PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Light, energy and life

Learning Objectives
By the end of this chapter , you will be able to:
explain how energy is absorb by plants through
pigments
summarize the process of photosynthesis
describe the major features and chemical events in
photosynthesis
list the main structures involved in photosynthesis,
tabulate the reactants and products and location of
each specific process/events.
explain the importance of photosynthesis in an
ecosystem.
Table of contents:
Introduction

Photosynthesis

Importance of Photosynthesis

Light - Dependent Reaction

Light - Independent Reaction

Factors Affecting Photsynthesis

 BACKGROUND RESERACH

Photosynthesis is essential to all life on Earth;

both plants and animals depend on it.
 BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE

Photosynthesis is essential to all life on Earth;

both plants and animals depend on it.
 BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE
Photosynthesis is essential to all life on Earth;
both plants and animals depend on it.

DO I NEED
PHOTOSYNTHESIS?
 BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE
The only biological process that can capture
energy from the outer space (sunlight) and
convert it into energy (carbohydrates) that
organisms use.
 BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE
The only biological process that can capture
energy from the outer space (sunlight) and
convert it into energy (carbohydrates) that
organisms use.
 BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE
The energy extracted today by the burning of

=
coal and petroleum products represents
sunlight energy captured and stored by
photosynthesis in algae from millions of years
ago.
 BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE
The energy extracted today by the burning of

=
coal and petroleum products represents
sunlight energy captured and stored by
photosynthesis in algae from millions of years
ago.
ENERGY
 BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE
The energy extracted today by the burning of

=
coal and petroleum products represents
sunlight energy captured and stored by
photosynthesis in algae from millions of years
ago.
ENERGY
 BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE
Photoautotrophs: Self feedeers using light.

Heterotrophs: Other feeders.

Chemoautotrophs: Bacteria that extract energy

from inorganic chemical compounds.
 The word comes from Greek:

Photosynthesis
PHOTO: LIGHT SYNTHESIS: COMPOSITION
 BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE

Photosynthesis powers 99% of

Earth’s ecosystems.
 Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is a multi-step process that requires
sunlight, carbon dioxide, and water as substrates.
After this process, it releases oxygen and produces
Glyceral-dehyde-3-phosphate (GA3P) that can be
converted to glucose or any other sugar molecules.

C 3 H 7 O6 P
Glyceral-dehyde-3-phosphate (chemical formula)
 Photosynthesis
It is a chemical process that involves the
conversion of inorganic matter into organic
matter through the energy provided by sunlight.
Is the process by which autotrophic organisms
use light energy to make sugar and oxygen gas
from carbon dioxide and water.

6CO 2 + 6H2 O C 6 H12 O 6 + 6O 2

CARBON DIOXIDE WATER GLUCOSE OXYGEN
 Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis
generally takes
place in leaves. It
occurs in a middle
layer called the
mesophyll.
 Photosynthesis
For plants,
chloroplast-
containing cells
exist in the
mesophyll.
 Photosynthesis
The gas exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen occurs through
small, regulated openings called stomata (stoma if singular).
 Photosynthesis
The gas exchange
of carbon dioxide
and oxygen occurs
through small,
regulated
openings called
stomata (stoma if
singular).
 Sites
Photosynthesis occurs in chloroplasts, organelles in certain
plants.
All green plant parts have chloroplasts and carry out
photosynthesis.
The leaves have the most chloroplast.
The green colour comes from chloropyll in the
chloroplasts.
The pigments absorb light energy.
 Sites
A chloroplast contains: Stroma,
a fluid grana, stacks of
thylakoids.
The thylakoids contain
chlorophyll.
Chlorophyll is the green pigment
that captures light for
photosynthesis.
Site of Photosynthesis
 Why are plants
green?
Plants cells have green chlorophyll.
The thylakoid membrane of the chloroplast is impregnated with
photosynthetic pigments (chlorophylls, carotenoids).
Chlorophyll pigments harvest energy (photons) by absorbing
certain wavelengths
Plants are green because the green wavelength is reflected,
not absorbed.
 Graphic summary
Sunlight
Carbon
Water dioxide

NADP+

ADP

Thylakoid
Pi

Stroma
Calvin
Grana

Lamella cycle

ATP

NADPH

Oxygen Glucose
Harnessing sunlight
Light capture:
Pigments like chlorophyll absorb light energy, propelling
electrons in photosystems.

ATP generation:
The released electrons create a flow that drives ATP
synthesis, storing chemical energy.

NADPH production:
Another stream of electrons generates NADPH, an
energy and electron carrier molecule.

Oxygen release:
The water molecule splits, releasing oxygen crucial for
the atmosphere and respiration.
 Transforming energy
CO2 capture:
The enzyme RuBisCO fixes carbon dioxide (CO2) into
organic compounds in the Calvin cycle.

Sugar formation:
The resulting molecules convert into sugars, utilizing ATP
and NADPH from the light-dependent phase.

RuBisCO regeneration:
Molecules enabling CO2 capture regenerate, ensuring
cycle continuity.

Readying for new cycles:

The cycle persists, creating sugars and regenerating
molecules for CO2 fixation in future iterations.
 Photosynthetic organisms

MICROALGAE PLANTS MACROALGAE BACTERIA

The primary producers of They are the primary Habitat and food for Some cyanobacteria
oxygen on Earth, and they terrestrial photosynthetic various marine organisms, perform photosynthesis,
also form the foundation of organisms, sustaining life and also contributing to being essential for the
aquatic food webs. regulating the climate. ecological balance. carbon and oxygen cycle.
 Photosynthetic organisms

MICROALGAE PLANTS MACROALGAE BACTERIA

The primary producers of They are the primary Habitat and food for Some cyanobacteria
oxygen on Earth, and they terrestrial photosynthetic various marine organisms, perform photosynthesis,
also form the foundation of organisms, sustaining life and also contributing to being essential for the
aquatic food webs. regulating the climate. ecological balance. carbon and oxygen cycle.
Importance
Vital energy source:
Photosynthesis converts sunlight into chemical energy,
nourishing plants and initiating food webs on Earth.

Oxygen production:
Photosynthetic organisms release oxygen as a byproduct,
sustaining the respiration of most living beings and
enriching the atmosphere with this gas.

Climate regulation:
Photosynthesis absorbs carbon dioxide, aiding in climate
change control and maintaining the balance of the
greenhouse effect.
Importance Photosynthesis and Sun Energy:
Harnesses the sun’s energy into
utilizable forms of energy on earth.
A process that most biological
organisms are unable to perform.
ATP is used to power these processes.
Converts light energy into chemical
energy in the form of glucose.
Then the process of cellular respiration
converts energy in glucose to energy in
the form of Atp which is used to power
biological processes.
Importance Photosynthesis and Carbon
Dioxide Removal:

Converts carbon dioxide into oxygen.

During photosynthesis, carbon dioxide

leaves the atmosphere and enters the
plant and leaves as oxygen.

A process which is ecologically and

environmentally important in nature.
Importance Photosynthesis and the
Ecosystem:

The energy produces by photosynthesis

forms the basis of virtually all terrestial
and aquatic food chains.
As a result, photosynthesis is the
ultimate source of carbon in the
organic molecules found in most
organisms.
The high oxygen concentration in the
atmosphere is derived directly from the
light reactions of photosynthesis.
Importance Photosynthesis and side
products:

Solar energy, transformed by

photosynthesis, is the source of
countless vegetable, animal and
organic side products.
Wood is a very important material used
as fuel and in many fields including
construction.
Paper, cotton and other natural fibers
consist of cellulose produced almost
entirely by photosynthesizing plants.
Wool depends on the energy sheep
obtain from grass, and photosynthesis.
 The TWO parts of
Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis takes place in two sequential stages: the light-
dependent reactions and the light-independent reactions. In the
light-dependent reactions, energy from sunlight is absorbed by
chlorophyll and that energy is converted into stored chemical
energy. In the light-independent reactions also known as the
Calvin cycle, the chemical energy harvested during the light-
dependent reactions drive the assembly of sugar molecules from
carbon dioxide.
 Cyclic
Photophosphorylation
Light - Dependent
Reaction Non-cyclic
Photophosphorylation
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Light - Independent
Reaction
 LESSON 2
THE LIGHT-DEPENDENT
REACTIONS OF
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
What is
LIGHT ENERGY?
kind of kinetic energy capable of allowing various forms of lights
visible to the human eyes

Light Energy is known as a type of electromagnetic radiation

produced by hot objects such as lasers, bulbs and sunlight
What is
LIGHT ENERGY?
The sun emits an enormous amount of electromagnetic radiation
(solar energy). Humans can see only a fraction of this energy,
which is therefore referred to as "visible light." The manner in
which solar energy travels is described as waves.

Scientists can determine the amount of energy of a wave by

measuring its wavelength, the distance between consecutive
points of a wave. A single wave is measured from two consecutive
points, such as from crest to crest or from trough to trough.
Energy Wave
(Figure)
Wavelength Crest

Trough
The Electromagnetic Spectrum

The Electromagnetic Spectrum is the range of all possible

frequencies of radiation. The difference between wavelengths
relates to the amount of energy carried by them.

Each type of electromagnetic radiation travels at a particular

wavelength. The longer the wavelength, the less energy is carried.
Short, tight waves carry the most energy.
The Electromagnetic Spectrum
(Figure)
Absoption of Light
Light energy initiates the process of photosynthesis when
pigments absorb the light. Organic pigments, whether in
the human retina or the chloroplast thylakoid, have a
narrow range of energy levels that they can absorb.

Energy levels lower than those represented by red light

are insufficient to raise an orbital electron to an excited
(quantum) state.
Absoption of Light
Energy levels higher than those in blue light will physically
tear the molecules apart, called bleaching.

So retinal pigments can only "see" (absorb) 700-nm to

400-nm light, which is therefore called visible light.

Plants pigment molecules absorb only light in the

wavelength range of 700 nm to 400 nm; plant
physiologists refer to this range for plants as
photosynthetically active radiation.
Absoption of Light
(Figure)
Absoption of Light
(Figure)

Less energy More energy

Understanding Pigments
Different kinds of pigments exist, and absorbs only certain
wavelengths (colors) of visible light. Pigments reflect or transmit
the wavelengths they cannot absorb, which affects how they
appear to the human eye.

Chlorophylls and carotenoids are the two major classes of

photosynthetic pigments found in plants and algae.

There are five major chlorophylls: a, b, c and d and a related

molecule found in prokaryotes called bacteriochlorophyll.
Chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b are found in higher plant
chloroplasts.
Understanding Pigments
(Figure)
Spectrophotometers is an
instrument that can differentiate
which wavelengths of light a
substance can absorb and measure
transmitted light and compute from
it the absorption.

By extracting pigments from leaves

and placing these samples into a
spectrophotometer, scientists can
identify which wavelengths of light
an organism can absorb.
 HOW DO
LIGHT-DEPENDENT
REACTIONS WORK?
HOW DO LIGHT-DEPENDENT REACTIONS WORK?
The overall function of light-dependent reactions is to convert
solar energy into chemical energy in the form of NADPH and ATP.
This chemical energy supports the light-independent reactions
and fuels the assembly of sugar molecules. Protein complexes and
pigment molecules work together to produce NADPH and ATP.

The actual step that converts light energy into chemical energy
takes place in a multiprotein complex called a photosystem, two
types of which are found embedded in the thylakoid membrane,
photosystem II (PSII) and photosystem I (PSI)
HOW DO LIGHT-DEPENDENT REACTIONS WORK?
photosystem II (P680)
HOW DO LIGHT-DEPENDENT REACTIONS WORK?
photosystem I (P700)
Both photosystems have the same basic structure; a number
of antenna proteins to which the chlorophyll molecules are
bound surround the reaction center where the
photochemistry takes place. Each photosystem is serviced by
the light-harvesting complex, which passes energy from
sunlight to the reaction center, it consists of multiple
antenna proteins that contain a mixture of 300-400
chlorophyll a and b molecules as well as other pigments like
carotenoids.
The reaction center contains a pair of chlorophyll a
molecules with a special property. Those two chlorophylls
can undergo oxidation upon excitation; they can actually
give up an electron in a process called a photoact. It is at
this step in the reaction center, this step in photosynthesis,
that light energy is converted into an excited electron.
PSll and PSI are two major components of the
photosynthetic electron transport chain, which also includes
the cytochrome complex. The cytochrome complex, an
enzyme composed of two protein complexes, transfers the
electrons from the carrier molecule platoquinone (Pq) to the
protein plastocyanin (Pc), thus enabling both the transfer of
protons across the thylakoid membrane and the transfer of
electrons from PSII to PSI.
The reaction center of PSII (called P680) delivers its
high-energy electrons, one at a time, to the primary
electron acceptor, and through the electron transport
chain (Pq to cytochrome complex to plastocyanin) to
PSI.
The energy is relayed to the PSI reaction center
(called P700). P700 is oxidized and sends a high-
energy electron to NADP+ to form NADPH. Thus, PSII
captures the energy to create proton gradients to
make ATP, and PSI captures the energy to reduce
NADP+ to NADPH. The two photosystems work in
concert, in part, to guarantee that the production of
NADPH will roughly equal the production of ATP.
Generating an Energy Carrier: ATP
As in the intermembrane space of the mitochondria
during cellular respiration, the buildup of hydrogen ions
inside the thylakoid lumen creates an electrochemical
gradient. The passive diffusion of hydrogen ions from an
area of high concentration (in the thylakoid lumen) to an
area of low concentration (in the stroma) is harnessed to
create ATP, just as in the electron transport chain of
cellular respiration. The ions build up energy because of
diffusion and because they all have the same electrical
charge, repelling each other.
Hydrogen ions will rush through any opening,
similar to water jetting through a hole in a dam. In
the thylakoid, that opening is a passage through a
specialized protein channel called the ATP
synthase. The energy released by the hydrogen
ion steam allows ATP synthase to attach a third
phosphate group to ADP. which form a molecule
of ATP.
The flow of hydrogen ions through ATP
synthase is called chemiosmosis because
the ions move from an area of low
concentration through a semi-permeabke
structure.
 LESSON 3
THE LIGHT-INDEPENDENT
REACTIONS OF
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
After the energy from the sun is converted into chemical
energy and temporarily stored in ATP and NADPH molecules,
the cell has the fuel needed to build carbohydrate molecules
for long term energy storage. The products of the light-
dependent actions, ATP and NADPH, have lifespans in the
range of millionths of seconds, where the products of the
light-independent reactions (carbohydrates and other forms of
reduced carbon) can survive for hundreds of millions of years.
The carbohydrate molecules made will have a backbone of
carbon atom.

The carbon comes from carbon dioxide, the gas that is a

waste product of cellular respiration in microbes, fungi, plants,
and animals.
THE CALVIN CYCLE
In plants, carbon dioxide (CO ) enters the leaves through stomata, where it diffuses
over short distances through intercullar spaces until it reaches mesophyll celss. Once
in the mesophyll cells, CO2 diffuses into the stroma of the chloroplast-the site of light
independent reactions of photosynthesis.

These reactions actually have several names associated with them. Another name,
Calvin Cycle, named after Melvin Calvin, the scientist who discovered it and reflects
that these reactions functions as a cycle. Others call it the Calvin- Benson cycle to
include the name of another scientist involved in its discovery, Andrew Benson. Other
refer to it as dark reactions, because light is not directly required. However, the term
dark reaction can be misleading because it implies incorrectly that the reaction only
occurs at night or is independent of light, which is why most scientists and instructors
no longer use it.
THE CALVIN CYCLE (Figure)
STAGE 1: FIXATION

In the stroma, in addition to CO2, two

other components are present to
initiate the light-independent
reactions: an enzyme called ribulose
biphosphate carboxylase (RuBisCO),
and three molecules of Ribulose
biphosphate (RuBP), as shown in the
figure. RuBP has five atoms of carbon,
and contains two phosphate groups
STAGE 2: REDUCTION
ATP and NADPH are used to convert six
molecules of 3-PGA into six molecules
of glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P)
through a reduction reaction, where 3-
PGA gains electrons. During this
process, six molecules of ATP lose a
phosphate group, becoming ADP, and
six molecules of NADPH lose energy and
a hydrogen atom, becoming NADP+.
Both ADP and NADP+ return to the light-
dependent reactions for recharging.
STAGE 3: REGENERATION
In the Calvin cycle, one G3P molecule is
sent to the cytoplasm to help form other
compounds, while the remaining five G3P
molecules stay in the cycle. It takes three
turns of the cycle to produce enough G3P
for export. Each turn generates two G3P
molecules, so three turns yield six G3Ps. Of
these, one is exported, and the other five
regenerate RuBP, allowing the cycle to
continue fixing more CO2. This
regeneration process uses three ATP
molecules.
The Energy Cycle
Whether the organism is a bacterium, plant,
or animal, all organisms access energy by
breaking down carbohydrate molecules. But
if plants make carbohydrate molecules.
Remember, organisms need energy to
perform life functions. In addition, an
organism can either make its own food or eat
another organism-either way, the food still
needs to be broken down. Finally, in the
process of breaking down food, called
cellular respiration, heterotrophs release
needed energy and produce “waste” in the
form of CO2 gas.
 THANK YOU FOR
YOUR ATTENTION!

Any questions?
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