J.H.

CERILLES STATE COLLEGE

School of Criminal Justice Education
Mati, San Miguel, Zamboanga del Sur

HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND VICTIMOLOGY

CHAPTER 4
CLASSIFYING PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS
Anxiety Disorders

Overview

Experiencing occasional anxiety is a normal part of human life. However, if you

experience Anxiety continually, seemingly uncontrollable, and overwhelming,
irrational dread of everyday situations, it can be disabling When Anxiety interferes with
daily activities, you may have an anxiety disorder

Anxiety is a feeling of dread, apprehension, or fear. It is accompanied by physiological

arousal, manifested as increased heart rate, perspiration, muscle tension, and rapid
breathing
Anxiety Is a feeling of emotional discomfort. It is a state of tension characterized by
fear and uneasiness and is often accompanied by increased physiological arousal.

Anxiety Disorders

It refers to a group of mental disorders (panic attacks, phobias, obsessions, and

compulsions) characterized by emotional distress caused by feelings of vulnerability,
apprehension, or fear

What causes Anxiety Disorder?

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 When the id, ego, and superego are not in a harmonious relationship or are out of
balance, Anxiety develops.

> A person develops Anxiety when he experiences stressful events, health problems,
substance abuse,and personality problems. Anxiety disorders develop from a complex
set of risk factors like personality, brain chemistry, and life events.

Common Anxiety Disorders (Anxiety Neurosis Types)

1. Generalized Anxiety Disorder people with this disorder constantly worry but
unable to say why (a condition Freud called free-floating Anxiety). Jumpiness and
irritability are symptoms, too, as are nightmares.

2. Panic Attacks or Panic disorder with or without Agoraphobia

A panic disorder is characterized by a chronic state of tension that can erupt in sudden
episodes of intense panic or dread that last several minutes (or hours) and may include
a variety of symptoms such as chest pains, trembling, and dizziness.

Panic attacks are characterized by intense feeling of terror which generally strikes
suddenly and is incapacitating to the patient. These episodes may last for variable
periods and attain a peak by 10 minutes generally Rarely, they may last up to one hour.
In between the attacks the patient is constantly worried about getting another panic
attack and hence avoids situations that may provoke a panic attack. Common symptoms
of a panic attack are follows:

Panic attack symptoms:

Chest Pains
Pounding Heart Fear of dying
Sweating
Shortness of breath or a feeling of smothering or choking Shaking or trembling
Feelings of unreality Terror
Tingling or numbing
A feeling of being out of control or going crazy
Light-headedness or dizziness
Nausea or stomach problems

3. Acute stress disorder

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 This is a condition that is precipitated by exposure to a stressful or traumatic event
recently and the response is of intense fear, helplessness or horror. After such an event
the patient experiences a sense of emotional numbness, has reduced awareness about
the surroundings (as if in a daze) and is often unable to recall an important aspect of the
trauma. The patient persistently re- experiences the traumatic event and tries to avoid
anything that reminds him of the trauma. There are also marked symptoms of anxiety
or increased arousal (e.g. irritability, poor concentration, difficulty in sleeping,
hypervigilance, exaggerated startle response, restlessness, etc). This causes much
difficulty in functioning normally at home and at work. The patient gets these
symptoms generally within few days to about 4 weeks after the stressful event. This
phase may last anywhere up to 4 weeks.

4. Post-traumatic stress disorder

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is an anxiety disorder that develops after

exposure to a traumatic or frightening event. Symptoms of this disorder generally
develop about 3 months or later after the stressful or traumatic event. These symptoms
usually last for more than a month. Some patients recover within 6 months whereas
some of them may develop a chronic course lasting for years.

The trauma can be in the form of natural disasters, war, violence, accidents, etc. Few
months after the traumatic event, the patient typically experiences strong feelings of
fear, horror and helplessness. The patient repeatedly relives the traumatic event in the
form of flashbacks and nightmares, Often there is a feeling as though they are re-
experiencing the trauma all over again. Flashbacks are generally triggered by certain
situations which bring back memories of the traumatic event. In some patients
flashbacks can even occur spontaneously or without any recognizable trigger. The
patient begins to avoid situations or experiences that remind them of the original trauma
and this can lead to fairly severe restriction in their activity. Sleep disturbances,
depression, feeling detached or numb (derealization), easy startling are commonly
experienced. Often there are feelings of loss of pleasure or interest in previously
enjoyable activities (anhedonia). Women appear to be at greater risk than men for
developing PTSD after traumatic experiences.

A post-traumatic stress disorder is characterized by the re experiencing of a traumatic

event, symptoms of increased arousal, avoidance of reminders of the original trauma,
and diminished interest in daily activities. Many war veterans retain vivid memories of
(flashbacks) and nightmares about traumatic events experienced during battle. While
the causes of anxiety disorders are not completely understood, it is generally believed
that some of the disorders (such as specific phobias, obsessive- compulsive disorders,

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 and panic disorders) may have a genetic basis. One cause may be the inadequate action
of the neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA). Certain drugs, such as
Valium and Librium, which increase the sensitivity of the GABA receptors, help reduce
anxiety.
5. Phobic Disorders/Social Phobia- it is the fear of, and consequent attempt avoid the
specific objects or situations. A person who exhibits a phobia fears a specific situation
and tends to prevent it even though he or she realizes that it represents no real danger.

6. Obsessive compulsive disorder

Obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) is characterized by the presence of obsessions

and compulsions. Obsessions and compulsions are unreasonable and inexcess and they
cause marked distress to the patient.

Although Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder usually begins in adolescence or early

adulthood, it may begin in childhood. Generally the onset is gradual, but occasionally
acute onset has been noted in some cases. The majority of individuals have a chronic
waxing and waning course, with exacerbation of symptoms that may be related stress.
Most Common Types of Phobias are:
Acrophobia fear of high places
Myshopohobia fear of contamination
Algophobia fear of pain -
Necrophobia - Fear of corpse or cadaver
Claustrophobia - fear of enclosed places
Nyctophobia - fear of darkness
Ergasiophobia - fear of work
Ochlophobia fear of crowds
Gamophobia - fear of marriage
Pharmacophobia fear of medicines
Haphephobia - fear of being touch
Photophobia - fear of intense light
Hematophobia- fear of blood
Xenophobia fear of strangers
Hydrophobia fear of water
Thanatophobia - fear of death
Monophobia fear of being alone

NOTA BENE: IN CHILDREN SUFFERING FROM GAD, THERE IS A TENDENCY

TO WORRY EXCESSIVELY ABOUT THEIR COMPETENCE WITH THEIR

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FRIENDS OR THE QUALITY OF THEIR PERFORMANCE AND HYSTERICAL
NUEROSIS ARISES.
HYSTERICAL REACTION
In modem psychopathology is explained as serving defensive function by which the
individual escapes or avoids stressful situations. As a neurotic disorder, the symptoms of
hysteria can take the form of widest variety. Although at one point of time the diagnosis of
hysteria was not that frequent perhaps because medical knowledge had not advanced so
much, the same has considerably changed nowadays.
TWO TYPES OF HYSTERIA
1. Conversion- conversion hysteria the afflicted person can present physical symptom
of psychological origin. In the absence of organic cause, the symptoms and features
are intriguing and enigmatic.

2. Dissociate Hysteria - is also a manifestation of underlying conflict. This is an escape

behavior in which the individual gratifies his urges but denies the personal
responsibility of his unacceptable behavior. There is a difference between hysterical
amnesia and amnesia caused by brain pathology.

Features of the Hysteria:

1. There can be hysterical convulsion (fit).
2. Sensory disturbances-loss of sensitivity
3. Hypoesthesis (partial loss of sensitivity).
4. Hyperesthesis (excessive loss of sensitivity).
5. Analgesia (loss of sensitivity to pain)
6. Paresthenia (exceptional sensation, such as tingling)

Common Hysterical Disturbances

Aphonia - the person is able to speak only in whispers.
Mutism- another type of speech disorder though rare. For psychoneurotic disorders the
different treatment method suggested are chemotherapy, shock therapy; psychoanalytic
and behavior therapy.

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Somnambulism is also another type of disorder where the individual walks in sleep but
when he gets up the following morning does not remember the event.
Fague called it "split personality". The two personality works independently in the same
individual, one having no knowledge of the other.
Multiple personality has similar features of dissociative hysteria. There may be one or
more two personalities in an individual but their functions differ from one another, and no
awareness of existence of the other.
Drug withdrawal is a common cause of anxiety symptoms. A large number of drugs can
cause withdrawal states with symptoms of anxiety or even agitation. All sedative
hypnotics, tricyclic anti-depressants and anti-cholinergics can cause withdrawal symptoms.
In Freud's view, the human is driven towards tension reduction, in order to reduce feelings
of anxiety.
Anxiety: an aversive inner state that people seek to avoid or escape.
Humans seek to reduce anxiety through defense mechanisms

Defense Mechanisms can be psychologically healthy or maladaptive, but tension

reduction is the overall goal in both cases.

A comprehensive list of Defense Mechanisms was developed by Anna Freud, Sigmund's

daughter. Anna remained with her Father throughout his life, never marrying. In Freudian
terms, she remained trapped in her Oedipus complex, never giving up her longing to
possess her father sexually. However, because of a strong ego and super ego, this ID based
desires were sublimated into psychological creativity which advanced Freudian theory, her
father's greatest love.
Freud specified three major types of anxiety:
1. Reality Anxiety: the most basic form, rooted in reality. Fear of a dog bite, fear arising
from an impending accident. (Ego Based Anxiety)
Most Common Tension Reduction Method:
Removing oneself from the harmful situation.
2. Neurotic Anxiety: Anxiety which arises from an unconscious fear that the libidinal
impulses of the ID will take control at an in opportune time. This type of anxiety is driven

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by a fear of punishment that will result from expressing the ID's desires without proper
sublimation.
3. Moral Anxiety. Anxiety which results from fear of violating moral or societal codes,
moral anxiety appears as guilt or shame.In this conception of Anxiety, we can see why
Freud concentrated on strengthening the Ego through psychoanalysis.
TWO COMMON PROPERTIES OF DEFENSE MECHANISM
1. They can operate unconsciously
2. They can distort, transform, or falsify reality is some way.

Classification of Defense Mechanism

1. Aggressive Reaction- these take the form of destructive or hostile attacks, done
physically or verbally, and directly on the obstacle blocking him

Forms of Aggressive Reaction to Frustration:

➤ Displaced Aggressive- A defense mechanism in which a person transfers and
diverts his aggressive behavior against himself or some other persons or object, causing
frustration such as the following
> Scapegoat- is a form of behavior resorted to by a person who blames another person
or objects directly for his fault or failure.
> Free-floating- in this type of anger, hostility becomes generalized so that hostility is
directed at most anything or anybody. A person with a prolonged passion that he cannot
express towards the person concerned may go around in a terrible temper so that he gets
provoked into quarrels and fights easily. Young people with a great deal of resentment
towards their status in life commit vandalism, destroy public property without apparent
reasons.
> Suicide- is a self-directed displacement of aggression.

2. Identification- the individual enhances his feeling of importance by iritating or

acquiring the characteristics of a person he admires.

3. Introjections- refer to a threat-reducing type of identification whereby the frustrated

individual incorporates into his personality the achievements or qualities of those who
threaten him.

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 4. Projection- a defense mechanism by which an individual projects or assigns his own
undesirable characteristics, problems, impulses, desires, or thoughts to others to reduce
his anxiety. The child who cheats claims that others also cheat

5. Withdrawal Reactions -these involve retreating or running away from threatening

situations. This is not a wholesome Reaction to frustration, but persistent failure to
resolve conflict may give rise to withdrawal techniques.

Note:
Fantasy or Daydreaming- is a satisfying imaginative fulfillment of desires. It provides
relief from frustrations.
> Conquering Hero Type the individual sees himself as confident, poise, successful.
> Suffering Hero Type or Martyr Type- is frequently resorted to by the individual who
pities himself.

6. Repression- is a defense mechanism by which threatening or painful thoughts and

desires are excluded from consciousness A person who has certain feelings of guilt
about something he has done may repress his memory.

7. Regression- a person returns to an earlier stage of development in response to some

perceived threat For instance, an adult who is unable to solve problems that confront
him may resort to childish tactics. He may cry what he wants.

8. Nomadic- is another kind of withdrawal mechanism in which a person continually

wanders from place or situation in his attempt to get away from frustration

9. Reaction Formation- it is a process of denial where the individual's own undesirable

impulses are countered by opposite characteristics, which is often highly exaggerated,
extreme, and intolerant. For example, an employee may continually praise his boss,
whom he feels hostile.

10. Compromise Reactions- these involve the lowering of one's level of aspiration to
accept a substitute goal for one desired. In this Reaction to frustration, the person
partially gives into the frustrating barrier but does not completely give his original
devices for goals.

11. Sublimation- forbidden impulses are redirected toward the pursuit of socially
desirable goals. An individual replaces a socially unacceptable motive with one that is
socially acceptable. Hostilities can be sublimated by participation in competitive sports

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 involving physical contacts like football, boxing, and wrestling. Sexual impulses may
be sublimated to artistic activities such as music, art, writing poems, dancing, etc.

12. Compensation- an effective defense mechanism whereby a person attempts to

overcome what he feels is a personal limitation by emphasizing the desirable ones. A
student who fails in math may try to save his ego or self-esteem by excelling in athletics.

13. Intellectualization- is a compromise reaction in which the only escape from a threat
into words. It not only brings attention but also provides an escape from feelings of
inadequacy in-home and social situations.

14. Rationalization- a defense mechanism in which plausible but false reasons are
devised by the individual to justify his behavior that is deemed to result in loss of self-
esteem or social approval.

> It is making excuses or giving socially acceptable reasons instead of real ones. There
are different forms of rationalization, among them, being the sour-group and sweet-
lemon mechanism. The sweet-lemon mechanism is the attitude of accepting something
you do not want.

15. Isolation- a form of reaction frustration whereby a person avoids conflict between
two opposing desires or attitudes by keeping them apart in consciousness.

16. Undoing- a form of intellectualization in which the individual divests himself of

painful feelings by making use of cleansing ritual after doing something which causes
him to feel guilty.

CHAPTER 5
SOMATTOFORM DISORDER

Somatoform disorders represent a group of disorders characterized by physical

symptoms suggesting a medical disorder; however no general medical condition, other
mental disorder, or substance is present. Psychological conflicts may be translated, or
converted, into physical problems, pain, or complaints. Individuals suffering from a
somatoform disorder are not consciously aware of the psychological factors which are
in operation, and they are not "making up" their physical symptoms. The symptoms and
pain are real - the cause is simply psychiatric instead of medical.

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 A somatoform disorder is characterized by one or more symptoms of a physical
dysfunction but for which there is no identifiable organic cause.

TYPES OF SOMATOFORM DISORDER

1. Conversion Disorder
In conversion disorder, a psychosocial conflict or need is converted into dramatic
physical symptoms that affect voluntary motor or sensory functioning. The symptoms
often seem neurological, such as paralysis, blindness, or loss of feeling (anesthesia).
A conversion disorder is a condition manifested by a physical dysfunction blindness,
deafness, paralysis, numbness, etc.) that has no underlying Organic basis. This
condition (formerly called hysteria) allows escape from an anxiety- rovoking activity.
For example, an athlete who dreads competing in an event, might Develop a numb arm
and effectively avoid the event.

2. Hypochondriasis
Individuals who suffer from hypochondriasis unrealistically interpret bodily symptoms
as signs of a serious illness. Often their symptoms are normal bodily changes, such as
occasional coughing, sores or sweating. Although some patients recognize that their
concerns are excessive, many do not. > Hypochondriasis typically involves numerous
physical symptoms and frequent visits to doctors.

Hypochondriasis is characterized by a continuing belief that one has one or more

serious illnesses although no medical evidence supports the belief. An Occasional
headache.

3. Pain disorder
Pain Disorder is characterized by an exaggeration of and continuation of pain without
medical cause.This disorder generally develops after an accident or during an illness
that has caused genuine pain.
4. Somatization Disorder
Individuals with somatization disorder have numerous long-lasting physical ailments
that have little or no organic basis.
They usually go from doctor to doctor in search of relief from their symptoms. They
often describe their many symptoms in dramatic and exaggerated terms.
> Somatization disorders can last for many years, and symptoms rarely disappear
completely without extensive psychotherapy.

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 Causes of Somatoform Disorders
A combination of factors is probably responsible for the development of somatoform
disorders.

1. Stress:
Stress is believed to be one of the most common causes of somatoform disorders. Stress
and anxiety may be converted to physical symptoms.

2. Culture:
Cultural influences appear to affect the gender ratios and body locations of somatoform
disorders, as well as their frequency in a specific population Researchers have
discovered lower levels of somatization disorder among people with higher levels of
education. Preoccupation with health and the body in general may be culturally
influenced and may contribute to the development of these disorders.

3. Biology
Genetic or biological factors may also play a role in the development of these disorders.
For example, people who suffer from somatization disorder may differ in how they
perceive and process pain, and individuals hypochondriasis may be ultra sensitive to
normal body.

DISSOCIATIVE DISORDERS

Dissociative disorders are marked by a separation from or interruption of a one's

personal history, etc.). All of the dissociative disorders are believed to stem from
person's fundamental aspects of waking consciousness (such as one's personal identity.
trauma experienced by the individual with this disorder. The dissociative aspect is
thought to be a coping mechanism in which the person literally dissociates himself from
a situation or experience too traumatic to integrate with his conscious self.
In dissociative disorders, a part of an individual's personality becomes separate
(dissociated) from other parts, producing a lack of integration of identity. memory, or
consciousness.

THE THREE MOST COMMON DISSOCIATIVE DISORDER

QUESTION: What are Dissociative Disorders?

Dissociative disorders are mental disorders that include the process of disconnection
and lack of continuity between thoughts, memories, surroundings, actions, and identity.
Individuals with dissociative disorders escape reality in ways that are involuntary and
unhealthy and cause problems with functioning in everyday life.

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 QUESTION: What happens when you Dissociate?

> Dissociation is a break in how your mind handles information. You may feel
disconnected from your thoughts, feelings, memories, and surroundings. It can affect
your sense of identity and your perception of time. The symptoms often go away on
their own.

Dissociative disorders involve a sudden and usually temporary disruption in a person's

memory, consciousness, or identity. In some cases, a person suddenly suffers a memory
loss. This may include a person's name, home address, occupation, and identifying
information.

Dissociative amnesia, an individual develops a sudden inability to recall important

personal information (such as her or his name); the disorder often follows psychological
trauma. The memory loss cannot be attributed to physical trauma, a particular medical
condition, or direct effects of drugs. Memory recall may occur suddenly or gradually.
-Dissociative Amnesia is a type of amnesia caused by trauma or stress resulting in
an inability to recall important personal information. Amnesia may also be a symptom
of other psychological disorders, including PTSD or somatization disorder.

Dissociative Amnesia, the lost memory usually involves autobiographical

information such as personal identity, and/or people, places or events that are
considered familiar to the individual. Though forgotten, this previously known
information often continues to influence the individual's behavior.
Dissociative Amnesia is the most common dissociative disorder that involves a loss of
memory with a psychological rather than a physical cause. It occurs after a period of
intense stress. It includes loss of consciousness for all or part of the stressful experience
itself, such as memory loss for an automobile accident.

Memory Disorders

a. Dementia
A form of mental disorder resulting from the degeneration or disorder of the brain
characterized by general mental weakness, forgetfulness, loss of coherence, and total
inability to reason but not accompanied by delusion or uncontrollable impulse.

b. Amnesia

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 Loss of memory. There are two kinds, i.e., anterograde amnesia, loss of memory ot
recent events, and retrograde amnesia, loss of memory of past events and observed in
traumas of the head.

Dissociative fugue suddenly and unexpectedly travel away from their home or
customary place of activities and are unable to recall some or all of their past. They are
confused about their personal identity, may not remember who they are, and sometimes
assume a new identity. Recovery may be rapid.
Dissociative Fugue is disorder in which one or more episodes of amnesia occur
with sudden, unexpected, purposeful travel away from home. A fugue state may last
from hours to weeks or months, and the individual may travel far from home and begin
a new job with a new identity, unaware of any change in his life. During the fugue, the
individual may appear normal to those around him and attract no notice, and may only
come to the attention of medical or legal authorities when he becomes aware of the
memory loss or becomes confused about his identity.

Dissociative identity disorder (formerly, multiple personality disorder) is

characterized by the assuming of two or more distinct, integrated personalities, each of
which manifests itself at times. The behaviors are accompanied by an inability, too
extensive to be explained by ordinary forgetfulness, to recall important personal
information. One personality may have no memory of the other(s). Often these
disorders stem from childhood trauma such as sexual abuse

Dissociative Identity Disorder (multiple personality disorder)

A person with DID develops two or more distinct personalities, each with a unique set
of memories, behaviors, thoughts, and emotions. At any given time, one of the
subpersonalities (alters) takes center stage and dominates the person's functioning
Usually one specific personality, referred to as the host, appears more often than the
others.
A Diagnostic Criteria for Dissociative Identity Disorder

A. The presence of two or more distinct identities or personality states (each with its
own relatively enduring pattern of perceiving, relating to, and thinking about the
B. At least two of these identities or personality states recurrently take control of the
person's behavior environment and self).
C. Inability to recall important personal information that is too extensive to be explained
by ordinary forgetfulness.
D. The disturbance is not due to the direct physiological effects of a substance (e.g..
blackouts or chaotic behavior during Alcohol Intoxication) or a general medical

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 condition (eg, complex partial seizures). Note: In children, the symptoms are not
attributable to imaginary playmates or other fantasy play.

Symptoms of Dissociative Identity Disorder

Alcohol or drug abuse

Amnesia, blackouts or time loss
Auditory hallucinations
Compulsions, phobias, or other symptoms of anxiety
Depression or pronounced mood swings
Eating disorders
Flashbacks, nightmares or intrusive memories Fugue states or "out of body
experiences"
Headaches, often severe
Panic attacks or symptoms of PTSD
Suicidal thoughts or self-mutilation

Depersonalization Disorder

Those suffering with this disorder have a distorted perception of themselves, their
bodies, and their lives. The person may feel as if he is an automaton or is in a dream.
Often the symptoms are transient and occur with anxiety, panic, or phobic symptoms.
However, symptoms can be chronic and persist or recur for many years. People
suffering with depersonalization often have great difficulty describing their symptoms
and may fear or believe the symptoms mean they are going crazy. The patient often
feels unreal and may experience the world as unreal and dreamlike.

Symptoms of Depersonalization Disorder:

1. Loss or change of feeling in body parts:
2. Distorted perceptions of your body:
3. Invisibility:
4. Not recognizing yourself in the mirror or in photographs:
5. Detachment from your emotions:
6. Feelings of unreality or of being a robot:
7. Floating or out-of-body experiences
8. Talking to yourself

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 DEPRESSIVE AND SCHIZOPHRENIA

MOOD DISORDER

Mood disorders are characterized primarily by a disturbance in mood. (Remember.

however, that all psychological disorders affect one's mood, or affect.) Two mood
disorders (from four in the DSM-IV) are described below in more detail.

In major depressive disorder, a person, for no apparent reason, experiences at least two
or more weeks of depressed moods, feelings of worthlessness, and diminished interest
or pleasure in most activities.

To be classified as:

A major depressive disorder, the episode must be accompanied by clinically significant

distress and impairment in social, occupational, or other areas of daily living.

In a bipolar disorder, a person alternates between the hopelessness and lethargy of

depression and the overexcited state of mania.

Mania is manifested by hyperactivity and wild excitement. A person suffering from

this disorder may lose control and act very inappropriately and sometimes destructively.
(Subcategories of bipolar disorders are classified depending on the ratios of manic and
depressive episodes.)

The causes of mood disorders have been the subject of much research. It is known that
genetic factors are involved. (If one identical twin is diagnosed as having a major mood
disorder, the chances are one in two that the other twin will also suffer such a disorder.)
Biochemical factors also play a role. Norepinephrine, a neurotransmitter, is

A sense that you are functioning automatically or on auto-pilot, or that something or

someone else is controlling your thoughts, feelings, or actions.

Pervasive Developmental Disorders

Pervasive Developmental Disorders are complex neurodevelopmental disorders

characterized by delays in the development of socialization, communication and

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 cognition. Symptoms may be noticed as early as infancy, although the typical age of
onset is before 3 years of age. Pervasive means that the disorders in this category are
conditions that significantly affect several areas of life and disrupt daily functioning.

Symptoms of PDD:

It is very important to understand that all children can exhibit unusual behaviors
occasionally without having a PDD. Consistency of the unusual behaviors is what
differentiates children with PDD from normal toddlers. Symptoms may include
problems with

Leaming, using and understanding language and other communication skills

Difficulty relating to people, emotions, objects and events
Unusual play with toys and other objects
Problems regulating sensory information such as sound and temperature
Difficulty with changes in routine or familiar surroundings
Repetitive body movements and behavior patterns
Self-injurious behavior

Types of PDD

1. Autistic Disorder

Autism is a childhood disorder characterized by significant impairment in social

interactions, gross and significant impairment in communication, and restricted patterns
of behavior interest, and activities.

2. Asperger's Disorder:

Asperger's is characterized by impairments in social relationships and restricted or

unusual behaviors or activities, but it does not present the language delays observed in
people with autism

3. Rett's Disorder

This disorder is almost exclusively observed in females, and is a progressive

neurological disorder that is characterized by constant handwringing, mental
retardation, and impaired motor skills.

1. Childhood Disintegrative Disorder

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 CDD involves severe regression in language, adaptive behavior, and motor skills after
a period of normal development for approximately 2-4 years.

What is ADHD? Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

ADHD is not a new disorder, but its name has changed many times over the years to
reflect the increasing understanding we have of its symptoms and causes. This disorder
is characterized by poor-attention skills, impulsivity, and, in some cases, hyperactivity.
"ADHD is a neurobiological disability believed to be caused by a neurotransmitter
problem in the central nervous system. Research evidence also indicates that ADHD is
one of the most inheritable disorders of childhood, affecting up to 3-5 percent of school-
aged children in the United States alone.

Depression is a mood disorder that causes a persistent feeling of sadness and loss of
interest. Also called a major depressive disorder or clinical Depression, it affects how
you feel, thinks, and behave, leading to a variety of emotional and physical problems.

Two Major Types of Affective or Mood Disorders that each involves Depression

1. Bipolar Disorders- some still refer to Bipolar Disorders as Manic/ depressive

Disorders, but this term is outdated. The disorder is referred to as bipolar because the
patient's behavior vacillates between two extremes- from mania to Depression. A manic
episode in this patient is sometimes followed by Depression, the person becomes
moody, sad, lacks energy, and feels hopeless

2. Depressive Disorders are disorders that show no vacillation. Its essential

characteristics are depressed, sad, hopeless mood, and a loss of interest in all or almost
all usual activities and past times.

Depression is a low, sad state in which life seems dark and its challenges overwhelming.
Functioning can be severely imparied, and the depressed individual often loses all
interest in activities, becomes hopeless, and may even contemplate or commit suicide.

Types of Depressive Disorders:

1. Major Depression \
Major depression is a horrible illness that can cause a person to suffer emotionally..
physically, and socially. Depression is not the same thing as grief, though some
symptoms are common to both. In order to receive this diagnosis, the individual

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 must experience symptoms for a period of at least two weeks. Suicidal thoughts,
hospitalization, and even psychosis are not uncommon.

2. Dysthymic Disorder
Dysthymic disorder is a chronic disorder characterized by at least two years of mild-
moderate depression. Individuals suffering from dysthymic disorder often report that
they don't remember ever not feeling depressed. Most individuals with this disorder
function relatively well, but usually have some difficulty managing the tasks and
responsibilities of daily life.

Types of Bipolar Disorders:

1. Bipolar Type 1:
To receive a diagnosis of Bipolar 1, a person must experience at least one manic or
mixed episode. Almost always these episodes alternate with periods of major
depression. Often, though not always, the episodes may be followed by periods of
normal mood. Psychotic symptoms are not uncommon, and hospitalization is often
necessary. Rapid cycling may or may not be present.
2. Bipolar Type 2:

Bipolar 2 involves alternating periods of major depression and hypomania. The

depression is often more chronic in nature, and some studies show a higher incidence
of suicide in those suffering from this form of bipolar. Rapid cycling may or may not
be present.

3. Cyclothymia
Cyclothymia involves alterating episodes of mild depression and hypomania. Many people
suffering from this form of bipolar disorder notice very few periods of normal mood in
between episodes. Rapid cycling is the norm, with many people cycling weekly daily, or
even hourly. Some experts believe those with cyclothymia have a high risk of going on to
develop one of the more severe forms of bipolar disorder.
4. Rapid Cycling:
Rapid cyclers are those that have experienced four or more episodes of mania, hypomania,
depression or mixed states in a twelve month period. Some people may even cycle several
times a day, so quickly that their ups and downs are often confused with mixed states.
Women and children are much more likely to be rapid cyclers than men This is often a very

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difficult form of bipolar to treat, as rapid cycling patients are likely to respond to traditional
medications. Approximately 15 percent of bipolar persons are rapid cyclers.

Schizophrenia

> It is a group of disorders characterized by thought disturbance that may be

accompanied by delusions, hallucinations, attention deficits, and unusual motor
activity. It is a psychotic disorder, one that is characterized by a generalized failure of
functioning in all areas of a person's life.

Schizophrenic disorders are severe disorders characterized by distorted thoughts and

perceptions, atypical communication, inappropriate emotion, abnormal motor behavior,
and social withdrawal. The slow-developing schizophrenia known as chronic or process
schizophrenia has a poor prognosis for recovery, when a formerly well- adjusted
individual develops schizophrenia (known as reactive or acute schizophrenia), there is
a better chance of recovery. The five major types of schizophrenia are as follows.
DISTINCT DIVISION OF SCHIZOPHRENIA
Paranoid schizophrenia is characterized by prominent delusions or auditory
hallucinations in the context of relative preservation of usual cognitive functioning and
affect. (Examples are delusions of persecution, grandeur, or both) Paranoid
schizophrenics trust no one and are constantly on guard because they are convinced that
others are plotting against them. They may seek retaliation against imagined enemies.
Paranoid Schizophrenia- false beliefs or delusions that distort reality. Most often,
these are beliefs in the exceptional importance of oneself, So-called Delusion of
Grandeur- such as being Jesus Christ, CIA agent, the inventor of war. These
accompanied by delusions that, because one is so important, others are "out to get me"
in, attempts to thwart the individual's critical mission, known as Delusion of
Persecution. Paranoid trust no one and always watchful convinced that others are
plotting against them.

Catatonic schizophrenia is evidenced by excessive, sometimes violent motor activity

or by a mute, unresponsive, stuporous condition in which a person may retain the same
posture for hours. A person may remain in one state for a long period or alternate
between violent activity and remaining stiff and immobile, totally unresponsive to the
outside world.
Catatonic Schizophrenia- this is quite different in appearance from the other forms
of Schizophrenia.

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 They sometimes experience delusions and hallucinations; their most obvious
abnormalities are social interaction, posture, and body movement. Catatonic
Schizophrenics spend long periods in an inactive, statue-like state in which they seem
locked into posture. They are often said to exhibit waxy flexibility during stupors- they
will passively let themselves be placed into any position and maintain it. Often they
cease to talk, appear not to hear what is spoken to them, and may no longer eat without
being fed

Disorganized (hebephrenic) schizophrenia is characterized by bizarre symptoms

including extreme delusions, hallucinations, and inappropriate patterns of speech,
mood, and movement. Inappropriate moods may be manifested by laughing or crying
at unsuitable times.
Disorganized Schizophrenia- severely disturbed thought processes. Patients have
hallucinations and delusions are frequently incoherent. They may exhibit bizarre effects
and experience periods of giggling, crying, and irritability for no apparent reasons.

Undifferentiated schizophrenia is manifested by delusions, hallucinations, incoherent

speech, and disorganized behavior. The conglomerate of symptoms fit the criteria of
more than one type or of no dear type of schizophrenia.
Undifferentiated Schizophrenia- this is the catchall category, to which all persons
who do fit neatly under the other headings are assigned. It includes people with
schizophrenia who demonstrate disturbances of thought, perception, and emotion, but
not the features peculiar to the different types.

Residual schizophrenia is a condition in which at least one episode of schizophrenia

has occurred although there are currently no prominent psychotic symptoms (e.g.
delusions or hallucinations)
a. Illusion
A false interpretation of an external stimulus. It may be manifested through sight,
hearing, taste, touch and smell. A normal person may also suffer from illusions but
further investigation by oneself may prove that his judgment 1s wrong.
b. Hallucination
An erroneous perception without an external object of stimulus. There are some types
of hallucination, i.e., visual, seeing things although not present; auditory, hearing voices
in absolute silence; olfactory, false perception of smell; gustatory, false perception of
taste; tactile, false perception of touch, as feeling that a worm is creeping on the skin;
kinesthetic, false perception of movement; hypnagogic, false sensory perception

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 occurring midway between falling asleep and being awake; and Lilliputian, perception
of objects as reduced in size.

a. Obsession
Thoughts and impulses which continually occur in the person's mind despite attempts
to keep them out. It is an idea constantly obtruding on the consciousness despite efforts
to drive it away.

Symptoms that are common to all forms of Schizophrenia

1. Thought Disorders- one of the first signs that a person may have Schizophrenia is the
difficulty of maintaining logical thought and coherent conversation. Disordered
thinking and their memory are impaired, random changes in topic and lack both
meaning and order. Delusion occurs (false beliefs), concepts, ideas, and symbols to
people with schizophrenia are sometimes thrown together merely because they rhyme.
2. Perceptual Disorders in addition to experiencing a delusion, people with
schizophrenia perceive the external world abnormally They consistently report
hallucinations or distortions of sensory perception- most commonly auditory (hearing
voices originating outside his or her head), somatic (sensation of snakes crawling under
the abdomen), and tactile hallucinations (felt of tingling and burning sensations)

Disorder of Affect (Emotional Disorders) display of inappropriate emotional responses,

or affect.

For example, a patient with Schizophrenia may become depressed or cry when her
favorite food falls on the floor, yet the death of a close friend or relative may be
hysterically funny.
Causes of Schizophrenia
1. Biological Factors-disorder runs in families, that is, blood relatives of people with
schizophrenia are more likely to develop the condition than those from families free of
Schizophrenia
2. Environmental Factors - some psychologists believe that a person's interactions with
the environment determine whether Schizophrenia will develop. It is also possible that
children and adults develop Schizophrenia because their home environment is not
conducive to healthy emotional growth.

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