberofday
sinaweek,
“Human”meansaf
eat
her
lessbi
ped.

4.
0CONCLUSI
ON

Thi
sst
udyuni
tdeal
tspeci
fi
cal
l
ywi
tht
ypesofdef
ini
ti
ons.
5.0SUMMARY

Thi
sst
udyuni
thasat
tempt
edt
oint
roducey
out
othev
ari
oust
ypesofdef
ini
ti
ons.By

now,
youar
eexpect
edt
o:

ı
Def
ineanddi
scussst
ipul
ati
vedef
ini
ti
on.

ı
Def
ineanddi
scussr
eal
def
ini
ti
on.

ı
Def
ineanddi
scussdef
ini
ti
onsbygenusanddi
ff
erence.
6.0TUTOR-
MARKED

ASSI
GNMENT1.Mat
cht
hedef
ini
ti
onont
hel
eftt
othel
ett
eroft
hei
tem ont
her
ight

t
hatbestchar
act
eri
zesi
t.

(
i)
“Tal
lman”meansmal
ehumanov
er6f
eeti
nhei
ght
.A.
)Enumer
ati
vedef
ini
ti
on(
ii
)

“
Tome”meansl
argebookB.
)Def
ini
ti
onofsubcl
ass84

(
ii
i)A“
soundar
gument
”isonet
hatC.
)Lexi
cal
def
ini
ti
on(
a)Hasonl
ytr
ue

pr
emi
sesD.
)St
ipul
ati
vedef
ini
ti
on(
b)I
sval
i
d(i
.e.
,i
tsconcl
usi
oncannotE.
)

Pr
éci
si
ngdef
ini
tonbef
i alsewhi
l
eit
spr
emi
sesar
etr
ue)(
iv)“
Humans”means

r
ati
onal
F.)Theor
eti
cal
def
ini
ti
on2.
Ident
if
yonedef
ecti
neachoft
he
f
oll
owi
ngdef
ini
ti
ons,
usi
ngt
hesi
xcr
it
eri
afordef
ini
ti
onbygenusanddi
ff
erence.(
i)

“
Pengui
n”meansbi
rdt
hatcan’
tfl
y,butnotanost
ri
ch,
cassowar
y,oremu.
(i
i)An

“
Oct
agon”i
saf
igur
eshapedl
i
keast
opsi
gn.
(i
ii
)A“
tri
angl
e”i
sacl
osed–pl
ane

f
igur
ehav
ingt
hreesi
desofequal
lengt
h(i
v)An“
ell
i
pse”i
sacr
ossbet
weenaci
rcl
e

andar
ect
angl
e.(
v)“
Homosexual
”meansamanwhoi
ser
oti
cal
l
yat
tract
edexcl
usi
vel
y

(
oratl
eastpr
imar
il
y)t
oot
hermen.

(
vi)
A“weal
thyper
son”i
sonewhohasasmuchmoneyasBi
l
lGat
esorAl
i
koDangot
e.

(
vii
)“Ev
il
”isdef
inedast
hedar
knesst
hatl
i
eswi
thi
nthehumansoul
.(
vii
i
)“Bl
ue”means

hav
ingabl
uishcol
or(
ix)Ti
mei
sthegr
eatcont
aineri
ntowhi
chwepourourl
i
ves(
x)

“
Oli
gar
chy
”meansaf
orm ofgov
ernmenti
nwhi
cht
her
uli
ngpowerbel
ongst
oa

f
ewper
sons.

3.
Mat
cht
hedef
ini
ti
onont
hel
eftwi
thbestdef
ini
ensav
ail
abl
eont
her
ight
.These

def
ini
ti
onsar
etheor
eti
cal
int
ype.
1.Cour
ageA.Conf
idencet
hatapr
oposi
ti
oni
s

t
rue.
2.Just
iceB.At
endencyt
oper
for
m act
stheagent

consi
der
sdanger
ousbutwor
tht
her
isk.
3.Fai
th

4.
Evi
denceC.Knowl
edgeofwhi
chendsar
ewor
th

achi
evi
ngandofhowt
oachi
evet
hem.
5.Wi
sdom6.
Vir
tuesD.Tr
ait
sthathi
nderonef
rom

l
i
vingwel
l7.
Bel
i
efE.Consi
der
ati
onsr
elev
antt
othet
rut
hoft
he

pr
oposi
ti
oni
nquest
ion.
8.Suspendi
ngj
udgmentF.Conf
idencet
hatapr
oposi
ti
oni
sfal
se

9.
Vices

10.Di
sbel
i
efG.Bel
i
evi
ngi
nspi
teoff
act
orst
hatmay

t
endt
ocausedoubt
.H.Gi
vi
ngeachi
ndi
vi
dual
hisorherdue.
I.Tr
ait
senabl
i
ngonet
o

l
i
vewel
l
.

J.Al
ackofconf
idencei
nthet
rut
hofapr
oposi
ti
on

combi
nedwi
thal
ackofconf
idencei
nit
sfal
sehood.
85
7.
0REFERENCES/ NGTheAmer
FURTHERREADI icanHer
it
ageConci
se

Di
cti
onar
y.1997.Copi
,I
.M.I
ntr
oduct
iont
oLogi
c.NewYor
k:Macmi
l
lan,
1978.

Gor
sky
, P.Def
D. ini
ti
ons.Moscow:Pr
ogr
essPubl
i
sher
s,1974.ndKahane, d.Logi
Howar cand

Phi
l
osophy
-AModer
nInt
roduct
ion.2ed.Cal
i
for
nia:
Wadswor
thPubl
i
shi
ng,
1973.

Pl
ato.Fi
veDi
alogues.Tr
ans.G.
M.A.Gr
ube.I
ndi
anapol
i
s,I
N:Hacket
t,1981.St
ebbi
ng,

S.AModer
L. nInt
roduct
iont
oLogi
c.London:Met
huen,
1993.r
dWesl
ey, mon.Logi
Sal c.3

ed.Engl
ewoodCl
i
ffs,
NJ:
Prent
ice-
Hal
l
,1984.86

UNI
T5:
CATEGORI
CALPROPOSI
TIONSCONTENTS

1.
0Int
roduct
ion

2.
0Obj
ect
ives

3.
0Mai
nbody

3.
1Theuni
ver
sal
aff
ir
mat
ivepr
oposi
ti
on

3.
2Theuni
ver
sal
negat
ivepr
eposi
ti
on

3.
3Thepar
ti
cul
araf
fi
rmat
ivepr
eposi
ti
on

3.
4Thepar
ti
cul
arnegat
ivepr
oposi
ti
on

4.
0Concl
usi
on

1.
0INTRODUCTI
ON

Thi
sst
udyuni
tint
roducesy
out
odi
ff
erentt
ypesofcat
egor
ical
proposi
ti
ons.I
twi
l
lfocus

speci
fi
cal
l
yonwhatl
ogi
cianscal
lcat
egor
ical
proposi
ti
onssuchasuni
ver
sal
aff
ir
mat
ive

andnegat
ive,
par
ti
cul
araf
fi
rmat
iveandnegat
ive.
Asst
atedear
li
er(
modul
e2,
uni
t2)i
n

l
ogi
cpr
operst
atement
sandpr
oposi
ti
onar
esy
nony
mousandt
her
efor
eint
erchangeabl
e.

Sot
oal
ogi
cian,
apr
oposi
ti
oni
sthatst
atementt
hatcanbot
hbedeni
edorasser
ted.These

pr
oposi
ti
onsar
eoff
our(
04)t
ypesandf
ormt
wopai
rs,
eachpai
rhav
ingt
wopr
oposi
ti
ons

wi
thi
t.Thet
wopai
rsder
ivet
hei
rnamesf
rom t
heLat
i dsAf
nwor fi
rmoandNegowhi
ch

st
andf
oraf
fi
rmat
iveandnegat
ive,
respect
ivel
y.UnderAf
fi
rmowehav
euni
ver
sal
af
fi
rmat
iveandpar
ti
cul
araf
fi
rmat
ivewhi
l
einNegowehav
eUni
ver
sal
Negat
iveand

Par
ti
cul
arNegat
ive.

I
nit
sst
andar
dfor
m,acat
egor
ical
proposi
ti
oni
sasf
oll
ows:
quant
it
y/subj
ect
,

cl
ass/
qual
i
ty,
copul
a/pr
edi
cat
ecl
ass.Thequal
i
ty,
alsounder
stoodast
henumberof

member
soft
hesubj
ectcl
assi
susual
l
yindi
cat
edbyquant
if
ier
ssuchasAl
landSome.

Whi
l
ethequal
i
tyi
stheaf
fi
rmat
ionornegat
ionoft
hev
erb/
copul
ais,
whi
ch(
1)i
stakenasa

sy
mbol
notofi
dent
it
ybutofi
ncl
usi
on.Ther
eisal
soashor
thandwayofexpr
essi
ngt
he

cat
egor
ical
posi
ti
onsi
ndi
vi
dual
l
y.Ai
sforuni
ver
sal
aff
ir
mat
ive:
All
SisPE.i
sfor

Uni
ver
sal
Negat
ive:
NoSi
sPIi
sforpar
ti
cul
araf
fi
rmat
ive:
SomeSi
sPOi
sfor

par
ti
cul
arNegat
ive:
SomeSi
snotP.
(1)

Thisstudyuni
tont he“
typesofpr
oposi
ti
ons”hasbeent
akenwi
thl
i
ttl
emodi
fi
cat
ionf
rom N.
Otakpor,APr
eface

t
oLogi
c(2000)Pp.57-
6787

2.
0OBJECTI
VES

I
tishopedt
hatatt
heendoft
hisuni
t,y
oushoul
dbeabl
eto:
ıDef
ineacat
egor
ical

pr
oposi
ti
on

ı
Def
ineanddi
scuss:

ı
Uni
ver
sal
aff
ir
mat
ivepr
oposi
ti
on

ı
Uni
ver
sal
Negat
ivePr
oposi
ti
on

ı
Par
ti
cul
araf
fi
rmat
ivepr
oposi
ti
on

ı
Par
ti
cul
arNegat
ivepr
oposi
ti
on

ı
Dif
fer
ent
iat
ebet
weenquant
if
ier
s,qual
i
ty,
quant
it
yanddi
str
ibut
ion.3.
0MAI
NBODY

3.
1Theuni
ver
sal
aff
ir
mat
ivepr
oposi
ti
on(
All
SisP)Theuni
ver
sal
aff
ir
mat
ive

pr
oposi
ti
oncont
ainst
womaj
ordi
sti
nctchar
act
eri
sti
cs.Fi
rst
,asapr
oposi
ti
on,
ital
way
s

makesauni
ver
sal
stat
ement
,thati
s,ast
atementwhi
chembr
acesal
ltheper
sons,
obj
ect
s

orconcept
sbel
ongi
ngt
oanypar
ti
cul
arcl
ass.Secondl
y,auni
ver
sal
aff
ir
mat
ive
pr
oposi
ti
onal
way
smakesposi
ti
vest
atementoraf
fi
rmssomet
hingaboutt
heuni
ver
sal

cl
ass.Fori
nst
ance,
ast
atementsuchasAl
lHumansbei
ngsf
all
sundert
hecat
egor
yofa

uni
ver
sal
proposi
ti
on.Youcanseet
hati
nthest
atementAl
lHumanBei
ngsi
ncl
udes

ev
ery
one:
men,
women,
boy
sandgi
rl
sofal
lages.I
tal
soi
ncl
udesal
lther
aces.I
nfact
,

t
hest
atementAl
lHumanBei
ngssi
mpl
yref
erst
oal
lthosewhohav
ehumanat
tri
but
e.

Besi
des,
ify
ougoont
osay
.Al
lHumanBei
ngsar
eMammal
s,t
heny
ouwi
l
lbemaki
nga

uni
ver
sal
aff
ir
mat
ivepr
oposi
ti
on.Youwi
l
lbesay
ingsomet
hingposi
ti
veoraf
fi
rmi
ng

somet
hingaboutal
lhumanbei
ngs,
thati
s,t
hatt
heyar
emammal
s.Youst
atementi
s

cat
egor
ical
becausey
ouhav
enotexpr
essedanydoubtasr
egar
dswhet
hert
heyar
e

mammal
s(Ot
akpor
,2000:
58)
.

Youshoul
dal
sokeepi
nmi
ndt
hatt
heuseoft
headj
ect
iveAl
ltost
resst
heuni
ver
sal

char
act
eroft
hispr
oposi
ti
oni
snotal
way
snecessar
y.I
tisconv
ent
ional
l
yunder
stoodt
hat

somepr
oposi
ti
onswi
thoutt
headj
ect
iveAl
lcanbeuni
ver
sal
.Fori
nst
ance,
thest
atement

HumanBei
ngsar
eMAMMALScl
ear
lyi
mpl
i
est
hatal
lhumanbei
ngsar
emammal
s.The

adj
ect
ive“
All
”isal
socal
l
eda“
Quant
if
ier
”.
Her
ear
esomeexampl
esofUni
ver
sal

Af
fi
rmat
ivepr
eposi
ti
ons:
a)Br
idepr
icesshoul
dbeabol
i
shed

b)
Menshoul
dcont
endt
hemsel
veswi
thonewi
fe.
c)Al
lpol
i
tici
ansar
eli
ars.

d)
All
pri
vat
eschool
sar
epr
ofi
t–maki
ng.
e)Al
leducat
edNi
ger
iangi
rl
sar
epr
oud.
f)
All
taxi

–dr
iver
shav
edearv
isi
on.

g)
All
pol
i
cement
akebr
ibes.

(
1)h)
All
economi
stsar
est
ingy
.

(
1)

Al
lthesepr
oposi
ti
onsar
efr
om Ot
akpor
,2000,
P5988

I
fyoul
ookcar
eful
l
yatt
heabov
epr
oposi
ti
ons,
youwi
l
ldi
scov
ert
hatmostuni
ver
sal

pr
oposi
ti
onsar
enotof
tent
rue.Theymaybeper
suasi
vebecauset
heyar
ewi
del
ybel
i
eved.
Theseexampl
esal
soexposey
out
othedangerofmaki
ngbr
oadasser
ti
onsorcl
aims.

Sel
f–AssessmentExer
cise3.
1

Def
ineanddi
scusssomeuni
ver
sal
Aff
ir
mat
ivepr
eposi
ti
ons.
3.2TheUni
ver
sal
Negat
ive

Pr
oposi
ti
on(
NoSi
sP)Theuni
ver
sal
aff
ir
mat
iveanduni
ver
sal
Negat
ivepr
oposi
ti
ons

shar
ethesamechar
act
eri
sti
cs.Theonl
ydi
ff
erencel
i
esi
nthef
actt
hatoneaf
fi
rmswhi
l
e

t
heot
herdeni
es.Thati
s,t
heuni
ver
sal
aff
ir
mat
ivepr
oposi
ti
onmakesaf
fi
rmat
ive

st
atement
swhi
l
etheuni
ver
sal
Negat
ivemakesnegat
ivest
atement
s.Forexampl
e,i
fthe

uni
ver
sal
aff
ir
mat
ivepr
oposi
ti
onsay
sAl
lHumanbei
ngsar
emammal
s,t
heuni
ver
sal

Negat
ivepr
oposi
ti
onwi
l
lsayNohumanbei
ngsar
emammal
s.Howev
er,
theymakean

al
l
-embr
aci
ngandsweepi
nggener
alst
atement
swhi
chmaysoundpl
ausi
ble,
butwhi
ch

maybef
alse(
Otakpor
,2000:
64)asst
atedear
li
er,
uni
ver
sal
proposi
ti
onsmost
lydepend

onpubl
i
cbi
asorpr
ejudi
ceei
therf
ororagai
nstsomet
hing,
per
sons,
acl
assorobj
ect
s.For

t
hisr
eason,
iti
snotof
tent
rue.
Sel
f–AssessmentExer
cise3.
2Def
ineanddi
scusssome

si
mil
ari
ti
esanddi
ssi
mil
ari
ti
esbet
weenuni
ver
sal
aff
ir
mat
iveanduni
ver
sal
negat
ive

pr
oposi
ti
ons.
3.3Thepar
ti
cul
arAf
fi
rmat
ivepr
oposi
ti
on(
SisP)
Asal
readyst
ated,
we

hav
etwopai
rsofcat
egor
ical
proposi
ti
ons:
Aff
ir
mat
iveandNegat
ive.Undert
hepai
rof

Af
fi
rmat
ivewehav
etheUni
ver
sal
Aff
ir
mat
iveandt
hepar
ti
cul
arAf
fi
rmat
ive

pr
oposi
ti
on.Thedi
ff
erencebet
weent
het
wol
i
esi
nthef
actt
hatt
hepar
ti
cul
arAf
fi
rmat
ive

pr
oposi
ti
onmakesast
atementaboutsomebutnotal
loft
hemember
sofanycl
assof

obj
ect
sorper
sons.Fori
nst
ance,
ify
oumakeast
atementsuchassomeChr
ist
iansar
e

Cat
hol
i
csy
ouar
esi
mpl
ymaki
ngapar
ti
cul
araf
fi
rmat
ivepr
eposi
ti
on.

Youar
emaki
ngaposi
ti
vest
atementaboutsomemember
soft
hecl
assofChr
ist
ians,
that

i
s,t
hatsomeChr
ist
iansar
eCat
hol
i
cs,
nott
hatal
lChr
ist
iansar
eCat
hol
i
cs.

Sel
f–AssessmentExer
cise3.
3Def
ineanddi
scusssomepar
ti
cul
araf
fi
rmat
ive

pr
eposi
ti
ons.
3.4ThePar
ti
cul
arNegat
ivePr
oposi
ti
on(
SomeSi
snotP)
Iti
stheopposi
te
ofapar
ti
cul
arAf
fi
rmat
ivepr
oposi
ti
on.Al
thoughi
tbel
ongst
othepai
rofNegat
ive

af
fi
rmat
ivepr
oposi
ti
oni
tst
il
lremai
nsdi
ff
erentf
rom t
heuni
ver
sal
89

negat
ive.Thepar
ti
cul
arnegat
ivepr
oposi
ti
ondeni
essomet
hingaboutsomemember
sofa

cl
ass.Fori
nst
ance,
ify
ousayt
hatsomet
axi
dri
ver
sar
enotdr
unk.Youar
emaki
nga

par
ti
cul
arnegat
ivepr
oposi
ti
on;
youar
esi
mpl
ydeny
ingt
heat
tri
but
eofbei
ngdr
unkt
o

some,
butnotal
ltaxi
-dr
iver
s.Sel
f–AssessmentExer
cise3.
4Def
ineanddi
scusssome

par
ti
cul
arNegat
ivepr
eposi
ti
on.
4.0CONCLUSI
ON

Thi
sst
udyuni
tdeal
twi
tht
hedi
ff
erentt
ypesofpr
oposi
ti
ons.I
tdeal
tspeci
fi
cal
l
ywi
th

whatl
ogi
cianscal
lcat
egor
ical
proposi
ti
ons.
5.0SUMMARY

Thi
sst
udyuni
thasat
tempt
edt
oint
roducey
out
othedi
ff
erentki
ndsofpr
oposi
ti
ons.I
t

f
ocusedpar
ti
cul
arl
yoncat
egor
ical
proposi
ti
ons.Bynow,
youar
eexpect
edt
o:

•
Knowt
hedi
ff
erentt
ypesofcat
egor
ical
proposi
ti
ons•
Def
ineanddi
scussuni
ver
sal

af
fi
rmat
iveandnegat
ivepr
oposi
ti
ons•
Def
ineanddi
scusspar
ti
cul
araf
fi
rmat
iveand

negat
ivepr
oposi
ti
ons.

6.
0TUTOR–MARKEDASSI
GNMENTDef
ineandcl
assi
fycat
egor
ical

pr
oposi
ti
ons.
7.0REFERENCES/
FURTHERREADI
NGChi
neny
e,EzeandL.

Ochul
or.I
ntr
oduct
iont
oLogi
c.Cal
abar
:Dar
l-
BassyPr
ess,
2002.

ndLay
man, ephen.ThePowerofLogi
C.St c.2edi
ti
on.
NewYor
k:McGr
aw-
Hil
l
,2000.

Ot
akpor
, e.APr
Nkeony efacet
oLogi
c.Beni
nCi
ty:
OmoneBooks,
2000.

90

MODULE4-GENERALI
NTRODUCTI
ONUNI
T1:
SYLLOGI
SMS

CONTENT1.
0Int
roduct
ion

2.
0Obj
ect
ives

3.
0Mai
nBody

3.
1St
andar
dfor
m,mood,
andf
igur
e
3.
2Tr
adi
ti
onal
andmoder
nsquar
eofopposi
ti
on3.
3VennDi
agr
amsandcat
egor
ical

sy
ll
ogi
sms3.
4Ent
hymemesandsor
it
es3.
5Rul
esandev
aluat
ingsy
ll
ogi
sms

1.
0INTRODUCTI
ONThi
sst
udyuni
tint
roducesy
out
hedi
ff
erentki
ndsofsy
ll
ogi
sms.I
t

wi
l
lfocuspar
ti
cul
arl
yobt
hecat
egor
ical
syl
l
ogi
sm.Theuni
twi
l
lal
sot
eachy
our
ulesf
or

ev
aluat
ingsy
ll
ogi
sms.

2.
0OBJECTI
VES

I
tishopedt
hatatt
heendoft
hisst
udyuni
t,y
oushoul
dbeabl
eto:
•Knowt
hedi
ff
erent

ki
ndsofsy
ll
ogi
sms•
Def
ineanddi
scussst
andar
dfor
m,moodandf
igur
eofasy
ll
ogi
sm

•
Def
ineanddi
scusst
hesquar
esofopposi
ti
ony
ouknow•
Def
ineanddi
scussr
ulesf
or

ev
aluat
ingsy
ll
ogi
sms3.
0MAI
NBODY

Toal
ogi
cian,
asy
ll
ogi
sm i
sanar
gumentt
hatcont
ainsatl
eastt
hreepr
oposi
ti
ons,
twoof

whi
char
ecal
l
edt
hepr
emi
ses,
andonet
heconcl
usi
on.Buty
oushoul
dal
sokeepi
nmi
nd

t
hatt
her
ear
esomesy
ll
ogi
smst
hatcont
ainl
essormor
ethant
hreepr
oposi
ti
onsaswe

shal
lseel
att
er.Howev
er,
mymai
nfocusi
nthi
sst
udyuni
tisont
hecat
egor
ical

sy
ll
ogi
sms.Tr
adi
ti
onal
syl
l
ogi
sti
clogi
corAr
ist
otel
i
anl
ogi
cdeal
sonl
ywi
thcat
egor
ical

pr
oposi
ti
ons.And,
asst
atedear
li
er(
uni
t4)
.Cat
egor
ical
proposi
ti
onsar
eindi
cat
iveor

decl
arat
ivesent
ences.Theyasser
tordenyr
elat
ionshi
pbet
weencl
asses.So,
alway
s

r
emembert
hatcat
egor
ical
syl
l
ogi
smsar
ear
gument
scomposedent
ir
elyofcat
egor
ical

st
atement
s.And,
ever
ycat
egor
ical
syl
l
ogi
sm cont
ainsexact
lyt
hreet
erms.For

i
nst
ance:
All
menar
emor
tal

91

Socr
atesi
saman

Ther
efor
eSocr
atesi
smor
tal
.

3.
1St
andar
dfor
m,moodandf
igur
eAl
way
skeepi
nmi
ndt
hatt
hemast
eryoft
heabov
e

t
ermsi
sver
yimpor
tantf
orev
aluat
ingcat
egor
ical
syl
l
ogi
sms.
St
andar
dfor
m

Cat
egor
ical
syl
l
ogi
sm hasast
andar
dfor
m.I
tist
hesameev
ery
wher
eandatanyt
ime.I
t

cont
ainssomet
ermspr
opert
oitsuchasMi
ddl
eter
m,maj
ort
erm andt
hemi
nort
erm.

Youshoul
dremembert
hatt
heMi
ddl
eter
m ofacat
egor
ical
syl
l
ogi
sm i
sthet
ermt
hat

occur
soncei
neachpr
emi
se.Themaj
ort
erm ofacat
egor
ical
syl
l
ogi
sm i
sthepr
edi
cat
e

t
erm oft
heconcl
usi
on.Themi
nort
erm ofacat
egor
ical
syl
l
ogi
sm i
sthesubj
ectt
erm of

t
heconcl
usi
on.Wecansayt
hatacat
egor
ical
syl
l
ogi
sm i
sinst
andar
dfor
m onl
yandonl
y

i
fthef
oll
owi
ngcondi
ti
onsar
emet
:

a)
Thepr
emi
sesandt
heconcl
usi
onmustbecat
egor
ical
stat
ement
sinst
andar
dfor
m such

as(
“Al
lSar
eP”
,“NoSar
eP”“
SomeSar
eP”or“
SomeSar
enotP”
.)
b)Thef
ir
st

pr
emi
secont
ainst
hemaj
ort
erm.
c)Thesecondpr
emi
secont
ainst
hemi
nort
erm.
d)The

concl
usi
oni
sst
atedl
ast
.

I
not
herwor
d,i
nanyst
andar
dcat
egor
ical
syl
l
ogi
sm,
themaj
orpr
emi
sei
sthepr
emi
se

cont
aini
ngt
hemaj
ort
erm,
andt
hemi
norpr
emi
sei
sthepr
emi
secont
aini
ngt
hemi
nor

t
erm,
ofcour
se,
theconcl
usi
oni
stheconcl
usi
on.
Moodandf
igur
eAl
way
skeepi
nyour

mi
ndt
hatt
hel
ogi
cal
for
m ofacat
egor
ical
syl
l
ogi
sm i
sdet
ermi
nedbyi
tsmoodand

f
igur
e,butt
hemoodofast
andar
dcat
egor
ical
syl
l
ogi
sm i
sdet
ermi
nedbyt
heki
ndsof

cat
egor
ical
stat
ement
sitcompr
isesandt
heor
deri
nwhi
cht
heyappear
.Fori
nst
ance:

Al
lpsy
chi
atr
ist
sar
ephy
sici
ansSomepsy
chol
ogi
stsar
enotphy
sici
ansSo,
some

psy
chol
ogi
stsar
enotpsy
chi
atr
ist
s(Lay
man:
189)
Youcanseeht
5emoodoft
heabov
e

exampl
eisAOO.Thi
ssi
mpl
ymeanst
hatt
hef
ir
stpr
emi
sei
sanAst
atement
,thesecond

pr
emi
sei
sanOst
atement
,andconcl
usi
oni
sanOst
atement
.Mor
eso,
iti
sal
sopossi
ble

f
ort
wosy
ll
ogi
smst
ohav
ethesamemoodandy
etdi
ff
eri
nlogi
cal
for
m.Logi
ciansuse

l
ett
ersi
nli
euoft
ermst
odi
ff
erent
iat
ebet
weenf
orms.Fori
nst
ance,
let
ter“
S”st
andsf
or

t
hemi
nort
erm,
“P”f
ort
hemaj
ort
erm and“
M”f
ormi
ddl
eter
m.92
I
nanyst
andar
dcat
egor
ical
syl
l
ogi
sm,
thef
igur
eisspeci
fi
edbyt
heposi
ti
onoft
hemi
ddl
e

t
erm.Logi
cianscl
assi
fyf
igur
esi
nfour(
04)cat
egor
iesasf
oll
ows:

Fi
rstf
igur
eSecondf
igur
eThi
rdf
igur
eFour
thf
igur
eM-
PP-
MM-
PP-
MS-
MSMM-

SM-
SSo,
S-PSo,
S-PSo,
S-PSo,
S-PYoushoul
dal
way
sremembert
hatt
hef
orm ofa

sy
ll
ogi
sm i
scompl
etel
yspeci
fi
edbyi
tsmoodandf
igur
e.Ther
ear
etwohundr
edandf
if
ty

si
xcat
egor
ical
syl
l
ogi
sms,
fourki
ndsofcat
egor
ical
stat
ement
s,and64possi
blemoods.

Howev
er,
nowaday
s,bot
hanci
entandmoder
nlogi
ciansagr
eeont
he15f
oll
owi
ng

f
orms:
Fir
stf
igur
e:AAA,
EAE,
AII
,EI
OSecondf
igur
e:EAE,
AEE,
EIO,

AOOThi
rdf
igur
e:I
AI,
AII
,OAO,
EIOFour
thf
igur
e:AEE,
IAI
,EI
OHowev
er,

Ar
ist
otel
i
ant
radi
ti
onaccept
saddi
ti
onal
ninef
ormsasv
ali
d.Thesear
e:Fi
rstf
igur
eAAI
,

EAOSecondf
igur
e:AEO,
EAOThi
rdf
igur
e:AAI
,EAOFour
thf
igur
eAEO,
EAO,
AAI

Sel
f–AssessmentExer
cise3.
1A)Whi
choft
hef
oll
owi
ngcat
egor
ical
syl
l
ogi
smsar
ein

st
andar
dfor
m?(
i)
Somewor
ksofar
tar
ebooks

Al
lnov
elsar
ebooks

So,
somewor
ksofar
tar
enov
els

(
ii
)Al
lsadi
stsar
emean

Al
lar
tcr
it
icsar
emean

So,
all
artcr
it
icsar
esadi
sts

B)Speci
fyt
hemoodandf
igur
eoft
hef
oll
owi
ngf
ormsi
)SomePar
eM i
i
)NoM ar
e

Pi
i
i)Al
lPar
eM Al
lSar
eM SomeM ar
enotSSomeSar
eM So,
SomeS

ar
ePSo,
SomeSar
ePSo,
SomeSar
eP.
C)Putt
hef
oll
owi
ngsy
ll
ogi
smsi
ntost
andar
d

f
orm.Thenspeci
fyt
hemoodandf
igur
e.Fi
nal
l
yuset
hel
i
stofv
ali
dfor
mst
odet
ermi
ne

whet
hert
hesy
ll
ogi
smsar
eval
i
d.

1.
Ever
ycowboyl
oveshor
ses.Notal
lfar
mer
slov
ehor
ses.I
tfol
l
owst
hatatl
eastone

f
armeri
snotacowboy
.
2.
Onl
ygoodguy
sar
ecowboy
sinwhi
teout
fi
ts.At
hingi
sacat
tl
erust
leronl
yifi
tisnota

goodguy
.Itf
oll
owst
hatnocowboy
sinwhi
teout
fi
tsar
ecat
tl
erust
ler
s.

93

3.
Atl
eastonebr
oncoi
snothar
dtor
ide,
foral
lbul
l
sar
ehar
dtor
ide,
andsomebr
oncos

ar
enotbul
l
s.

D)
Wri
tey
ourownsy
ll
ogi
smswi
thf
ormsasspeci
fi
edbel
ow.Thenuset
hel
i
stofv
ali
d

f
ormspr
ovi
dedi
nthi
ssect
iont
odet
ermi
newhet
hert
hesy
ll
ogi
sm ar
eval
i
d.

1.
Fir
stf
igur
e:E102.Secondf
igur
e:AEE3Thi
rdf
igur
e:I
AI4.Four
th1f
igur
e:EAE.

3.
2Tr
adi
ti
onal
moder
nsquar
esofopposi
ti
onAsal
readyment
ioned,
logi
cisdi
vi
ded

i
ntot
wo:
thet
radi
ti
onal
orAr
ist
otel
i
anl
ogi
cinonehandandt
hemoder
nlogi
cinanot
her

hand.Whatspeci
fi
cal
l
ydi
ff
erent
iat
ethem i
sthei
rsquar
esofopposi
ti
on.Thet
radi
ti
onal

orAr
ist
otel
i
ansquar
eofopposi
ti
oni
sasf
oll
ows:

Fr
om t
heabov
esquar
eofopposi
ti
onsomer
emar
ksanddi
scussi
onscanf
oll
ow.Fi
rstof

al
lyoucanseet
hatAandOpr
oposi
ti
onsar
econt
radi
ctor
ies.Accor
dingt
ologi
cians,
two

pr
oposi
ti
ons/
stat
ement
sar
econt
radi
ctor
iesi
ftheycannotbot
hbet
rueandt
heycannot

bot
hbef
alse.Thati
s,i
fonei
str
ue,
theot
hermustbef
alseandv
icev
ersa.Si
mil
arl
yE

andIpr
oposi
ti
onsar
econt
radi
ctor
iesaswel
l
.Besi
des,
AandEpr
oposi
ti
onsar
erat
her

cont
rar
ies.I
nlogi
ctwopr
oposi
ti
ons/
stat
ement
sar
econt
rar
iesi
ftheycannotbot
hbet
rue

butt
heycanbot
hbef
alse.Mor
eso,
IandOpr
oposi
ti
onsar
esub-
cont
rar
ies.Agai
n,i
n

l
ogi
ctwost
atement
sar
esubcont
rar
iesi
ftheycannotbot
hbef
alsebutt
heycanbot
hbe

t
rue.Youshoul
dal
way
skeepi
nmi
ndt
hati
nlogi
cther
eisal
sowhati
scal
l
edsubal
ter
nat
ion.

Thi
sist
hel
ogi
crel
ati
onshi
pbet
weenauni
ver
sal
stat
ementandi
ts

cor
respondi
ngpar
ti
cul
arst
atement
.Super
alt
ernst
andsf
ort
heuni
ver
sal
stat
ementwhi
l
e

subal
ter
nst
andsf
ort
hepar
ti
cul
arst
atement
.

Themoder
nsquar
eofopposi
ti
on
Youshoul
dal
way
sremembert
hatt
hemoder
nsquar
eofopposi
ti
oni
sther
esul
tofa

r
eact
iont
othet
radi
ti
onal
orAr
ist
otel
i
anl
ogi
c.I
tisal
socal
l
ed“
moder
nlogi
c”1

Al
ltheseexer
cisear
efr
om Lay
man,
(2002)
,pp191–194.
94

t
hthandwaschampi
onedby17andear
ly20cent
uryt
hinker
ssuchasGeor
geBool
e(1815-

1864)
,JohnVenn(
1834–1923)Char
lesSander
sPei
rce(
1839–1914)Got
tl
obFr
ege

(
1948–1925)andBer
trandRussel
l(1872–1970)
.Her
eist
hepi
ctur
eoft
hemoder
n

squar
eofopposi
ti
on.

I
fyoucompar
etheabov
esquar
ewi
tht
het
radi
ti
onal
one,
youwi
l
lfi
ndoutt
hatt
he

r
elat
ionshi
psal
ongt
hesi
desoft
heTr
adi
ti
onal
Squar
esuchasSub-
alt
ernat
ion,
cont
rar
ies,

andsubcont
rar
ieshav
evani
shed.Butaccor
dingt
oLay
man,
themoder
nappr
oachhasat

l
eastoneadv
ant
ageov
ert
heAr
ist
otel
i
anappr
oach(
2002:
216)
.

(
1)Sel
f–AssessmentExer
cise

Logi
cal
rel
ati
onshi
pA)Gi
vet
henamesoft
hel
ogi
cal
rel
ati
onst
hathol
dbet
weent
he

f
oll
owi
ngpai
rsofcor
respondi
ngcat
egor
ical
stat
ement
s.I
fthepai
rofst
atement
sdoesnot

exempl
i
fyanyoft
hel
ogi
cal
rel
ati
onsdi
scussedi
nthi
ssect
ion,
simpl
ywr
it
e

“
None”
.1.
All
rosesar
eredf
lower
s/Nor
osesar
eredf
lower
s2.
All
Apachesar
e

Shawnees/
SomeApachesar
eShawnees3.
Somer
adi
cal
skept
icsar
epr
ofoundl
ymi
ser
abl
e

peopl
e/Al
lradi
cal
skept
icsar
epr
ofoundl
ymi
ser
abl
epeopl
e.

4.
Somel
eader
sar
efol
l
ower
s/somel
eader
sar
enotf
oll
ower
s.B)
Argumentf
orms

UseVenndi
agr
amst
otestt
hef
oll
owi
ngar
gumentf
ormsf
orv
ali
dit
y.1.
NoM i
sP2.Al
lM

ar
eP3.NoSi
sPAl
lSar
eM Al
lM ar
eSSo,
somenon-Par
enonSSo,
SomeSar
e

notPSo,
atl
eastoneM exi
stsSomeSar
eP3.
3VennDi
agr
amsandCat
egor
ical

Sy
ll
ogi
sms(
1)

Theseexer
cisesar
efr
om S.Lay
manwi
thl
i
ttl
emodi
fi
cat
ionpp191,
194and22095

Asst
atedear
li
erJohnVenn(
1834–1923)i
soneoft
hemaj
orpr
oponent
sofmoder
n
l
ogi
c.Hei
swel
lknownf
orhi
sdi
agr
ams.Accor
dingt
ohi
m hi
sdi
agr
amseaset
he

checki
ngoft
hev
ali
dit
yofsy
ll
ogi
sms.So,
sincet
hedi
scov
eryoft
heVennDi
agr
ams,
any

cat
egor
ical
proposi
ti
onconsi
sti
ngofonl
ytwot
ermst
hati
s,subj
ectandpr
edi
cat
ecanbe

r
epr
esent
edbyt
heov
erl
appi
ngci
rcl
esasf
oll
ows:
SPYoushoul
dal
way
sremember

t
hatbef
orey
ouappl
ytheVennmet
hodt
oacat
egor
ical
syl
l
ogi
sm,
youmustf
ir
stofal
l

checkt
oseei
fthesy
ll
ogi
sm i
nquest
ioni
sinst
andar
dfor
m.I
fiti
s,y
oucant
henpr
oceed

t
oconst
ructadi
agr
am.I
fthesy
ll
ogi
sm i
snoti
nst
andar
dfor
m,y
ouhav
etor
ewr
it
eit
.For

i
nst
ance,
inacat
egor
ical
syl
l
ogi
sm wi
tht
hreet
ermst
hati
s,t
hesubj
ect
,pr
edi
cat
eand

mi
ddl
eter
m,t
heVenndi
agr
am i
srepr
esent
edasf
oll
ows:

S(
Minort
erm)P(
maj
ort
erm)

M(
middl
eter
m)

Fr
om t
heanal
ysi
sofVenndi
agr
am,
ther
ear
esomest
andar
dtechni
quesf
ort
est
ingt
he

v
ali
dit
yofagi
vensy
ll
ogi
sm asf
oll
ows:
1.Youmustputt
hear
gumenti
nit
sst
andar
d

f
orm.2.
Youmusti
dent
if
ythemoodandf
igur
eoft
hesy
ll
ogi
sm.3.
Youmustt
ransl
atet
he

moodandf
igur
eint
ost
andar
dsy
mbol
i
sm.
4.Youshoul
dal
sodr
awt
het
hreeov
erl
appi
ng

ci
rcl
est
orepr
esentt
hei
nfor
mat
ioni
nthesy
ll
ogi
sti
car
gument
.

5.
Youshoul
ddi
agr
am t
hepr
emi
sesi
ntot
heci
rcl
es.
6.Youmustdi
agr
am t
heuni
ver
sal

f
ir
st.
96

7.
Youshoul
ddi
agr
am t
heuni
ver
sal
premi
sesbyshadi
ngoutt
hear
easr
epr
esent
ingt
hem

i
ntheci
rcl
es.

8.
Youshoul
ddi
agr
am par
ti
cul
arpr
emi
seswi
than“
X”i
nthear
easr
epr
esent
ingt
hem.

Remembert
hatt
her
ear
etwopossi
bil
i
ties.(
a)Youcanputan“
X”i
nbot
hpossi
ble

segment
sandconnectt
hem wi
thast
roke–t
hef
loat
ingst
arofH.Lee,
or(
b)y
oucanput

t
he“
X”ont
hedi
vi
dingl
i
ne.(
a)

SPx
Mb)SPx

9.Theconcl
usi
onshoul
dnotaddany
thi
ngt
othedi
agr
am.I
fnott
hesy
ll
ogi
sm becomesi
nval
i
d.

10.Youshoul ddr awadi agram t hateasilyshowst heboundar iesandr elati

onshipsoft hethr
ee
termsofasy ll
ogism f orexampl e:-S123P45678MAsy oucansee( 1)r epresentsthearea
sharedbyt hesubj ectterm al one;( 2)r epresentsthear eashar edbyt hesubj ectterm and
predicat
et ermsonl y;(3)97 r epresentst hear eashar ed byt hepr edicatet erm alone;(
4)
represent
st hear easshar edbyt hesubj ectandmi ddlet er
msonl y;(5)r epresentsthearea
showedbyal lthree;(6)r
epr esent stheter m sharedbyt hemi ddleandpr edicateterm onl
y;(
7)
represent
st hear eashar edbyt hemi ddlet erm al
oneand( 8)ist hecompl ementofal lthr
ee
classes,t
hatis,theclassofal lthingswhi char eneit
hersubjectnorpr edi
cat enormi ddl
e.

3.
4Ent
hymemesandSor
it
es.

Enthy
memes:i nlogi
c,t
heter
m ent
hymememeansanargumentorasyl
logi
sm wi
thanunst
ated
premiseorunstat
edconcl
usi
on.I
notherwor
d,i
tisanar
gumentorasy
ll
ogism

i
nwhi chonl yapar tofi ti sexpr essed.Thi ski ndofar gumenti scommonbot hinor di
nary
discourseandi nacademi cwr i
ting.Becauset hespeakerorwr i
terusual l
ypr esumessome
statement s al
readyknown byt he audi ence and so f inds i tunnecessar yt o make t hese
statement sexpli
cit.I
nor dert oev aluateanent hy meme, themi ssingpr emiseorconcl usionhas
tobesuppl i
ed.Forexampl e:-AllNi geriansar eAf ri
cans.HenceUchei s.Youcanseet hati nt hi
s
argument ,themaj orpremi seandt heconcl usionar esuppl ied.Themi norpr emi sesar emi ssi
ng:
“Uchei saNi gerian”.So,i fy ouaddt hisst at ementt ot hear gument ,youwi l
lhav eav ali
d
categoricalsyl
logism asf oll
ows: All Niger i
ansar eAf r
icansUchei saNi gerianTher efore,Uchei s
anAf ri
canYoushoul dkeepi nmi ndt hatsomet imesanaccept ablepr emiseorconcl usionmay
beeasi l
ysuppl i
edandot hert i
mesi tmaybedi fficultt
of indonet hatwi llcompl etet hesy ll
ogism
andmakei tvali
d.Whent heconcl usioni sl eftuni ndicatedorunst atedt hatar gumenti scal l
ed
‘
innuendo’ .Anent hymemei soft he“ firstor der ”whent hemaj orpr emi sei sunexpr essedor
unstated.Itisoft he“ secondor der ”whent hemi norpremi sei s( 1)theseexer cisesar et aken
(withli
ttlemodi f
icati
ons)f rom SLay man,ThePowerofLogi c,2002,pp.211–21298unst ated
orunexpr essed.Itisofthe“ thir
dor der ”whent heconcl usioni sunst at
edorunexpr essed.

B)Sor
it
es

Inlogic,sor
it
essimpl ymeansachai nar gumentsorsy l
logi
sm i nwhichthef inalconcl
usionis
statedbutthesub- conclusi
onsar eunst at
ed.Sori
tes(so-ri
-teez)comesf rom t heGreekwor d
soroswhi chstandsf or“ heap”or“ pile”
.Inotherwor d,asor i
tesisa“ heap”ofsy ll
ogism.
Exampl e:Al
lint
ell
ectual
sar ecrazymi ndsNocrazymi ndsarewor thli
steni
ngt oSomeuni v
ersit
y
teachers arei nt
ell
ectuals Therefore,some univ er
sit
yt eacher s are notwor thlist
ening
to.(
Otakpor,2000:120)The sub- conclusi
on orthe unexpr essed statementher eis“ worth
l
isteningto”.Sof arthissorit
est obecomev ali
d,theunexpressedstatementmustappeari nthe
maj orpremise.Thus:Nocr azymi ndsar eworthli
steningtoAllintell
ectual
sar ecrazyminds
Ther ef
ore,someuni versit
yt eachersareintel
l
ectuals.From theabov esor i
tes,youcanvali
dly
i
nfert hatNoi ntell
ectualsarewor thli
steni
ngto,mor eso,youcanv al
idl
yi nf
erasaconcl usi
on
thatsomeuni versit
yt eachersar enotwor t
hlist
eningto”.Thus,thev ali
dchai nofcategori
cal
syll
ogismswi llbeasf ollows:

a)No cr azymi nds ar e wor thl isteni

ng t o Al li ntell
ectuals ar e cr azymi nds Ther efor e,No
i
ntellectual
sar ewor thlisteningt o.b)Someuni versityteachesar ei nt ellectualsNoi nt ell
ect ual s
arewor t
hlisteningt oTher efore,someuni versityt eacher sarenotwor thl i
steningt o.3.5Rul esf or
evaluatingsy ll
ogismsYoushoul dal way skeepi nmi ndt hatt herear esomer ulesonemust
fol
lowi nordert oev aluatesy l
l
ogi sm.Thati s,inor dertodet ermi nev alidori nv alidar gument s.
Traditi
onalorAr istoteli
anl ogicr ecognizesei ghtr uleswhi l
emoder nl ogicacknowl edgesonl y
fi
ve.Thenumberdoesnotr eall
ymat ter.Whati scer t
aini sthaty oumustf ollowsomer ulesi n
ordert oev aluatesy ll
ogisms.Agai n,therei snost andar dor derasf arast hoser ul
esar e
concer ned( Lay man,2002:238–240) .Ruleone:Av ali
dst andar d–f or m cat egor icalsy l
logi sm
mustcont ai n exact lyt hreet ermsand each t erm mustbeused wi t
ht hesamemeani ng
throughoutt hear gument .Rul et wo:Inav alidst andar df orm categor icalsy llogi sm,t hemi ddle
term mustbedi stributedinatl eastonepr emi se.Rul ethree:Inav alidst andar df orm cat egor i
cal
syll
ogism,at erm mustbedi st
ributedi nthepr emi sesi fitisdistribut edi nt heconcl usion.Rul e
four:Inav al i
dst andf orm cat egor i
calsy ll
ogi sm,t henumberofnegat iv
epr emi sesmustbe
equalt ot henumberofnegat i
v econcl usions. Rul efive:Nov alidst andar df orm cat egor i
cal
syll
ogism wi thapar t
icularconcl usioncanhav et wouni versalpremi ses.

UNI
T2:
SYMBOLI
ZINGI
NLOGI
C

CONTENT1.
0Int
roduct
ion

2.
0Obj
ect
ives

3.
0Mai
nBody

3.
1Whati
sasy
mbol
?

3.
2Sy
mbol
i
zingi
nlogi
c

3.
3Sy
mbol
i
zingst
atement
s

3.
4Sy
mbol
i
zingv
ari
abl
es

1.
0INTRODUCTI
ON

Thi
sst
udyuni
tint
roducesy
out
othedef
ini
ti
onofsy
mbol
sandhowi
thowi
thappensi
n
l
ogi
c.I
twi
l
lteachy
oul
ogi
cianssy
mbol
i
zest
atement
sandv
ari
abl
es.2.
0OBJECTI
VES

•
Iti
shopedt
hatatt
heendoft
hisuni
tyoushoul
dbeabl
eto:
•Def
ineanddi
scusssy
mbol
s

i
nlogi
c.

•
Knowhowandwhyt
osy
mbol
i
zesomest
atement
sinl
ogi
c•Knowhowandwhyt
o

sy
mbol
i
zesomev
ari
abl
esi
nlogi
c•Et
c3.
0MAI
NBODY

3.
1Whati
sasy
mbol
?

I
nlogi
c,asy
mbol
isasi
gnoramar
kwi
thapar
ti
cul
armeani
ng.Howev
er,
wehav
ea

“
signf
orsomet
hing”anda“
signofsomet
hing”f
ori
nst
ance,
thesi
gni
sasy
mbol
for

good.Thebookonar
oadsi
gnsi
sawonder
ful
appl
i
cat
ionof“
signf
orsomet
hing”
.Ast
o

asy
mbol
as“
signofsomet
hing”
,yournat
ional
flagi
sthebestexampl
e.Eachcount
ryhas

anat
ional
flag.And,
what
evert
hef
lagi
sfoundsomewher
eitsi
mpl
ymeanst
hatei
ther

t
heconcer
nedcount
ryi
spr
esentt
her
eorhasbusi
nesst
odowi
tht
hepl
ace.

.
3.2Sy
mbol
i
zingi
nlogi
c

I
nor
dert
osy
mbol
i
zewel
li
nlogi
cyoushoul
dtakei
ntoaccountt
hedi
ff
erencebet
ween

at
omi
cst
atementandcompoundst
atement
.Anat
omi
cst
atementi
sonet
hatdoesany

ot
herst
atementasacomponent
.Exampl
e:102

Hei
deggerwr
oteBei
ngandTi
meSar
trei
sanexi
stent
ial
i
st

Camer
ooni
ansar
ever
ygent
le

Howev
er,
acompoundst
atementi
sonet
hathasatl
eastoneat
omi
cst
atementasa

compoundexampl
e:

I
tisnott
hecaset
hatHei
deggerwr
oteBei
ngandTi
meEi
therSar
trei
sanexi
stent
ial
i
stor

hei
sthef
atherofexi
stent
ial
i
sm.
Niger
iai
sthemostpopul
ouscount
ryandSudani
sthe

l
argestcount
ryi
nAf
ri
ca.1Thesy
mbol
syst
em i
nlogi
ccanbesummar
izedas

f
oll
ow.
Oper
ati
onNameTr
ansl
atesTy
peofCompound~/
¬ti
tl
eNotNegat
ion.

/
σdotandconj
unct
ionar
rowi
f-
thencondi
ti
onal
≡doubl
ear
rowi
fand
onl
yif
bi-
condi
ti
onal
Alway
sremembert
hatt
hest
atementbef
ore“
and”i
scal
l
ed

t
hef
ir
stconj
unctwhi
l
ethest
atementaf
ter“
and”i
scal
l
edt
hesecondconj
unct
.

Mor
eso,
thest
atementbef
ore“
or”i
scal
l
edt
hef
ir
stdi
sjunctst
atementf
oll
owi
ng

“
if
”iscal
l
edt
heant
ecedentwhi
l
ethest
atementf
oll
owi
ng“
then”i
scal
l
edt
he

consequent
.Thest
atementbef
ore“
ifandonl
yif
”iscal
l
edt
hef
ir
stpar
tandt
he

st
atementaf
ter“
ifandonl
yif
”iscal
l
edt
hesecondpar
toft
hemat
eri
al

equi
val
ence.
3.3Sy
mbol
i
zingst
atement
s

Thev
ocabul
aryofsy
mbol
i
clanguageconsi
stsofpar
ent
heses,
thel
ogi
cal
oper
ator
sand

st
atementl
ett
ers.So,
anysequenceofsy
mbol
sint
hisv
ocabul
aryi
sanexpr
essi
onof

st
atementl
ogi
c.Techni
cal
l
y,agr
ammat
ical
l
ycor
rectsy
mbol
i
cexpr
essi
oni
scal
l
edawel
l

-
for
medf
ormul
a(WFF)
.Youshoul
dal
sokeepi
nmi
ndt
hatanyl
ett
eroft
heEngl
i
sh

al
phabetcanbeusedt
osy
mbol
i
zeal
ogi
cal
stat
ement
.Buti
tmustbeanat
omi
c

st
atement
.Fori
nst
ance,
ast
atementsuchasHei
deggerwr
oteBei
ngandTi
mecanbe

sy
mbol
i
zedasZ.I
not
herwor
dZcanbechosent
osy
mbol
i
zei
t.Li
kewi
sewi
tht
he

secondst
atement
s.Sar
trei
sanexi
stent
ial
i
st.Bcanbechosent
orepr
esenti
t.Howev
er

anyot
herl
ett
erf
rom ZandBcanbechosent
osy
mbol
i
zet
heabov
est
atement
s.A

st
atementi
ssai
dtobesy
mbol
i
zedwhenanyl
ogi
cal
symbol
ischosent
orepr
esenti
t.I
f

f
ori
nst
ancei
tisl
ett
er“
Z”t
henonewi
l
lsayt
hel
ett
er“
Z”sy
mbol
i
zest
hest
atement
.

Howev
er,
alway
sbeari
nmi
ndt
hatasi
ngl
elet
teroft
heal
phabetshoul
dnev
erbechosen

t
orepr
esentdi
ff
erentat
omi
cst
atement
swi
thi
n1

Youshoul
dkeepinmi
ndt
hathi
stor
ical
l
y,sy
mbol
i
cisf
air
lynew,andhasnouni
ver
salst
andar
d
ofnot
ati
on.Some

t
ext
susedi
ff
erentsy
mbol
sbutt
hebasi
cpr
inci
plesandunder
standi
ngar
ethesame.
103

t
hesamecompoundst
atement
.Fori
nst
ancei
f“Z”sy
mbol
i
zesHei
deggerwr
oteBei
ng

andTi
meand“
B”sy
mbol
i
zesSar
trei
sanexi
stent
ial
i
st.Thenourf
ourcompound

st
atement
swi
l
lbeasf
oll
ows:
a)Ourconj
unct
ionbecomesZ.BorZ^Bb)Ourdi
sjunct
ionbecomesZvB

c)OurHy
pot
het
ical
stat
ementormat
eri
ali
mpl
i
cat
ionbecomesZBorZBd)Our

mat
eri
alequi
val
encebecomeZ≡BorZBwhi
chsi
mpl
ymeansZi
smat
eri
all
y

equi
val
entt
oB.

3.
4Sy
mbol
i
zingv
ari
abl
es

Somet
hingi
svar
iabl
ewheni
tisnotst
eadyorcanchangef
rom t
imet
oti
me.Thi
sist
he

caseoft
hel
ett
ersoft
heal
phabet
.Anyl
ett
eroft
heal
phabetcanbechosent
osy
mbol
i
ze

anyl
ogi
cal
stat
ement
;ev
eni
fiti
sar
ulet
hatt
hesai
dlet
tershoul
dbeusedi
namanner

t
hatst
atescl
ear
lywhati
tsy
mbol
i
zes.Fori
nst
ance:
a)I
f“A”sy
mbol
i
zesHei
degger

wr
oteBei
ngandTi
me”and“
B”sy
mbol
i
zesSar
trei
sanexi
stent
ial
i
st”our

conj
unct
ionbecomesA.Bb)
If“
C”sy
mbol
i
zes“
Hei
deggerwr
oteBei
ngandTi
me

and“
D”sy
mbol
i
zes“
Sar
trei
sanexi
stent
ial
i
st”ourconj
unct
ionbecomesC.
D.c)
If

“
E”sy
mbol
i
zes‘
Hei
deggerwr
oteBei
ngandTi
me”and“
F”sy
mbol
i
zes“
Sar
tre

i
sanexi
stent
ial
i
st”ourconj
unct
ionbecomesE.FFr
om t
heabov
eexampl
es,
youcan

seet
hatl
ett
ersA,
B,C,
D,E,
Far
evar
iabl
es.Becauset
heycanbechosent
osy
mbol
i
ze

anyl
ogi
cal
stat
ement
.Inot
herwor
d,t
hei
ruseormeani
ngv
ari
esf
rom t
imet
oti
me

dependi
ngont
hest
atement
stheyar
echosent
osy
mbol
i
zeatdi
ff
erentt
imes.

Howev
er,
youshoul
dal
way
skeepi
nmi
ndt
hatt
hel
ogi
cal
symbol
sfor“
and”
,“ei
ther…

or
”,“
if…t
hen”
,“i
fandonl
yif
’cannotchange.Ther
efor
etheyar
enotv
ari
abl
es.They

ar
eknownt
obeconst
antandst
eady
.Whenev
ery
ouseet
hem i
nanyl
ogi
cal
language

t
heyal
way
ssy
mbol
i
zet
hesamet
hing.Thi
ssi
mpl
ymeanst
hatt
hedotsi
gn(
.)wi
l
lal
way
s

sy
mbol
i
zet
heEngl
i
shwor
d“and”
.Thi
sisal
sot
ruewi
tht
hev
el(
v)si
gn,
the“
eit
her…

or
”,t
he“
ifandonl
yif
”andsoon.Unl
i
ket
hel
ett
ersoft
heal
phabetwhi
char
evar
iabl
es,

t
heseonesar
est
eady
,nev
erv
ary
ing.Thati
swhyt
heyal
socal
l
ed“
CONSTANTS”
.You

shoul
dal
sor
emembert
hatdespi
tet
hef
actt
hatanyl
ett
eroft
heal
phabetcanbechosent
o
sy
mbol
i
zest
atement
sinl
ogi
cthechoi
ceusual
l
ybegi
nsf
rom p,
q,r
,s,
tet
cthust
hesel
ett
er

begi
nni
ngf
rom par
ecust
omar
il
ycal
l
edSTATEMENTVARI
ABLES,
butt
hisdoesnot

meant
hatot
herl
ett
ersar
elessi
mpor
tantorusel
ess.Al
sor
emembert
hatweal
way
suse

smal
lorl
owercasel
ett
erst
osy
mbol
i
zest
atementv
ari
abl
es.

104

4.
0CONCLUSI
ON

Thi
sst
udyuni
thasi
ntr
oducedy
out
hedef
ini
ti
onofsy
mbol
sandhowi
thappensi
nlogi
c.

UNI
T3:
TRUTHTABLEANALYSI
S

CONTENTS

1.
0Int
roduct
ion

2.
0Obj
ect
ives

3.
0Mai
nBody

3.
1Negat
ions

3.
2Conj
unct
ions

3.
3Di
sjunct
ions

3.
4Mat
eri
alcondi
ti
onal

3.
5Mat
eri
alBi
-condi
ti
onal

4.
0Concl
usi
on

5.
0Summar
y

6.
0Tut
or–mar
kedassi
gnment

7.
0Ref
erences/
fur
therr
eadi
ng

1.
0INTRODUCTI
ON

Thi
sst
udyuni
tint
roducesy
out
ohowt
ouset
rut
htabl
esi
nor
dert
odet
ermi
net
hev
ali
dit
y

ori
nval
i
dit
yofal
argecl
assofar
gument
s.2.
0OBJECTI
VES

I
tishopedt
hatatt
heendoft
hisuni
tyoushoul
dbeabl
eto:
Def
inehowt
oanal
yzet
he
f
ivebasi
clogi
cal
typesofcompoundsf
ormedv
iat
heoper
ator
s.Thesear
e:

•
Thet
il
de

•
Thedot
•Thev
ee

•
Thear
rowand

•
Thedoubl
e–ar
row

3.
0MAI
NBODY

Themai
nfocusoft
hisuni
tist
oanal
yzet
rut
htabl
evi
awhatl
ogi
cianscal
lNegat
ions,

conj
unct
ion,
Disj
unct
ions,
Mat
eri
alcondi
ti
onal
andmat
eri
albi
-condi
ti
onal
.

3.
1Negat
ions

Thet
rut
htabl
eofnegat
ioncanbedi
agr
amedasf
oll
ows:

P~P

TF

FT106

Fr
om t
heabov
edi
agr
am,
youcanseet
hatt
het
rut
htabl
eofnegat
ionhast
owv
ert
ical

col
umns,
onet
hel
eftandt
heonet
her
ight
.Thet
abl
eal
sohast
wohor
izont
alr
ows.You

canseet
hatt
hecol
umnont
hel
eftgi
vesy
out
hepossi
blet
rut
hval
uesf
oranyst
atementP,

t
hati
s,T(
true)andF(
fal
se)
.Thecol
umnont
her
ightgi
vesy
out
hecor
respondi
ngt
rut
h

v
aluesf
ort
henegat
ion,
~P.asf
ort
her
ows,
youcanseet
hati
nthef
ir
st(
ort
op)r
ow,
Pis

t
rue,
soi
tsnegat
ioni
sfal
se.Whi
l
eint
hesecond(
orbot
tom)r
ow,
Pisf
alse,
soi
ts

negat
ioni
str
ue.Youshoul
dal
sor
emembert
hati
nlogi
canegat
ionhast
heopposi
tet
rut
h

v
alueoft
hest
atementnegat
ed.I
ffori
nst
ance,
thest
atement
:“Sar
trewasbor
nin1905”i
s

t
rue,
ther
efor
eit
snegat
ion“
Sar
trewasnotbor
nin1905”i
sfal
se.Mor
eso,
ify
ousayt
hat

“
Hei
deggerwasnotbor
nin1886”i
str
ue.
3.2Conj
unct
ions

At
rut
htabl
eofconj
unct
ionscanbedi
agr
amedasf
oll
ows:
P9P.
9TTTTFFFTFF

FFFr
om t
heabov
edi
agr
am,
youcanseet
hatt
het
wocol
umnsont
hel
eftl
i
stal
lthe
possi
blet
rut
hval
ueassi
gnment
sforanyt
wost
atement
sfori
nst
ancer
ow1r
epr
esent
sthe

si
tuat
ioni
nwhi
chbot
hst
atement
sar
etr
ue,
whi
l
erow2and3r
epr
esentt
het
wosi
tuat
ions

i
nthest
atement
sdi
ff
eri
ntr
uthv
alue(
Ptr
ue,
9fal
se;
andPf
alse,
9tr
ue)
.Row4

r
epr
esent
sthesi
tuat
ioni
nwhi
chbot
hst
atement
sar
efal
se.St
il
li
ntheabov
edi
agr
am,
the

col
umnundert
hedoti
ndi
cat
est
hatt
heconj
unct
ionasawhol
eist
rueonl
yifbot
h

conj
unct
sar
etr
ue(
asi
nrow1)
,ot
her
wise,
theconj
unct
ionasawhol
eisf
alse.Youcan

nowseet
hataconj
unct
ioni
str
uei
fbot
hit
sconj
unct
sar
etr
ue;
other
wise,
iti
sfal
se.I
f

oneconj
uncti
sfal
set
heent
ir
econj
unct
ionbecomesf
alse.Fori
nst
ance,
ify
ousay
:

“
Sar
treandHei
deggerwer
ebot
hbor
nin1905”t
heconj
unct
ioni
sfal
se.Becauseev
eni
f

Sar
trewasbor
nin1905,
Hei
deggerwasnot
.3.
3Di
sjunct
ion

Di
sjunct
ioncanbedi
agr
amedasf
oll
ows:
P9Pv9TTTTFT

FTT

FFF107

Al
way
sremembert
hatadi
sj
unct
ioni
sfal
sei
fbot
hit
sdi
sjunct
sar
efal
se,
other
wisei
tis

t
rue.Consi
dert
hef
oll
owi
ngexampl
es:
a)Ei
therTonyBl
airorGeor
geBushwasbor
nin

1948(orbot
hwer
e)b)
Eit
herSar
treorHei
deggerwasbor
nin1905(
orbot
h

wer
e)c)
Eit
herBar
ackObamaorHi
l
aryCl
i
ntonwasaDemocr
at(
orbot
hwer
e)St
atement

(
a)i
sfal
sebecausebot
hit
sdi
sjunt
sar
efal
se.St
atement(
b)i
str
uesi
nceSar
trewasbor
n

i
n1905.Andst
atement(
c)i
str
uebecausebot
hObamaandCl
i
ntonwer
edemocr
ats.

Fr
om t
hedi
agr
am y
oucanseet
hatt
hecol
umnsont
hel
eftr
epr
esentt
hef
ourpossi
ble

combi
nat
ionsoft
rut
hval
uesf
oranyt
wost
atement
sandt
hecol
umnundert
hev
ee(
v)

i
ndi
cat
est
hatt
hedi
sjunct
ioni
sfal
seonl
ywhenbot
hdi
sjunct
sar
efal
se.(
e.g.i
nrow4)
;

ot
her
wise,
thedi
sjunct
ionasawhol
eist
rue.

3.
4Mat
eri
alcondi
ti
onal
sThemat
eri
alcondi
ti
onal
isr
epr
esent
edbyt
hear
row(
→).I
tis

sai
dtobef
alsei
fit
sant
ecedenti
str
ueandi
tsconsequenti
sfal
se,
other
wise,
iti
str
ue.
Mat
eri
alcondi
ti
onal
scanbedi
agr
amedasf
oll
ows.

P9P→ 9TTTTFFFTT

FFT

Al
way
sremembert
hatt
hemat
eri
alcondi
ti
onal
isf
alseonl
yint
hesi
tuat
ioni
nwhi
cht
he

ant
ecedenti
str
ueandt
heconsequenti
sfal
se.
3.5Mat
eri
alBi
condi
ti
onal
s

Themat
eri
albi
condi
ti
onal
isr
epr
esent
edbyt
hedoubl
ear
row()
.Iti
ssai
dtot
rue

wheni
tst
woconst
it
uentst
atement
shav
ethesamet
rut
hval
ue;
and,
iti
ssai
dtobef
alsei
f

t
het
wost
atement
sdi
ff
eri
ntr
uthv
alue.Themat
eri
albi
condi
ti
onal
canbedi
agr
amedas

f
oll
ows:
P9P9TTT

TFF

FTF

FFT

108

Youshoul
dknowt
hatt
hemat
eri
albi
condi
ti
onal
isaconj
unct
ionoft
wocondi
ti
onal
s.

4.
0CONCLUSI
ON

Thi
sst
udyuni
tdeal
twi
tht
heanal
ysi
sandi
nter
pret
ati
onoft
rut
htabl
es.Sot
heanal
ysi
sor

i
nter
pret
ati
onoft
het
rut
htabl
eofNegat
ions,
conj
unct
ions,
disj
unct
ions,
mat
eri
al

condi
ti
onal
andbi
condi
ti
onal
isv
eryusef
ult
odet
ermi
net
hev
ali
dit
yori
nval
i
dit
yofa

l
argecl
assofar
gument
s.

UNI
T4:
LOGI
CALPROOFOFVALI
DITYUSI
NGTRUTHTABLES

CONTENTS

1.
0Int
roduct
ion

2.
0Obj
ect
ives

3.
0Mai
nBody

(
i)
ModusPonems
(
ii
)ModusTol
l
ens

(
ii
i)
Hypot
het
ical
Syl
l
ogi
sm

(
iv)
Disj
unct
iveDi
l
emma

(
v)Const
ruct
iveDi
l
emma

(
vi)
Simpl
i
ficat
ion

(
vii
)Conj
unct
ion

(
vii
i
)Addi
ti
on

4.
0Concl
usi
on

5.
0Summar
y

6.
0Tut
or–mar
kedassi
gnment

7.
0Ref
erence/
fur
therr
eadi
ng

1.
0INTRODUCTI
ON

Thi
sst
udyuni
tint
roducesy
out
otheanal
ysi
sofhowl
ogi
ciansuseTr
uthTabl
etopr
ove

t
hev
ali
dit
yori
nval
i
dit
yoft
hei
rcases.
2.0OBJECTI
VES

I
tishopedt
hat
,att
heendoft
hisuni
t,y
oushoul
dbeabl
eto:
Toanal
yzet
het
rut
hTabl
e

of
:

•
ModusPonens(
MP)
;ModusTol
l
ens(
MT)
;Hy
pot
het
ical
Syl
l
ogi
sm (
HS)
;Di
sjunct
ive

Sy
ll
ogi
sm (
DS)
,Const
ruct
iveDi
l
emma(
CD)
;Absor
pti
on,
Simpl
i
ficat
ionandAddi
ti
on.

3.
0MAI
NBODYi
)ModusPonens(
M.P)

P9

9Thet
rut
hTabl
eoft
heModusPonenscanbedi
agr
amedasf
oll
ows:
P9P9

TTTTFFFTT

110

FFTI
ntheabov
edi
agr
am y
oucanseet
hatt
hef
ir
str
owi
stheonl
ysubst
it
uti
oni
nst
ance
wher
ethet
wopr
emi
sesP9pl
usPar
etr
ueandi
nthatsubst
it
uti
oni
nst
ance,
the

concl
usi
on,
9,i
str
ue,
indi
cat
ingt
hatt
hear
gumentf
ormi
sval
i
d.i
i
)ModusTol
l
ens

(
M.T.
)

P9

-9

-PThet
rut
hTabl
eoft
heModusTol
l
enscanbedi
agr
amedasf
oll
ows:

P9-
P-9P9

TTFFT

TFFTF

FTTFT

FFTTT

Fr
om t
heabov
edi
agr
am,
youcanseet
hatf
our
thr
owi
stheonl
ysubst
it
uti
oni
nst
ance

wher
ethet
wopr
emi
sesP9pl
us–9ar
etr
ueandi
nthatsubst
it
uti
oni
nst
ance,
the

concl
usi
on–Pi
str
ue,
indi
cat
ingt
hatt
hear
gumentf
ormv
ali
d.i
i
i)Hy
pot
het
ical

Sy
ll
ogi
sm (
H.S)

P9

9r

Pr

Thet
rut
hTabl
eofhy
pot
het
ical
syl
l
ogi
sm canbedi
agr
amedasf
oll
ows:

P9rP99rP

TTTTTT

TFFFTF

FTFTFT

FFTTTT
FTTTTT

TFTFTT

TTFTFF

FFFTTTFr
om t
heabov
edi
agr
am y
oucanseet
hatt
he

subst
it
uti
oni
nst
anceswher
ethepr
emi
sesP9pl
us9r
,thef
ir
st,
four
th,
fif
thand

ei
ght
hrowsar
etr
ue.And,
111

i
nal
lthosesubst
it
uti
oni
nst
ances,
theconcl
usi
onPri
sal
sot
rue.Thi
ssi
mpl
yindi
cat
es

t
hatt
hear
gumentf
orm Hy
pot
het
ical
Syl
l
ogi
sm (
H.S)i
sav
ali
dar
gumentf
orm.

i
v)Di
sjunct
iveSy
ll
ogi
sm (
D.S)

Pv9

-p

9TheDi
sjunct
iveSy
ll
ogi
sm canbedi
agr
amedasf
oll
ows:
P9-PPv9

TTFT

TFFT

FTTT

FFTFFr
om t
heabov
edi
agr
am,
youcanseet
hatt
het
hir
drowi
stheonl
y

subst
it
uti
oni
nst
ancewher
ethet
wopr
emi
sesPv9pl
us–Par
etr
ue.And,
youcanal
so

not
icet
hati
nthatsubst
it
uti
oni
nst
ance,
theconcl
usi
on,
qist
rueaswel
l
.Thi
ssi
mpl
y

i
ndi
cat
est
hatt
hear
gumentf
orm Di
sjunct
iveSy
ll
ogi
sm i
sav
ali
dar
gumentf
orm.

v
)Const
ruct
iveDi
l
emma(
C.D)

(
P9)
.(rS)

Pvr

qvs

P9rspqrspvrqvs(pq)
.(rs)TTTTTTTTTTTFFTTTTTTFTFFFTFFTFFTFTTTF
TTFTTTTTTTTTFTFTTFTFTFFTTFFFTFTTTTTTFFTTTTTTTFTTTTTFTTFTFF
TFTTFFFFFTTF
TTFTTFTFTFFFFFTTTFTT112FFFFTTFFTFr om t
heabovediagr
am, y
oucanseet
hat
t
hefi
rst
,second,
sixt
handt
ent
hrowsar
ethesubst
it
uti
oninst
anceswherethepremi
ses(
Pq).

(
RS)pl
uspvrar
ebot
htr
ue.Youcanal
soseet
hati
nal
lthosei
nst
ances,
the

concl
usi
onqvsi
str
ueaswel
l
.Thus,
indi
cat
ingt
hatt
heconst
ruct
ivedi
l
emmai
sav
ali
d

ar
gumentf
orm.v
i).Absor
pti
on(
Abs)

PqP( p.q)PqPqP. qP(p.

q)TTTTTTFFFFFTTFTFFTFTAgai nfrom t
heabov ediagr
am,youcan
seethatthefir
st,t
hir
dandf ourt
hr owsarethesubst
itut
ioninst
anceswher ethepremi
sePqi s
tr
ue.And,youcanal sodiscoverthatinal
lthosei
nstances,theconclusi
onPq( p.
q)i
strueas
wellthus indi
cati
ng thatthe ar gumentform absorpti
on isav ali
d argumentform.vii
)
Simpli
fi
cati
on(Simp.)
P.qPPqp. q

TTTTFFFFFFr
om t
heabov
edi
agr
am y
oucanseet
hatt
hef
ir
str
owi
stheonl
ysubst
it
uti
on

i
nst
ancewher
ethepr
emi
sep.
qist
rue.And,
youcanal
soseet
hati
nthatsubst
it
uti
on

i
nst
ance,
theconcl
usi
onPi
str
ueaswel
l
.Thusi
ndi
cat
ingt
hatt
hear
gumentf
orm

si
mpl
i
ficat
ioni
sav
ali
dfor
m.v
ii
i)
Conj
unct
ion(
conj
.
)

QP.
q113

Pqp.
q

TTT

TFF

FTF

FFF

Fr
om t
heabov
edi
agr
am,
youcanseet
hatt
hef
ir
str
owi
stheonl
ysubst
it
uti
oni
nst
ance

wher
ethepr
emi
sesPl
usqar
ebot
htr
ue.And,
youcanseet
hati
nthatsubst
it
uti
on

i
nst
ance,
theconcl
usi
onP.
qist
rueaswel
l
.Thusi
ndi
cat
ingt
hatt
hear
gumentf
orm

conj
unct
ioni
sav
ali
dar
gumentf
orm.i
x)Addi
ti
on(
Add)

Pvq
Pqpv
q

TTT

TFT

FTT

FFFFr
om t
heabov
edi
agr
am,
youcanseet
hatt
hef
ir
standsecondr
owsar
etheonl
y

subst
it
uti
oni
nst
ances,
wher
ethepr
emi
sePi
str
ue.And,
youcanal
soseet
hati
nthose

subst
it
uti
oni
nst
ances,
theconcl
usi
onPvqi
str
ueaswel
l
.Thusi
ndi
cat
ingt
hatt
he

st
atementf
orm addi
ti
oni
sav
ali
dar
gumentf
orm.
Youshoul
dal
way
skeepi
nmi
ndt
hat

what
every
ouwantt
ouset
rut
htabl
etopr
ovet
hev
ali
dit
yofanar
gumentf
orm,
you

shoul
dal
way
sinspectal
lthei
nst
anceswher
ethepr
emi
seorpr
emi
sesar
etr
ue.Dur
ing

y
ouri
nspect
ion,
ify
ouf
indoutt
hatt
heconcl
usi
oni
sal
sot
ruewher
evert
hepr
emi
sesar
e

t
rue,
thent
hatar
gumentorar
gumentf
ormi
sval
i
d.Howev
er,
ift
her
eisanysubst
it
uti
on

i
nst
anceatal
l
,wher
ethepr
emi
sesar
etr
uebutt
heconcl
usi
oni
sfal
se,
thent
hatar
gument

f
ormi
sinv
ali
d.Youmustal
way
sinspectt
heent
ir
esubst
it
uti
oni
nst
ancebef
oredecl
ari
ng

anyar
gumentv
ali
dori
nval
i
d.

4.
0CONCLUSI
ON

Thi
sst
udyuni
tdeal
twi
tht
hel
ogi
cal
proofofv
ali
dit
yusi
ngt
rut
htabl
es.I
tappear
sthat

t
rut
htabl
esanal
ysi
sist
hemostappr
opr
iat
ewayofpr
ovi
nganar
gumentv
ali
dori
nval
i
d.

114

5.
0SUMMARY

Thi
sst
udyuni
tint
roducedy
out
otheanal
ysi
sofhowl
ogi
ciansuset
rut
htabl
est
opr
ove

t
hev
ali
dit
yori
nval
i
dit
yofanar
gument
.Bynow,
youshoul
dbeabl
etoanal
yzet
het
rut
h

t
abl
eof
:

•
ModusPonens(
MP)
•ModusTol
l
ens(
MT)

•
Hypot
het
ical
Syl
l
ogi
sm (
HS)
•Di
sjunct
iveDi
l
emma(
CD)
•Absor
pti
on
•
Simpl
i
ficat
ionand

•
Addi
ti
on

6.
0TUTOR-MARKEDASSI
GNMENTUsey
ourownwor
dst
oexpl
ainsomet
rut
h

t
abl
esy
ouknow.7.
0REFERENCES/
FURTHERREADI
NGLay
man, ephen.The
C.St

PowerofLogi
c.NewYor
k:McGr
aw-
Hil
l
,2002.
Neney
e,E.P.I
ntr
oduct
iont
oLogi
cand

Phi
l
osophy
.Ower
ri
:Pr
osper
it
yPubl
i
sher
s,2003.

115

UNI
T5:
-RULESOFI
NFERENCEANDARGUMENTFORMS

CONTENTS1.
0Int
roduct
ion

2.
0Obj
ect
ives

3.
0Mai
nBody

3.
1Rul
esofi
nfer
ence

3.
2Ar
gumentf
orms

4.
0Concl
usi
on

5.
0Summar
y

6.
0Tut
or–mar
kedassi
gnment
7.0Ref
erence/f
urt
herr
eadi
ng

1.
0INTRODUCTI
ON

Thi
sst
udyuni
tint
roducesy
out
owhatl
ogi
ciansmeanbyr
ulesofi
nfer
enceandar
gument

f
orms.

1.
0OBJECTI
VES

I
tishopedt
hatatt
heendoft
hisuni
tyoushoul
dbeabl
eto:
•Knowandexpl
aint
he

di
ff
erencer
ulesofi
nfer
ence;
•Def
ineanddi
scusst
hedi
ff
erentar
gumentf
orms2.
0MAI
N

BODY

2.
1Rul
esofi
nfer
enceMostl
ogi
cianscl
assi
fyr
ulesofi
nfer
encei
nni
necat
egor
iesas

f
oll
ows;
1.ModusPonens(
MP)
PqPTher
efor
e,q2.
ModusTol
l
ens(
MT)
Pq-
qther
efor
e-p3.
Hypot
het
ical
Syl
l
ogi
sm

(
H.S)
Pqqr
Ther
efor
epr

4.
Disj
unct
iveSy
ll
ogi
sm (
D.S)
Pvq

-p

t
her
efor
eq

116

5.
Const
ruct
iveDi
l
emma(
C.D)

(
pq).(
rs)

t
her
efor
epv
r

6.
Absor
pti
on(
Abs)
pqt
her
efor
eP(
p.q)

7.
Simpl
i
ficat
ion(
Simp)
P.q

Ther
efor
eP

8.
Conj
unct
ion

pqt
her
efor
ep.q

9.
Addi
ti
on(
Add.
)

pt
her
efor
ePvq

Sel
f–AssessmentExer
cise3.
1

Foreachoft
hef
oll
owi
ngpr
oof
s,i
ndi
cat
efr
om whi
chst
epseachi
nfer
encei
s(1)
drawnandby

whi
chr
ulet
hei
nfer
encei
smade1.
i)FGi
i
)GHt
her
efor
eFH

2.
i)Hv~Ci
i
)H~Bi
i
i)~CB

i
v)(
~BvD)
(K.J)t
her
efor
eJ

v
.)~BvDv
i)K.
J

v
ii
)J3.
i)~(
P.Q)vRi
i
)~Ri
i
i)E(
P.Q)
iv)(
~E.–R)(
A.B)
ther
efor
eBv(F.

G)

5.
~(P.
Q)
6.
~E7.
~E.–R

8A.B9.
B10.
Bv(
f.G)

3.
2Ar
gumentf
orms

(
1)

Theseexer
cisear
efr
om Lay ThePowerofLogi
man, c(2002)P.301117

Hav
ingdef
inedanddi
scussedwhatst
atementandst
atementf
ormsar
eal
labout
,you

shoul
dal
way
sremembert
hatanar
gumentf
ormi
stoar
gument
swhatst
atementf
ormi
sto

st
atement
s.Logi
ciansdef
ineanar
gumentf
orm as‘
anysequenceofsy
mbol
scont
aini
ng

st
atementv
ari
abl
esbutnost
atement
s;sucht
hatwhenst
atement
sar
esubst
it
utedf
ort
he

samest
atementv
ari
abl
ethr
oughoutt
her
esul
tisanar
gument
.Ther
eisatl
eastone

f
undament
aldi
ff
erencebet
weenst
atementf
orm andar
gumentf
orm.I
nthest
atement

f
orm andi
tssubst
it
uti
oni
nst
anceswhi
l
eint
hatofar
gumentf
ormr
efer
encei
smadet
o

ar
gumentf
orm andi
tssubst
it
uti
oni
nst
ances.

i
)ModusPonens

Thi
sist
hesi
mpl
estt
ypeofv
ali
dar
gumentf
ormt
hati
sconst
ruct
edwi
thhy
pot
het
ical

condi
ti
onal
stat
ement
s.Thear
gumentf
orm ofModusPonenscanber
eadasf
oll
ows:

I
fthi
shappens,
thent
hatwi
l
lfol
l
ow

Thi
shappens

Ther
efor
e,t
hatf
oll
ows.

I
nasy
mbol
i
cfor
mthear
gumentf
orm ofModusPonensbecomet
hus:
Pq

PTher
efor
eqOfcour
sePher
erepr
esent
stheant
ecedentwhi
l
eqr
epr
esent
stheModus

Ponensar
gumentf
orm cor
respondst
othef
ir
str
uleofi
nfer
enceear
li
erst
ated.Youshoul
d

al
sokeepi
nmi
ndt
hatModusPonensi
sanyar
gumentt
hataf
fi
rmst
heant
ecedentoft
he

f
ir
stpr
emi
sei
nthesecondpr
emi
seandal
soaf
fi
rmst
heconsequentoft
hef
ir
stpr
omi
sei
n

i
tsconcl
usi
on.Fori
nst
ance,
whenwesay
:I
fal
lmenar
emor
tal
,thenBol
aismor
tal
Al
lmenar
emor
tal

Ther
efor
eBol
aismor
tal

Thef
orm oft
hisar
gumenti
sasf
oll
ows:

PqPTher
efor
eqHowev
ery
oushoul
dbeari
nmi
ndt
hatanyar
gumentf
ormt
hatdeni
est
he

ant
ecedenti
sinv
ali
dandt
her
efor
ecommi
tst
hef
all
acyofDeny
ingt
he

Ant
ecedent
.i
i)
ModusTol
l
ens

Pq

-
q-PFr
om t
heabov
eyoucanseet
hatt
hechar
act
eri
sti
csofModusTol
l
ensar
gumentf
orm

i
sthati
tal
way
sdeni
est
heconsequent
.Soy
oushoul
dal
way
sremembert
hatany

ar
gumentt
hatdeni
est
heconsequentoft
hef
ir
stpr
emi
se,
int
hesecond118

pr
emi
se,
ini
tsconcl
usi
on,
isoft
heModusTol
l
ensf
orm.Fori
nst
ance,
whenwesay
:

I
fal
lmenmor
tal
,thenBol
aismor
tal

Bol
aisnotmor
tal

Ther
efor
eAl
lMenar
enotmor
tal

Thef
orm oft
hisar
gumenti
sasf
oll
ows:

Pq

-
qther
efor
e–pi
i
i)Hy
pot
het
ical
Syl
l
ogi
smPqqr
ther
efor
ePr

WhatmakesHy
pot
het
ical
Syl
l
ogi
sm uni
quei
sthatt
hef
ir
stpr
emi
seandconcl
usi
onhav
e

t
hesameant
ecedent
,thesecondpr
emi
seandconcl
usi
onhav
ethesameconsequentand

t
heconsequentoft
hef
ir
stpr
emi
sei
sthesameast
heant
ecedentoft
hesecondpr
emi
se.

Soanyhy
pot
het
ical
syl
l
ogi
sm t
hatf
oll
owst
heabov
echar
act
eri
sav
ali
done.For

i
nst
ancewhenwesay
:I
fBol
aisaf
athert
henhehaschi
l
dren

I
fhehaschi
l
drent
henhehasawi
fe

Ther
efor
e,i
fBol
aisaf
athert
henhehasawi
feThef
orm oft
hisar
gumenti
sasf
oll
ows:

Pqt
her
efor
eqr
i
v)Di
sjunct
iveSy
ll
ogi
sm

Pvq

-p

t
her
efor
eq

Ast
henamesay
s,di
sjunct
ivesy
ll
ogi
sm i
sthatf
orm ofar
gumentt
hathasadi
sjunct
ionas

f
ir
stpr
emi
se.I
tisuni
quei
nthesenset
hatal
thought
hesecondpr
emi
seal
way
sdeni
esor

cont
radi
ctsoneoft
het
wodi
sjunct
soft
hef
ir
stpr
emi
se,
itgoesont
oval
i
dlyi
nfer
,int
he

concl
usi
on,
thatt
heot
herdi
sjuncti
str
ue.Taket
hef
oll
owi
ngexampl
e:

Ei
therTopewi
l
lcookorTopewi
l
leati
nther
est
aur
ant
.Topewi
l
lnotcook.

Ther
efor
eTopewi
l
leati
nther
est
aur
ant
.Thef
orm oft
hisar
gumenti
sasf
oll
ows:
Pvq

119

-
pther
efor
eq

Al
way
sremembert
hati
naDi
sjunct
iveSy
ll
ogi
sm anyoft
het
wodi
sjunct
scanbe

negat
ed.And,
ift
hef
ir
stdi
sj
unctf
ori
nst
ancei
snegat
edt
hesecondbecomeaut
omat
ical
l
y

t
rueandv
icev
ersa.Thi
sist
hepr
inci
pleofanyDi
sjunct
iveSy
ll
ogi
sm.

4.
0CONCLUSI
ON

Thi
sst
udyuni
tdeal
twi
tht
her
ulesofi
nfer
enceandAr
gumentf
orms.I
tiscl
eart
oyou

nowt
hatl
ogi
ciansacknowl
edgeatl
eastni
ne(
09)st
andar
drul
esofi
nfer
enceandf
our

(
04)ar
gumentf
orms.

5.
0SUMMARY

Thi
sst
udyuni
tint
roducedy
out
othemostst
andar
drul
esi
ninf
erenceandar
gument

f
ormsl
ogi
ciansuse.Bynowy
ouar
eexpect
edt
o:Nameanddi
scusst
hedi
ff
erentl
ogi
cal

r
ulesofi
nfer
enceusedbyl
ogi
cians.
Nameanddi
scusst
hedi
ff
erentar
gumentf
orms

l
ogi
ci
ansmost
lyuse

UNI
T6:
LAWSOFTHOUGHTCONTENTS
1.
0Int
roduct
ion

2.
0Obj
ect
ives3.
0Mai
nBody

3.
1LawofI
dent
it
y

3.
2Lawofnon–cont
radi
cti
on

3.
3Lawofexcl
udedmi
ddl
e

4.
0Concl
usi
on

5.
0Summar
y

6.
0Tut
or-
mar
kedassi
gnment

7.
0Ref
erence/
fur
therr
eadi
ng

1.
0INTRODUCTI
ON

Thi
sst
udyuni
tint
roducesy
out
othel
awsoft
houghtasl
aiddownbyAr
ist
otl
e.

Accor
dingt
otheGr
eekphi
l
osopher(
Ari
stot
le)
,thesepr
inci
plesorl
awscanbecl
assi
fi
ed

asf
oll
ows:
lawofi
dent
it
y,l
awofNon-
cont
radi
cti
onandl
awofexcl
udedmi
ddl
e.

2.
0OBJECTI
VES

I
tishopedt
hatatt
heendoft
hisst
udyuni
t,y
oushoul
dbeabl
eto:
•Def
ineanddi
scusst
he

l
awofi
dent
it
y

•
Def
ineanddi
scusst
hel
awnon-
cont
radi
cti
on•
Def
ineanddi
scusst
hel
awoft
he

excl
udedmi
ddl
e•Seei
fther
ear
eanysi
mil
ari
ti
esordi
ssi
mil
ari
ti
esamongt
hem 3.
0MAI
N

BODY

Asst
atedear
li
er,
Ari
stot
lel
aiddownt
heset
hreepr
inci
plesorl
awsoft
houghtwhi
char
e

ourmai
nconcer
nint
hisuni
t.Thesel
awsar
e:1)l
awofi
dent
it
y2)l
awofNoncont
radi
cti
on

andc)l
awofexcl
udedmi
ddl
e.3.
1Thel
awofi
dent
it
y

Thel
awofi
dent
it
yisal
way
sst
atedasf
oll
ows:
“Ai
sA”
.Her
e“A”st
andsf
orany
thi
ng

what
ever
.Theor
igi
nal
i
tyoft
hisl
awi
sthati
tsi
mpl
yst
atest
hatany
thi
ngi
swhati
tis.For

exampl
e“Ai
sA”
;“Bi
sB”and“
CisC”
,ev
ery
thi
ngy
ousaypr
esupposest
hatt
hing.For
i
nst
ance,
ify
ouspeakofacary
ouar
epr
esupposi
ngt
hat‘
acari
sacar
’.Youshoul
dal
so

keepi
nmi
ndt
hatt
hel
awofi
dent
it
y“Ai
sA”doesnotgi
vey
ouspeci
fi
cinf
ormat
ion

concer
ningt
hequal
i
tiesofA:
itonl
ytel
l
syout
hat“
AisA”t
hati
s,what
ever“
A”

happenst
obe,
thet
hingi
sit
sel
fandnot
hingel
se.I
tdoesnotmat
terwhatt
he“
A”i
smade

t
orepr
esent
.Thel
awofi
dent
it
yisal
way
str
ue.Logi
cianscal
li
tat
aut
ologi
cal
stat
ement

becauset
he121

st
atement“
AisA”i
sanecessar
ytr
uth.Mor
eov
er,
thest
atement“
acari
sacar
”cannev
er

bef
alse.

3.
2Thel
awofNon-
cont
radi
cti
on

Thel awofnon- contradi

cti
onst atesthatnot
hingcanbebot hAandnotA.Accor dingtothel
aw,
i
ft hi
si sAt heni tcannotatt hesamet imebe–A.Fori nstance,ifthi
sisachalk,i
tcannotbe
any t
hingelset hanachal k.I
fthisi sahouse,i
tcannotbeany thingel
sethanahouse.Itmustbe
oneort heot her.Itcannotbebot h.Itmusteit
herbeAornotA. ..I
fit
happenst
obeAandnot- A,
theni tbecomessel f–cont
radictory.Theonl
ywayt oavoidsel
f –cont
radi
cti
oni
stoobeyt helaw
ofnon–cont radiction.

3.
1Thel
awofExcl
udedMi
ddl
e

Thel awofexcl udedmi ddl

eist het hirdlawoft houghtandi tstatesthatev erythingi sei t
herAor
notA.Asi tindicates, thelawofexcl udedmi ddleexcludest hemi ddlegr oundbet weenAandnot
A.Accor dingt ot hel aw, everythingmustchooset obeei therAornotA.I tcannotchooset obe
neither.Fori nstance,t hisiseitheracarornotacar .Itcannotbenei theracarnornotacar .It
mustbeei t
herahouseornotahouse.I tmustbeoneort heot her.Accor dingt ot hel aw of
excludedmi ddle, youcannotr efuset obet hisandal sor efuset obet heot her.Theov erallaim of
thesel awsoft houghti stosetpat ternsf orany onewhowant st ot hinkandspeakcor rectl
y.
Theirmai ndut yi st oensur econsi stentandnon–sel fcont r
adictor ythinki ngspeaki ngand
writi
ng.Fori nst ance,t helawofi dent itytell
sy out hatat hingi swhati ti sandnot hingel se.The
l
awofnon- cont radictiontell
sy out hatat hingmustbeonet hingoranot hert hing.I tcannotbe
thatv eryt hi
ngandbeanot hert hingatt hesamet ime.Thel awofexcl udedmi ddlet ell
sy out hat
at hingmustbeonet hingornott hatv erything.Itcannotbenei t
hert hatv eryt hingnornott hat
veryt hi
ng.I tcannotbenei t
hert hatv erythingornott hatv erything.Itmustbeoneort heot her.
Thesel awsoft houghtar ev eryi mpor tantbecauset heyar epr esupposedi nal lourspeech
whenev erwespeakaboutany thing.Thi sst udyuni tdealtwi thdi f
ferentl awsoft hought .Ther e
aregener all
yt hreest andar dlawsoft houghtl aiddownbyt heGr eekphi losopherAr i
stotle(384–
322BC)Thesel awar e:

1)Thel
awofi
dent
it
y
2)Thel
awofnon–cont
radi
cti
on

3)t
hel
awofexcl
udedmi
ddl
e.