UNIT 3 PROPERTIES OF FRESH CONCRETE

Fresh concrete - Workability - Factors affecting workability - Measurement of workability -

Segregation Bleeding - Concrete manufacturing - Convention - Ready mix and Advantage of
Ready mix - Finishing. Compaction Curing - Strength of concrete - Elasticity - Creep -
Shrinkage - elastic behavior of concrete - Durability of concrete Factors affecting strength of
concrete and Durability of concrete - Cracks in concrete - Chemical attacks-carbonation.
Durability of concrete: effect of Admixtures on properties of concrete causes of concrete
deterioration, alkali aggregate reaction, deterioration by chemical actions, concrete in marine
environment
What is concrete?
Concrete is one of the most commonly used building materials. Concrete is a composite
material made from several readily available constituents (aggregates, sand, cement, water).
Concrete is a versatile material that can easily be mixed to meet a variety of special needs and
formed to virtually any shape.
Concrete solidifies and hardens after mixing with water and placement due to a chemical
process known as hydration. The water reacts with the cement, which bonds the other
components together, eventually creating a stone-like material.

In order to increase the strength of concrete chemical admixtures are also added. Chemical
admixtures like;
 1. Super plasticizers – Salts of organic sulphonates Ligno sulphonates, Sulphonated
melamine formaldehyde (SMF), Sulphonated naphthalene formaldehyde (SNF)
Polycarboxylic ether (PCE)
2. Air-entraining agents - Natural wood resins , Synthetic detergents and Salts of petroleum
acids) ,
3. Accelerators - Inorganic Calcium chloride, Formates, Nitrates Thiocyanates Silicates
Aluminates
4. Retarders - Organic Chemicals- Carbohydrates Hydroxycarboxylic acids and salts
Phosphates

Few Admixtures can be classified by function as follows:

1. Air-entraining admixtures
2. Water-reducing admixtures
3. Plasticizers
4. Accelerating admixtures
5. Retarding admixtures
6. Hydration-control admixtures
7. Corrosion inhibitors
8. Shrinkage reducers
9. Alkali-silica reactivity inhibitors
10. Coloring admixtures
11. Miscellaneous admixtures such as workability, bonding, damp proofing, permeability
reducing, grouting, gas-forming, anti washout, foaming, and pumping admixtures
Properties of concrete
 Density : 2240 - 2400 kg/m3
 Compressive strength: 20 - 40 MPa
 Flexural strength: 3 - 5 MPa
 Tensile strength: 2 - 5 MPa
 Modulus of elasticity : 14000 - 41000 MPa
 Permeability: 1 X 10-10 cm/sec
 Coefficient of thermal expansion: 10-5 oC
 Drying shrinkage: 4 - 8 X 10-4
 Drying shrinkage of reinforced concrete: 2 - 3 X 10-4
 Poisson's ratio : 0.20 - 0.21
 Shear strength : 6 - 17 MPa
 Specific heat capacity : 0.75 kJ/kg K
Factors affecting Strength of concrete
1. Water-Cement ratio - It is water cement ratio that basically governs the property of strength.
Lesser the water cement ratio, greater will be strength
2. Type of cementing material – It affects the hydration process and therefore strength of
concrete.
3. Amount of cementing material - It is the paste that holds or binds all the ingredients. Thus
greater amount of cementing material greater will be strength.
4. Type of aggregate - Rough and angular aggregates are preferable as they provide greater
bonding.
5. Air content – The amount of air improves the concrete resistance on freezing and thawing.
But in excess lead to failure
6. Admixtures - Chemical admixtures like plasticizers reduce the water cement ratio and
increase the strength of concrete at same water cement ratio. Mineral admixtures affect the
strength at later stage and increase the strength by increasing the amount of cementing
material.
Once the mixing was completed the mixture is said to be Fresh concrete which is in
plastic state and can be moulded in any forms whereas the Hardened concrete is the one
which is fully cured.

Fresh concrete
 Hardened concrete
FRESH CONCRETE
Fresh concrete is that stage of concrete in which concrete can be moulded in its plastic state.
This is also called Green Concrete. Another term used to describe the state of fresh concrete is
consistence, which is the ease with which concrete will flow. It is the concrete phase from time
of mixing to end of time concrete surface finished in its final location in the structure
For fresh concrete to be acceptable, it should:
1. Be easily mixed and transported.
2. Be uniform throughout a given batch and between batches.
3. Be of a consistency so that it can fill completely the forms for which it was designed.
4. Have the ability to be compacted without excessive loss of energy.
5. Not segregate during placing and consolidation.
6. Have good finishing characteristics.

PROPERTIES OF FRESH CONCRETE

1. Workability of Concrete – Consistency and Cohesiveness
i. Consistency (Easy flow of concrete) - Slump test, Compacting factor test,
Vebe test and Flow table test
ii. Cohesiveness - Segregation and Bleeding
2. Setting
3. Air entrainment
Workability of Concrete - The capability of being handled and flows into formwork or around
any reinforcement, with assistance of compacting equipment. The higher workability concretes
are easier to place and handle but obtaining higher workability by increasing water content
decreases strength and durability. Workability is often referred to as the ease with which a
concrete can be transported, placed and consolidated without excessive bleeding or segregation.
It is obvious that no single test can evaluate all these factors. In fact, most of these cannot
be easily assessed even though some standard tests have been established to evaluate them under
specific conditions.
Consistence is sometimes taken to mean the degree of wetness; within limits, wet
concretes are more workable than dry concrete, but concrete of same consistence may vary in
workability. Because the strength of concrete is adversely and significantly affected by the
presence of voids in the compacted mass, it is vital to achieve a maximum possible density. This
requires sufficient workability for virtually full compaction to be possible using a reasonable
amount of work under the given conditions. Presence of voids in concrete reduces the density
and greatly reduces the strength: 5% of voids can lower the strength by as much as 30%.

To determine the consistency in workability four tests are followed;

 Slump test
 Compacting factor test
 Vee Bee test and
 Flow table test

Slump Test
This test is performed to check the consistency of freshly made concrete. The slump test
is done to make sure a concrete mix is workable. The measured slump must be within a set
range, or tolerance, from the target slump.
Workability of concrete is mainly affected by consistency i.e. wetter mixes will be more
workable than drier mixes, but concrete of the same consistency may vary in workability. It can
also be defined as the relative plasticity of freshly mixed concrete as indicative of its workability.
Tools and apparatus used for slump test (equipment):
1. Standard slump cone (100 mm top diameter x 200 mm bottom diameter x 300 mm
high)
2. Small scoop
1. Bullet-nosed rod (600 mm long x 16 mm diameter)
3. Rule
1. Slump plate (500 mm x 500 mm)
Procedure of slump test for concrete:
1. Clean the cone. Dampen with water and place on the slump plate. The slump plate should
be clean, firm, level and non-absorbent. Collect a sample of concrete to perform the slum
test.
2. Stand firmly on the foot pieces and fill 1/3 the volume of the cone with the sample.
Compact the concrete by 'rodding' 25 times. Rodding means to push a steel rod in and out
of the concrete to compact it into the cylinder, or slump cone. Always rod in a definite
pattern, working from outside into the middle.
3. Now fill to 2/3 and again rod 25 times, just into the top of the first layer.
4. Fill to overflowing, rodding again this time just into the top of the second layer. Top up
the cone till it overflows.
5. Level off the surface with the steel rod using a rolling action. Clean any concrete from
around the base and top of the cone, push down on the handles and step off the foot
pieces.
6. Carefully lift the cone straight up making sure not to move the sample.
7. Turn the cone upside down and place the rod across the up-turned cone.
8. Take several measurements and report the average distance to the top of the sample. If
the sample fails by being outside the tolerance (ie the slump is too high or too low),
another must be taken. If this also fails the remainder of the batch should be rejected.
Slump Cone test and apparatus
Compacting factor test
Compacting factor of fresh concrete is done to determine the workability of fresh concrete by
compacting factor test as per IS: 1199 – 1959. The apparatus used is Compacting factor
apparatus.

Procedure
 The sample of concrete is placed in the upper hopper up to the brim.
 The trap-door is opened so that the concrete falls into the lower hopper.
The trap-door of the lower hopper is opened and the concrete is allowed to fall into the
cylinder.
 The excess concrete remaining above the top level of the cylinder is then cut off with the
help of plane blades
 The concrete in the cylinder is weighed. This is known as weight of partially compacted
concrete.
 The cylinder is filled with a fresh sample of concrete and vibrated to obtain full
compaction. The concrete in the cylinder is weighed again. This weight is known as the
weight of fully compacted concrete.

Compacting factor = (Weight of partially compacted concrete)/(Weight of fully

compacted concrete)

= (W1-W2 / W2-W)

NOTE: The test is sufficiently sensitive to enable difference in work ability arising from the
initial process in the hydration of cement to be measured. Each test, there for should be carried
out at a constant time interval after the mixing is completed, if strictly comparable results are to
be obtained. Convenient time for releasing the concrete from the upper hopper has been found to
be two minutes after the completion of mixing.
 Compaction factor apparatus
Vee Bee test
To determine the workability of fresh concrete by using a Vee-Bee consistometer as per IS: 1199
– 1959. The apparatus used is Vee-Bee consistometer.

Procedure
 A conventional slump test is performed, placing the slump cone inside the cylindrical part
of the consistometer.
 The glass disc attached to the swivel arm is turned and placed on the top of the concrete
in the pot.
 The electrical vibrator is switched on and a stop-watch is started, simultaneously.
Vibration is continued till the conical shape of the concrete disappears and the concrete
assumes a cylindrical shape.
 When the concrete fully assumes a cylindrical shape, the stop-watch is switched off
immediately. The time is noted.
 The consistency of the concrete should be expressed in VB-degrees, which is equal to the
time in seconds recorded above.

Vee Bee test apparatus

Flow table test

To determine the workability of fresh concrete by using a Flow table test as per IS: 5512 – 1983.
The apparatus used is Flow table apparatus.

Procedure
 The 700 mm square flow table is hinged to a rigid base, proved with a stop that allows
the far end to be raised by 40 mm.
 A cone, similar to that used for slump testing but truncated, is filled with concrete in two
layers.
 Each layer is tamped 10 times with a special wooden bar and the concrete of the upper
layer finished off level with the top of the cone. Any excess is cleaned off the outside of
the cone.
 The cone is then raised allowing the concrete to flow out and spread out a little on the
flow table.
 The table top is then raised until it meets the stop and allowed to drop freely 15 times.
 This causes the concrete to spread further, in a roughly circular shape.
 The flow diameter is the average of the maximum diameter of the pool of concrete and
the diameter at right angles.

As well as getting an accurate measurement of the workability of the concrete, the flow test
gives an indication of the cohesion. A mix that is prone to segregation will produce a non-
circular pool of concrete. Cement paste may be seen separating from the aggregate. If the
mix is prone to bleeding, a ring of clear water may form after a few minutes.
Flow table test apparatus
Segregation and Bleeding
SEGREGATION – It can be defined as the separation of the constituent materials of concrete. A
good concrete is one in which all the ingredients are properly distributed to make a homogeneous
mixture. There are considerable differences in the sizes and specific gravities of the constituent
ingredients of concrete. Therefore, it is natural that the materials show a tendency to fall apart.

Segregation may be of three types:

1. Coarse aggregate separating out or settling down from the rest of the matrix.
2. Paste separating away from coarse aggregate.
3. Water separating out from the rest of the material being a material of lowest specific
gravity.
A well made concrete, taking into consideration various parameters such as grading, size,
shape and surface texture of aggregate with optimum quantity of waters makes a cohesive mix.
Such concrete will not exhibit any tendency for segregation. The cohesive and fatty
characteristics of matrix do not allow the aggregate to fall apart, at the same time; the matrix
itself is sufficiently contained by the aggregate. Similarly, water also does not find it easy to
move out freely from the rest of the ingredients.

The conditions favorable for segregation are

1. Badly proportioned mix where sufficient matrix is not there to bind and contain the
aggregates.
2. Insufficiently mixed concrete with excess water content.
3. Dropping of concrete from heights as in the case of placing concrete in column
concreting.
4. When concrete is discharged from a badly designed mixer, or from a mixer with worn out
blades.
5. Conveyance of concrete by conveyor belts, wheel barrow, long distance haul by dumper,
long lift by skip and hoist are the other situations promoting segregation of concrete.
 Vibration of concrete is one of the important methods of compaction. It should be
remembered that only comparatively dry mix should be vibrated. It too wet a mix is excessively
vibrated; it is likely that the concrete gets segregated. It should also be remembered that vibration
is continued just for required time for optimum results. If the vibration is continued for a long
time, particularly, in too wet a mix, it is likely to result in segregation of concrete due to
settlement of coarse aggregate in matrix.

Segregation

BLEEDING – This in concrete is sometimes referred as water gain. It is a particular form of

segregation, in which some of the water from the concrete comes out to the surface of the
concrete, being of the lowest specific gravity among all the ingredients of concrete. Bleeding is
predominantly observed in a highly wet mix, badly proportioned and insufficiently mixed
concrete. In thin members like roof slab or road slabs and when concrete is placed in sunny
weather show excessive bleeding.

Due to bleeding, water comes up and accumulates at the surface. Sometimes, along with this
water, certain quantity of cement also comes to the surface. When the surface is worked up with
the trowel, the aggregate goes down and the cement and water come up to the top surface. This
formation of cement paste at the surface is known as Laitance. In such a case, the top surface of
slabs and pavements will not have good wearing quality. This laitance formed on roads produces
dust in summer and mud in rainy season.
Water while traversing from bottom to top, makes continuous channels. If the water cement ratio
used is more than 0.7, the bleeding channels will remain continuous and un segmented. These
continuous bleeding channels are often responsible for causing permeability of the concrete
structures. While the mixing water is in the process of coming up, it may be intercepted by
aggregates. The bleeding water is likely to accumulate below the aggregate. This accumulation
of water creates water voids and reduces the bond between the aggregates and the paste.

The above aspect is more pronounced in the case of flaky aggregate. Similarly, the water that
accumulates below the reinforcing bars reduces the bond between the reinforcement and the
concrete. The poor bond between the aggregate and the paste or the reinforcement and the paste
due to bleeding can be remedied by re vibration of concrete. The formation of laitance and
the consequent bad effect can be reduced by delayed finishing operations. Bleeding rate
increases with time up to about one hour or so and thereafter the rate decreases but continues
more or less till the final setting time of cement.
Prevention of Bleeding in concrete

 Bleeding can be reduced by proper proportioning and uniform and complete mixing.
 Use of finely divided pozzolanic materials reduces bleeding by creating a longer path for
the water to traverse.
 Air-entraining agent is very effective in reducing the bleeding.
 Bleeding can be reduced by the use of finer cement or cement with low alkali content.
Rich mixes are less susceptible to bleeding than lean mixes.

The bleeding is not completely harmful if the rate of evaporation of water from the surface is
equal to the rate of bleeding. Removal of water, after it had played its role in providing
workability, from the body of concrete by way of bleeding will do well to the concrete.

In early bleeding when the concrete mass is fully

plastic, may not cause much harm, because
concrete being in a fully plastic condition at that
stage, will get subsided and compacted. It is the
delayed bleeding, when the concrete has lost its
plasticity, which causes undue harm to the concrete. Controlled re vibration may be adopted to
overcome the bad effect of bleeding.

Bleeding in concrete
Factors affecting concrete workability
1. Water-Cement ratio
2. Amount and type of Aggregate
3. Amount and type of Cement
4. Weather conditions
a. Temperature
b. Wind
5. Chemical Admixtures
6. Sand to Aggregate ratio

Water content or Water Cement Ratio - More the water cement ratio more will be workability
of concrete. Since by simply adding water the inter particle lubrication is increased. High water
content results in a higher fluidity and greater workability but reduces the strength of concrete.
Because with increasing w/c ratio the strength decreases as more water will result in higher
concrete porosity. So, the lower the w/c, the lower is the void volume/solid volume, and the
stronger the hardened cement paste. Increased water content also results in bleeding, hence,
increased water content can also mean that cement slurry will escape through the joints of the
formwork (Shuttering).
Amount and type of Aggregate - Since larger Aggregate sizes have relatively smaller surface
areas (for the cement paste to coat) and since less water means less cement, it is often said that
one should use the largest practicable Aggregate size and the stiffest practical mix. Most building
elements are constructed with a maximum Aggregate size of 3/4" to 1", larger sizes being
prohibited by the closeness of the reinforcing bars. Because concrete is continuously shrinking
for years after it is initially placed, it is generally accepted that under thermal loading it will
never expand to its originally-placed volume. More the amount of aggregate less will be
workability. Using smooth and round aggregate increases the workability. Workability reduces if
angular and rough aggregate is used. Greater size of Aggregate- less water is required to
lubricate it, the extra water is available for workability. Angular aggregates increases flakiness or
elongation thus reduces workability. Round smooth aggregates require less water and less
lubrication and greater workability in a given w/c ratio. Porous aggregates require more water
compared to non absorbent aggregates for achieving same degree of workability.
Aggregate Cement ratio - More the ratio less the workability. Since less cement mean less
water, so the paste is stiff.

Weather Conditions
(a) Temperature - If temperature is high, evaporation increases, thus workability
decreases.
(b) Wind - If wind is moving with greater velocity, the rate of evaporation also
increase reduces the amount of water and ultimately reducing workability.

Admixtures - Chemical admixtures can be used to increase workability. Use of air entraining
agent produces air bubbles which acts as a sort of ball bearing between particles and increases
mobility, workability and decreases bleeding, segregation. The use of fine pozzolanic materials
also has better lubricating effect and more workability.

Sand to Aggregate ratio - If the amount of sand is more the workability will reduce because
sand has more surface area and more contact area causing more resistance. The ingredients of
concrete can be proportioned by weight or volume. The goal is to provide the desired strength
and workability at minimum expense. A low water-cement ratio is used to achieve a stronger
concrete. It would seem therefore that by keeping the cement content high one could use enough
for god workability and still have a low w/c ratio.

Setting of concrete - The hardening of concrete before its hydration is known as setting of
concrete. The hardening of concrete before it gains strength. The transition process of changing
of concrete from plastic state to hardened state is also setting of concrete. Setting of concrete is
based or related to the setting of cement paste. Thus cement properties greatly affect the setting
time.
Factors affecting setting
 Water Cement ratio
 Suitable Temperature
 Cement content
 Type of Cement
  Fineness of Cement
 Relative Humidity
 Admixtures
 Type and amount of Aggregate
Air Entrainment - It reduces the density of concrete and consequently reduces the strength. Air
entrainment is used to produce a number of effects in both the plastic and the hardened concrete.
These include
1. Resistance to freeze–thaw action in the hardened concrete.
2. Increased cohesion, reducing the tendency to bleed and segregation in the plastic
concrete.
3. Compaction of low workability mixes including semi-dry concrete.
4. Stability of extruded concrete.
5. Cohesion and handling properties in bedding mortars.
MANUFACTURING OF CONCRETE
It is interesting to note that the ingredients of good concrete and bad concrete are the
same. If particular care is not exercised, and good rules are not observed, the resultant concrete
is going to be of bad quality. With the same material if intense care is taken to exercise control
at every stage, it will result in good concrete.

General concrete production

The various stages of manufacture of concrete are:
1. Batching
2. Mixing
3. Transporting
4. Placing
5. Compacting
6. Curing
7. Finishing

Process of concrete manufacturing

1. BATCHING is the process of measurement of specified quantities of cement, aggregates,

water and admixture, i.e., ingredients of concrete in correct proportion.
Batching Process
 Volumetric batching (Not desirable except for small non engineered jobs)
 Weigh Batching
Volumetric batching – It is not a good method for proportioning the material because of the
difficulty it offers to measure granular material in terms of volume. Volume of moist sand in a
loose condition weighs much less than the same volume of dry compacted sand. The effect of
bulking should be considered for moist fine aggregate. For unimportant concrete or for any
small job, concrete may be batched by volume.

Volumetric batching

Weigh Batching - Weigh batching is the correct method of measuring the materials. Use of
weight system in batching, facilitates accuracy, flexibility and simplicity. Large weigh batching
plants have automatic weighing equipment. On large work sites, the weigh bucket types of
weighing equipments are used.

Weigh batching
Components of a Batching Plant
 Aggregate bins for various types of aggregates
 Feeding mechanisms such as scrappers, conveyors or hoists etc. to transfer aggregate to
scales (balances)
 Balance and measuring system
 Cement silos and a conveyor screw or bucket conveyor
 The storage tank for water and water measuring system
 Dispenser for chemical (liquid) admixture
 Batching plant

2. MIXING - Thorough mixing is essential for production of uniform quality concrete. The
equipment and method should be capable of effectively mixing concrete material containing
largest specified aggregate to produce uniform mixtures of the lowest slump practical for the
work.
Types
1. Manual mixing or Hand mixing
2. Stationary mixing
3. Ready mix concrete
Manual or hand mix - Hand mixing is practiced for small scale unimportant concrete works.
As the mixing cannot be thorough and efficient, it is desirable to add 10 per cent more cement to
cater for the inferior concrete produced by this method. Hand mixing should be done over an
impervious concrete or brick floor of sufficiently large size to take one bag of cement. It is
spread out by the measured quantity of coarse aggregate and fine aggregate in alternate layers.
Pour the cement on the top of it, and mix them dry by shovel, turning the mixture over and over
again until uniformity of color is achieved. Water is taken in a water-can fitted with a rose-head
and sprinkled over the mixture and simultaneously turned over. This operation is continued till
such time a good uniform, homogeneous concrete is obtained.

Manual mixing of concrete

Stationary mixing – Mixing of concrete is almost invariably carried out by machine, for
reinforced concrete work and for medium or large scale mass concrete work. Machine mixing is
not only efficient, but also economical, when the quantity of concrete to be produced is large.
The following schematic sketch shows the type of stationary mixes.
Continuous Mixer - Continuous type mixer produces concrete at a constant rate. In this type,
the constituents are continuously entered at one end as the fresh concrete exits the other end.
They are usually non-tilting drums with screw-type blades rotating in the middle of the drum.

Traditional Continuous Mixer

Batch Mixer - The usual type of mixer is a batch mixer, which means that one batch of concrete
is mixed and discharged before any more materials are put into the mixer.
Two main types of batch mixer can be distinguished by the orientation of the axis of rotation.
1. Horizontal or Inclined (drum mixers)
2. Vertical (pan mixers)
The drum mixers have a drum, with fixed blades, rotating around its axis, while the pan
mixers may have either the blades or the pan rotating around the axis.
Horizontal or Inclined or Drum Mixers - This is also called as free fall mixer or gratify mixer.
In this type of mixer, concrete is mixed by lifting the ingredients with the help of fixed blades
inside a rotating drum and then dropping the material by overcoming the friction between the
mixture and the blades. The drum of the mixer can be filled and emptied by changing its
direction of rotation, opening it, or tipping it up. Rotation speed must carefully follow machine-
specific instructions and should not be too fast so that the free fall of the mixture is not
interrupted by the centrifugal force.
 Horizontal batch mixer
Types of Drum Mixers

 Non-tilting drum mixer.

 Reversing drum mixer.
 Tilting drum mixer.
Non-tilting drum mixer - The non-tilting drum mixer implies that the orientation of the drum is
fixed. The materials are added at one end and discharged at the other. A non tilting drum mixer is
one in which the axis of the mixer is always horizontal, and discharge takes place by inserting a
chute into the drum or by reversing the direction of rotation of drum. Because of slow rate of
discharge, some segregation may occur. There are two openings, one at each end of the drum:
one for feeding the ingredients, the other for discharging the mixture.
 Non tilting drum mixer

Reversing drum mixer (truck mixer) - The reversible drum mixer is similar to the non tilting
mixer except that the same opening is used to add the constituents and to discharge the
aggregate. The drum on a reversible mixer has one horizontal axis around which it rotates. In
mixing position, the drum rotates in one direction; while for discharging, the rotation is reversed.
Commonly self-loading, reversible mixers are mid-size to large-size units mounted on a two-or
four-wheeled trailer for transportation between sites. The mixer is equipped with a tilting hopper
similar to that occasionally found on a tilting mixer, or with a hoist-like hopper that moves up
and down on a short inclined set of rails and that dumps the ingredients through a bottom
opening into the drum. A built-in mechanical skip to facilitate aggregate loading into the hopper
is optional on many models. Most models of this mixer type are equipped with a water tank and
meter, and optionally (the larger models) with a built-in aggregates batcher.
Types of reversing or truck Mixers

 Rear discharge truck mixers

 Front discharge truck mixers
Rear discharge trucks - Rear discharge trucks require both a driver and a "chute man" to guide
the truck and chute back and forth to place concrete in the manner suitable to the contractor.

Rear discharge trucks

Front discharge trucks - Newer front discharge trucks have controls inside the cab of the truck
to allow the driver to move the chute in all directions.

Front discharge trucks

Tilting mixer - In this type of mixer axis of the drum does not remain horizontal. The position of
drum axis for different operations i.e. feeding, mixing and discharge is different. Tilting mixers
are usually trailer-mounted or otherwise portable, small to mid-size mixers, used either as main
concrete mixing equipment on small sites or as ancillary equipment on sites served by concrete
plant.
The drum has two axes: one around which the drum rotates and another that serves to
change from loading and mixing position (drum opening up) to discharging position (drum
opening down). This position change is done manually by a dump wheel (or handle, in the
smaller mixers), while drum rotation is electric, gasoline, or diesel powered. Drums are
traditionally made of steel, but polyethylene drums for easier cleaning are now offered. Most
mixers are of the side-dump type, but end-dump mixers are also manufactured. Material is
generally loaded manually, directly into the drum. There are larger-size self-loading units
equipped with a tilting hopper. After being filled manually at ground level, the hopper is tilted up
mechanically and dumps the material into the drum. A built-in mechanical drag shovel to
facilitate aggregate loading into the hopper is optional in some models. The drum is conical or
bowl shaped with internal vanes and the discharge is rapid and unsegregated so that these mixers
are suitable for mixes of low workability and for those containing larger size aggregate. The
drum axis usually stays at an angle of 15 degree from horizontal during mixing. Tilt mixer offers
consistent mixing with lower operating and maintenance cost. Tilting drum is the most common
type of drum mixers for small batches. Tilting mixers can handle larger size aggregates more
easily and will discharge mixed concrete rapidly than a non tilting mixer.
 Tilting drum mixer

Pan Mixer
A pan type mixer is a forced–action mixer, as distinct from drum mixer which relies on the free
fall of the concrete inside the drum. The pan mixer consist of a circular pan rotating about its
axis with one or two stars paddles rotating about vertical axis of pan.
Components of a pan mixer are,

 Pan
 Shaft
 Scraper
 Pan Mixer

3. TRANSPORTING - Transporting the concrete mix is defined as the transferring of concrete

from the mixing plant to the construction site. Keep in mind that not all concrete is mixed on the
actual construction site and could require some significant travel. This is most common for
ready-mixed concretes. The main objective in transporting concrete is to ensure that the water-
cement ratio, slump or consistency, air content, and homogeneity are not modified from their
intended states.
Important Factors in Choosing Transportation
There are many elements of transporting that need to be considered in order to ensure that a mix
does not change its state as specified in the contract. The two key goals when transporting
concrete from the mixing plant to the construction site are to prevent segregation and to not
reduce the workability of the mix. This transportation process must be well thought out and
organized efficiently. As a general rule of thumb, thirty to sixty minutes of transportation are
acceptable on small jobs. At a central or portable ready-mix plant, concrete should be discharged
from a truck mixer or agitator truck within two hours. If non-agitating transporting equipment is
used, this time is reduced to one hour. All delays must be avoided in order prevent
honeycombing.
Many factors determine which type of transportation is most suitable. Type and constituents of
the concrete mix, size and type of construction, topography, weather conditions (i.e. temperature,
humidity, wind speed), location of the batch plant, and cost are all taken into consideration when
choosing a mode of transport for your concrete. If you choose the wrong mode of transportation,
your concrete could be segregated, which would in effect, make it useless. Therefore it is
essential that adequate thought be given to the type of transportation you actually need.
Categories of Transportation
There are many modes of transportation as shown below:
a) Mortar Pan - It is a labor intensive method and generally used for small works. There are
no chances of segregation of concrete. In hot weather, there is a substantial loss of water
due to more exposure of concrete to environment.

b) Wheelbarrow or Hand cart - It is normally used on ground level i.e. road construction and
other similar structures. Segregation can occur if transportation is done on rough roads,
however this problem can be minimizes if pneumatic tyres are used.

c) Truck mixer - It is an improved and better method for long lead concreting. The concrete
is covered with tarpaulin if it is transported in open trucks. If long distance is involved,
agitators should be used.
d) Bucket or Ropeway - It is suitable for works in valley, over high piers and long dam sites.
Excessive free fall of concrete should be avoided to minimize segregation.

e) Chute - It is generally used for concreting in deep locations. Care should be taken that
slope should not be flatter than 1V:2.5H, otherwise concrete will not slide down. But
workability should not be changed to suit the delivery by chute. Technically it is not a
very good method but it is extensively used in the field.
f) Belt conveyor - It has limited application due to chances of segregation on steep slopes,
roller points and changes in direction of belt. It also involves over-exposure of concrete
to environment.

g) Concrete pump - It is the most sophisticated method particularly suitable for limited
space or when a large quantity of concrete is to be poured without cold joints. Pumping
of concrete can be done at 8 to 70 cubic meters per hour up to a horizontal distance of
300 meter and vertical distance of 90 meter. Pipe diameter is generally 8 to 20 cm and it
is made of steel, plastic or aluminum. The workability for pumped concrete should have a
minimum of 40 to 100 mm of slump or 0.90 to 0.95 compacting factor. At delivery point
the workability may be reduced by 25% due to compaction and this factor should be kept
in mind while designing the mix.

h) Skip and Hoist - It is a widely used method for high rise structures. Concrete is fed into
the skip which travels vertically on rails like a lift. After discharging, it is better to turn
over the concrete before use to avoid segregation.
 i) Transit Mixer - Transit mixer is one of the most popular equipment for transporting
concrete over a long distance particularly in ready mix concrete plant. They are truck
mounted having a capacity of 4 to 7 cubic meter. There are two variations. In one, mixed
concrete is transported to the site by keeping it agitated all along at a speed varying
between 2 to 6 revolutions per minute. In other category, the concrete is batched at the
central batching plant and mixing is done in the truck mixer either in transit or
immediately prior to discharging concrete at site.

4. PLACING
Before any concrete is placed the entire placing program consisting of equipment, layout,
proposed procedures and methods is planned and no concrete is placed until formwork is
inspected and found suitable for placement. Equipment for conveying concrete should be of
such size and design as to ensure a practically continuous flow of concrete during depositing
without segregation of materials considering the size of the job and placement location.
Concrete is placed in its final position before the cement reaches its initial set and concrete is
compacted in its final position within 30 minutes of leaving the mixer and once compacted it
should not be disturbed.
In all cases the concrete is deposited as nearly as practicable directly in its final position
and should not be re-handled or caused to flow in a manner which may cause segregation, loss
of materials, displacement of reinforcement, shuttering or embedded inserts or impair its
strength. For locations where direct placement is not possible and in narrow forms suitable
drop and Elephant Trunks to confine the movement of concrete is provided. Special care is
taken where concrete is dropped from a height especially if reinforcement is in the way
particularly in columns and thin walls.
Concrete should be placed in the shuttering by shovels or other methods and should not
be dropped from a height more than 1 m or handle in a manner which will cause segregation.
Concrete placed in restricted forms by borrows; buggies, cars, sort chutes or hand shoveling
should be subjected to the requirement for vertical delivery of limited height to avoid
segregation and should be deposited as nearly as practicable in its final position.
Concreting once started should be continuous until the pour is completed. Concrete
should be placed in successive horizontal layers of uniform thickness ranging from 150 mm to
900 mm. These should be placed as rapidly as practicable to prevent the formation of cold
joints or planes of weakness between each succeeding layers within the pour.
The thickness of each layer should be such that it can be deposited before the previous
layer has stiffened. The bucket loads or other units of deposit should be spotted progressively
along the face of the layer with such overlap as will facilitate spreading the layer to uniform
depth and texture with a minimum of shoveling. Any tendency to segregation should be
corrected by shoveling stones into mortar rather than mortar onto stones. Such a condition
should be corrected by redesign of mix or other suitable means.
 Placing of concrete
5. COMPACTING
Compaction is a process of expelling the entrapped air. If we don’t expel this air, it will result
into honeycombing and reduced strength. It has been found from the experimental studies that
1% air in the concrete approximately reduces the strength by 6%.

It is important to compact the concrete fully because:

 Air voids reduce the strength of the concrete. For every 1% of entrapped air, the strength
falls by somewhere between 5 and 7%. This means that concrete containing a mere 5%
air voids due to incomplete compaction can lose as much as one third of its strength.
  Air voids increase concrete's permeability. That in turn reduces its durability. If the
concrete is not dense and impermeable, it will not be watertight. It will be less able to
withstand aggressive iquids and its exposed surfaces will weather badly.
 Moisture and air are more likely to penetrate to the reinforcement causing it to rust.
 Air voids impair contact between the mix and reinforcement (and, indeed, any other
embedded metals). The required bond will not be achieved and the reinforced member
will not be as strong as it should be.
 Air voids produce blemishes on struck surfaces. For instance, blowholes and
honeycombing might occur.
Different methods of concrete compaction
There are two methods of compaction adopted in the field as given below.

 Hand compaction

 Mechanical Compaction
HAND COMPACTION
Hand compaction is used for ordinary and unimportant structures. Workability should be decided
in such a way that the chances of honeycombing should be minimum. The various methods of
hand compaction are as given below.

1. Rodding - It is a method of poking with 2m long, 16 mm dia rod at sharp corners and
edges. The thickness of layers for rodding should be 15 to 20 cm.
 2. Ramming - It is generally used for compaction on ground in plain concrete. It is not used
either in RCC or on upper floors.

3. Tamping - It is a method in which the top surface is beaten by wooden cross beam of
cross section 10 cm x 10 cm. both compaction and leveling are achieved simultaneously.
It is mainly used for roof slabs and road pavements.

MECHANICAL COMPACTION
Vibration is imparted to the concrete by mechanical means. It causes temporary
liquefaction so that air bubbles come on to the top and expelled ultimately. Mechanical vibration
can be of various types as given under.
1. Internal Vibration - It is most commonly used technique of concrete vibration. Vibration
is achieved due to eccentric weights attached to the shaft. The needle diameter varies
from 20 mm to 75 mm and its length varies from 25 cm to 90 cm. the frequency range
adopted is normally 3500 to 5000 rpm. The correct and incorrect methods of vibration
using internal vibration needles are shown below.
2. External Vibration - This is adopted where internal vibration can’t be used due to either
thin sections or heavy reinforcement. External vibration is less effective and it consumes
more power as compared to the internal vibration. The form work also has to be made
extra strong when external vibration is used.

3. Table Vibration - It is mainly used for laboratories where concrete is put on the table.
4. Platform Vibration- It is similar to table vibrators but these are generally used on a very
large scale.
6. Surface Vibration - These are also called screed board vibrators. The action is similar to
that of tamping. The vibrator is placed on screed board and vibration is given on the
surface. It is mainly used for roof slabs, road pavements etc., but it is not effective
beyond 15 cm depth.

Combination of all
7. CURING
Once concrete has been placed and consolidated it must be allowed to cure properly to
develop good final properties. As the concrete hardens and gains strength it becomes less and
less vulnerable, so the critical time period is the first hours and days after it is placed. Proper
curing of concrete generally comes down to two factors, keeping it moist and keeping it
supported. Hydration of cement, as the word itself implies, involves reaction with water. To
cure properly, the cement paste must be fully saturated with water. If the relative humidity
level inside the concrete drops to near 90% the hydration reactions will slow, and by 80% they
will stop altogether. Not only will this prevent the concrete from gaining its full strength, but it
will also generate internal stresses that can cause cracking. To keep fresh and young concrete
moist, it can be covered with plastic or damp fabric to prevent evaporation, or sprayed
periodically with water. Spraying is particularly helpful when the w/c of the concrete is low,
because the original mix water is not enough for the cement to hydrate fully. The additional
water will not penetrate through a thick concrete structure, but it will help create a stronger
surface layer. Pools of water should not be allowed to form on the surface, however, as this
will leach and degrade the concrete underneath.
When concrete is placed using formwork, there is generally a desire to remove the
formwork as quickly as possible to continue the construction process. However, if this is done
too soon the fresh concrete will deform under its own weight. This will lead to a loss of
dimensional tolerances, cracking, or even a complete collapse. Similar problems occur if loads
are applied to the surface of a floor or slab too early.
The weather plays an important role in the curing process. Hot windy weather leads to
rapid evaporation and thus particular care must be taken to keep the concrete moist. Cold
weather causes the concrete to harden much more slowly than hot weather. This delays the
construction process, but leads to better concrete in the long run, because the hydration
products develop differently at different temperatures. If fresh concrete freezes, however, it
will likely be destroyed beyond repair.
8. FINISHING
Concrete that will be visible, such as driveways, highways, or patios, often needs
finishing. Slabs can be finished in many ways, depending on the intended service use. Options
include various colors and textures, such as exposed aggregate or a patterned-stamped surface.
Some surfaces may require only strike off and screeding to proper contour and elevation, while
for other surfaces a broomed, floated, or troweled finish may be specified.
Screeding or strike off is the process of cutting off excess concrete to bring the top surface of the
slab to proper grade. A straight edge is moved across the concrete with a sawing motion and
advanced forward a short distance with each movement.
Bull floating eliminates high and low spots and embeds large aggregate particles immediately
after strike off. This looks like a long-handled straight edge pulled across the concrete.
Jointing is required to eliminate unsightly random cracks. Contraction joints are made with a
hand groover or by inserting strips of plastic, wood, metal, or preformed joint material into the
unhardened concrete. Saw cut joints can be made after the concrete is sufficiently hard or strong
enough to prevent raveling.
After the jointing the concrete, it should be floated with a wood or metal hand float or with a
finishing machine using float blades. This embeds aggregate particles just beneath the surface;
removes slight imperfections, humps, and voids; and compacts the mortar at the surface in
preparation for additional finishing operations.
Where a smooth, hard, dense surface is desired, floating should be followed by steel troweling.
Troweling should not be done on a surface that has not been floated; troweling after only bull
floating is not an adequate finish procedure. A slip-resistant surface can be produced by
brooming before the concrete has thoroughly hardened, but it should be sufficiently hard to
retain the scoring impression.

Troweling Groover (Grooving for joints)

Brooming Screeding
Overall manufacturing process
READY MIX CONCRETE
Ready mixed concrete production is a process, whereby, mixing and transportation of
concrete can be combined together and the product is delivered to the site, at times right in the
mould straight away. According to IS-4926, the definition of Ready mixed concrete is:
“Concrete delivered at site or in to the purchaser’s vehicle in a plastic condition and requiring no
further treatment before being placed in position in which it is to set and harden”.
Factors Delaying Entry of RMC in India
 RMC is highly mechanized activity and entails initial high cost.
 Especially due to import of basic equipment and machinery.
 Smaller size of construction in unorganized sector highly competitive and cost conscious.
 Availability of abundant cheap labor for making and transporting concrete.
 Differential taxation between RMC and SMC.
 Especially before 1997 when excise duty @16% also existed.
Factors that Prompted Introduction of RMC
 Increasing stakes in the reliability and durability of construction of emerging users.
 Decreasing share of construction cost in overall cost of the facility.
 Increasing awareness on environmental factors and convenience.
 Globalization – adoption of best practices across the globe.
 Bigger size of projects and Time is recognized as a cost factor.
Status of RMC in India
Expected growth of commercial RMC in India

Dry Batch Concrete Plant Major Components

 Bulk Dry Storage Silos o Cement o Fly Ash

 Aggregate Storage Bins
 Aggregate Scale
 Cementitious Scale
 Charging Belt
 Radial Stacker
 Water Meter / Scale
 Discharge Boot

A typical RMC
Flowchart for Manufacturing of concrete in RMC
RMC- MAJOR ADVANTAGES
 Assured and Uniform Quality of Concrete
 Speedier Construction through mechanized operations
 Need For Ordering and Storing Cement, Aggregates and Sand on Site Totally Eliminated
 Lower Labor And Supervisory Costs
 Minimization of cement wastage through bulk handling and storage
 Cleaner working environment
 Eco-friendly product

RMC DISADVANTAGES
 Delay in setting of concrete beyond 24 hours.
 Development of cracks when the concrete is still in fresh state.
 Development of cracks in hardened concrete.
 Non-compliance of concrete cube strength (cast at site) to specifications at 7-days.
 Non-compliance of concrete cube strength (cast at site) to specifications at 28-days.
 Concrete supplied to site either has more slump than specified or has become stiff making
it difficult to pump.

PROPERTIES OF HARDENED CONCRETE

Characteristic strength, drying shrinkage, creep, modulus of elasticity, permeability and
resistance to chemical attack are hardened and time-dependent properties of concrete that may
influence structural performance.
Structural performance may be described in terms of:
 Strength: The ability of the structure to withstand load.
 Serviceability: The ability of the structure to provide a comfortable, aesthetic
environment when used for intended functions.
 Durability: The time for which the structure is serviceable, and the maintenance required
for it to remain serviceable. The ability of a structure to withstand load does not
necessarily imply that the structure will fulfi ll its function.
STRENGTH OF CONCRETE

In concrete design and quality control, strength is the property generally specified. This
is because, compared to most other properties, testing strength is relatively easy. Furthermore,
other properties of concrete, such as elastic modulus, water tightness or impermeability, and
resistance to weathering agents including aggressive waters, are directly related to strength and
can therefore be deduced from the strength data.
To determine the strength of concrete three types of tests are followed;
1. Compressive strength test
2. Tensile strength test
3. Flexural strength test

ELASTICITY - The modulus of elasticity, denoted as E, is defined as the ratio between normal
stress to strain below the proportional limit of a material and it is used to measure instantaneous
elastic deformation. Since no test exist to evaluate the direct elastic modulus of concrete, the
proportional limit is evaluated by means of a value which is used to establish the limit used for
the curves in the repeated applications of load. The elastic modulus is then calculated by
determining the slope of the straight line in the stress-strain diagram.

Since the stress-strain curve for concrete is nonlinear, following methods for computing the
modulus of elasticity of concrete are used yielding various types of modulus of elasticity for
concrete:
The “initial tangent modulus” It is given by the slope of a line drawn tangent to the stress-strain
curve at the origin
The “tangent modulus” It is given by the slope of a line drawn tangent to the stress-strain curve
at any point on the curve
The “secant modulus” It is given by the slope of a line drawn from the origin to a point on the
curve corresponding to a 40% stress of the failure stress
The “chord modulus” It is given by the slope of a line drawn between two points on the stress-
strain curve

Typical Stress-Strain Plot of Concrete

 At stress below 30% of ultimate strength, the transition zone cracks remain stable. The
stress-strain plot remains linear.
  At stress between 30% and 50% of ultimate strength, the transition zone micro cracks
begin to increase in length, width and numbers. The stress-strain plot becomes non-linear.
 At 50 to 60% of the ultimate stress, cracks begin to form in the matrix. With further
increase to about 75% of the ultimate stress, the cracks in the transition become unstable,
and crack propagation in the matrix will increase. The stress-strain curve bends towards
the horizontal.
 At 75 to 80% of the ultimate stress, the stress reaches a critical stress level for
spontaneous crack growth under a sustained stress. Cracks propagate rapidly in both the
matrix and the transition zone. Failure occurs when the cracks join together and become
continuous.
Concrete is not a truly elastic material, as evident from the nonlinear stress-strain curve for
concrete

SHRINKAGE - Shrinkage of concrete is the time-dependent strain measured in an unloaded and

unrestrained specimen at constant temperature
To understand this aspect more closely, shrinkage can be classified in the following ways;
1. Plastic Shrinkage
2. Drying Shrinkage
3. Autogeneous Shrinkage
4. Carbonation Shrinkage
Plastic shrinkage - Shrinkage of this type manifests itself soon after the concrete is placed in the
forms while the concrete is still in the plastic state. Loss of water by evaporation from the surface
of concrete or by the absorption by aggregate or subgrade is believed to be the reasons of plastic
shrinkage. The loss of water results in the reduction of volume. The aggregate particles or the
reinforcement comes in the way of subsidence due to which cracks may appear at the surface or
internally around the aggregate or reinforcement. In case of floors and pavements where the
surface area exposed to drying is large as compared to depth, when this large surface is exposed
to hot sun and drying wind, the surface of concrete dries very fast which results in plastic
shrinkage. Sometimes even if the concrete is not subjected to severe drying, but poorly made
with a high water/ cement ratio, large quantity of water bleeds and accumulates at the surface.
When this water at the surface dries out, the surface of concrete collapses causing the cracks.
Plastic concrete is sometimes subjected to unintended vibration or yielding of formwork support
which again causes plastic shrinkage cracks as the concrete at this stage has not developed
enough strength. From the above it can be inferred that high water/ cement ratio, badly
proportioned concrete, rapid drying, greater bleeding, unintended vibration etc., are some of the
reasons for plastic shrinkage. It can also be further added that richer concrete undergoes greater
plastic shrinkage. Plastic shrinkage can be reduced mainly by preventing the rapid loss of water
from surface. This can be done by covering the surface with polyethylene sheeting immediately
on finishing operation; by monomolecular coatings by fog spray that keeps the surface moist; or
by working at night. An effective method of removing plastic shrinkage cracks is to reverberate
the concrete in a controlled manner. Use of small quantity of aluminum power is also suggested
to offset the effect of plastic shrinkage. Similarly, expansive cement or shrinkage compensating
cement also can be used for controlling the shrinkage during the setting o f concrete. The
principal property of such cement is that the expansion induced in the plastic concrete will
almost offset the normal shrinkage due to loss of moisture. Under correct usage, the distance
between the joints can sometimes be tripled without increasing the level of shrinkage cracking.
Further, use of unneeded high slump concrete, over sanded mix, higher air entraining should be
discouraged in order to reduce the higher plastic shrinkage.
 Plastic shrinkage
Drying Shrinkage - Just as the hydration of cement is an everlasting process, the drying
shrinkage is also an everlasting process when concrete is subjected to drying conditions. The
drying shrinkage of concrete is analogous to the mechanism of drying of timber specimen. The
loss of free water contained in hardened concrete, does not result in any appreciable dimension
change. It is the loss of water held in gel pores that causes the change in the volume. Under
drying conditions, the gel water is lost progressively over a long time, as long as the concrete is
kept in drying conditions. It is theoretically estimated that the total linear change due to long
time drying shrinkage could be of the order of 10,000 microns. But values up to 4,000 microns
have been actually observed. Cement paste shrinks more than mortar and mortar shrinks more
than concrete. Concrete made with smaller size aggregate shrinks more than concrete made with
bigger size aggregate. The magnitude of drying shrinkage is also a function of the fineness of
gel. The finer the gel the more is the shrinkage. It has been pointed out earlier that the high
pressure steam cured concrete with low specific surface of gel, shrinks much less than that of
normally cured cement gel.
 Drying Shrinkage

Factors affecting dry shrinkage

Autogeneous Shrinkage: In a conservative system i.e. where no moisture movement to or from
the paste is permitted; when temperature is constant some shrinkage may occur. The shrinkage of
such a conservative system is known as autogeneous shrinkage. Autogeneous shrinkage is of
minor importance and is not applicable in practice to many situations except that of mass of
concrete in the interior of a concrete dam. The magnitude of autogeneous shrinkage is in the
order of about 100 microns.

Carbonation Shrinkage - Carbonation shrinkage is a phenomenon very recently recognised.

Carbon dioxide present in the atmosphere reacts in the presence of water with hydrated cement.
Calcium hydroxide gets converted to calcium carbonate and also some other cement compounds
are decomposed. Such a complete decomposition of calcium compound in hydrated cement is
chemically possible even at the low pressure of carbon dioxide in normal atmosphere.
Carbonation penetrates beyond the exposed surface of concrete only very slowly. The rate of
penetration of carbon dioxide depends also on the moisture content of the concrete and the
relative humidity of the ambient medium. Carbonation is accompanied by an increase in weight
of the concrete and by shrinkage. Carbonation shrinkage is probably caused by the dissolution of
crystals of calcium hydroxide and deposition of calcium carbonate in its place. As the new
product is less in volume than the product replaced, shrinkage takes place.
Carbonation of concrete also results in increased strength and reduced permeability, possibly
because water released by carbonation promotes the process of hydration and also calcium
carbonate reduces the voids within the cement paste. As the magnitude of carbonation shrinkage
is very small when compared to long term drying shrinkage, this aspect is not of much
significance. But carbonation reduces the alkalinity of concrete which gives a protective coating
to the reinforcement against rusting. If depth of carbonation reaches up to steel reinforcements,
the steel becomes liable for corrosion. The rate of penetration of carbon dioxide depends also on
the moisture content of the concrete and the relative humidity of the ambient medium.
Carbonation is accompanied by an increase in weight of the concrete and by shrinkage
Carbonation shrinkage is probably caused by the dissolution of crystals of calcium hydroxide
and deposition of calcium carbonate in its place. As the new product is less in volume than the
product replaced, shrinkage takes place. Carbonation of concrete also results in increased
strength and reduced permeability, possibly because water released by carbonation promotes the
process of hydration and also calcium carbonate reduces the voids within the cement paste. As
the magnitude of carbonation shrinkage is very small when compared to long term drying
shrinkage, this aspect is not of much significance
CREEP - Concrete creep is defined as: deformation of structure under sustained load. Basically,
long term pressure or stress on concrete can make it change shape. This deformation usually
occurs in the direction the force is being applied. Like a concrete column getting more
compressed, or a beam bending. Creep does not necessarily cause concrete to fail or break apart.
Creep is factored in when concrete structures are designed.
Factors Affecting Creep

1. Aggregate
2. Mix Proportions
3. Age of concrete
1. Influence of Aggregate - Aggregate undergoes very little creep. It is really the paste which is
responsible for the creep. However, the aggregate influences the creep of concrete through a
restraining effect on the magnitude of creep. The paste which is creeping under load is restrained
by aggregate which do not creep. The stronger the aggregate the more is the restraining effect
and hence the less is the magnitude of creep. The modulus of elasticity of aggregate is one of the
important factors influencing creep. It can be easily imagined that the higher the modulus of
elasticity the less is the creep. Light weight aggregate shows substantially higher creep than
normal weight aggregate.

2. Influence of Mix Proportions - The amount of paste content and its quality is one of the most
important factors influencing creep. A poorer paste structure undergoes higher creep. Therefore,
it can be said that creep increases with increase in water/cement ratio. In other words, it can also
be said that creep is inversely proportional to the strength of concrete. Broadly speaking, all
other factors which are affecting the water/cement ratio are also affecting the creep.

3. Influence of Age - Age at which a concrete member is loaded will have a predominant effect
on the magnitude of creep. This can be easily understood from the fact that the quality of gel
improves with time. Such gel creeps less, whereas a young gel under load being not so stronger
creeps more. What is said above is not a very accurate statement because of the fact that the
moisture content of the concrete being different at different age also influences the magnitude of
creep.
Effects of Creep on Concrete and Reinforced Concrete

 In reinforced concrete beams, creep increases the deflection with time and may be a
critical consideration in design.
 In eccentrically loaded columns, creep increases the deflection and can load to buckling.
  In case of statically indeterminate structures and column and beam junctions creep may
relieve the stress concentration induced by shrinkage, temperatures changes or movement
of support. Creep property of concrete will be useful in all concrete structures to reduce
the internal stresses due to non-uniform load or restrained shrinkage.
 In mass concrete structures such as dams, on account of differential temperature
conditions at the interior and surface, creep is harmful and by itself may be a cause of
cracking in the interior of dams. Therefore, all precautions and steps must be taken to see
that increase in temperature does not take place in the interior of mass concrete structure.
 Loss of prestress due to creep of concrete in prestressed concrete structure.

DURABILITY OF CONCRETE
The ability of concrete to withstand the conditions for which it is designed without
deterioration for a long period of years is known as durability. In other words it can also be
expressed as the ability of concrete to resist weathering action, chemical attack, and abrasion
while maintaining its desired engineering properties. It normally refers to the duration or life
span of trouble-free performance. Different concretes require different degrees of durability
depending on the exposure environment and properties desired. For example, concrete exposed
to tidal seawater will have different requirements than indoor concrete.

Concrete will remain durable if:

 The cement paste structure is dense and of low permeability
 Under extreme condition, it has entrained air to resist freeze-thaw cycle.
 It is made with graded aggregate that are strong and inert
 The ingredients in the mix contain minimum impurities such as alkalis, Chlorides,
Sulphates and silt

Factors affecting durability of concrete

Cement content - Mix must be designed to ensure cohesion and prevent segregation and
bleeding. If cement is reduced, then at fixed w/c ratio the workability will be reduced leading to
inadequate compaction. However, if water is added to improve workability, water / cement ratio
increases and resulting in highly permeable material.
Compaction - The concrete as a whole contain voids can be caused by inadequate compaction.
Usually it is being governed by the compaction equipments used, type of formworks, and density
of the steelwork

Curing - It is very important to permit proper strength development aid moisture retention and to
ensure hydration process occur completely

Cover - Thickness of concrete cover must follow the limits set in codes

Permeability - It is considered the most important factor for durability. It can be noticed that
higher permeability is usually caused by higher porosity .Therefore, a proper curing, sufficient
cement, proper compaction and suitable concrete cover could provide a low permeability
concrete

There are many types but the major Concrete Durability types are:

1. Physical durability
2. Chemical durability

1. Physical Durability

Physical durability is against the following actions

1. Freezing and thawing action
2. Percolation / Permeability of water
3. Temperature stresses i.e. high heat of hydration
2. Chemical Durability

Chemical durability is against the following actions

1. Alkali Aggregate Reaction
2. Sulphate Attack
3. Chloride Ingress
4. Delay Ettringite Formation
5. Corrosion of reinforcement
Causes for the Lack of Durability in Concrete
1. External Causes:

a. Extreme Weathering Conditions

b. Extreme Temperature
c. Extreme Humidity
d. Abrasion
e. Electrolytic Action
f. Attack by a natural or industrial liquids or gases
2. Internal Causes
a) Physical

 Volume change due to difference in thermal properties of aggregates and cement

paste
 Frost Action
b) Chemical

 Alkali Aggregate Reactions

 Alkali Silica Reaction

 Alkali Silicate Reaction
 Alkali Carbonate Reaction

 Corrosion of Steel
Concrete ingredients, their proportioning, interactions between them, placing and curing
practices, and the service environment determine the ultimate durability and life of concrete.
Seawater Exposure - Concrete has been used in seawater exposures for decades with excellent
performance. However, special care in mix design and material selection is necessary for these
severe environments. A structure exposed to seawater or seawater spray is most vulnerable in the
tidal or splash zone where there are repeated cycles of wetting and drying and/or freezing and
thawing. Sulfates and chlorides in seawater require the use of low permeability concrete to
minimize steel corrosion and sulfate attack. A cement resistant to sulfate exposure is helpful.
Proper concrete cover over reinforcing steel must be provided, and the water-cementitious ratio
should not exceed 0.40.
Chloride Resistance and Steel Corrosion - Chloride present in plain concrete that does not
contain steel is generally not a durability concern. Concrete protects embedded steel from
corrosion through its highly alkaline nature. The high pH environment in concrete (usually
greater than 12.5) causes a passive and non corroding protective oxide film to form on steel.
However, the presence of chloride ions from deicers or seawater can destroy or penetrate the
film. Once the chloride corrosion threshold is reached, an electric cell is formed along the steel
or between steel bars and the electrochemical process of carrions begins.
The resistance of concrete to chloride is good; however, for severe environments such as bridge
decks, it can be increase by using a low water-cementitious ratio (about 0.40), at least seven days
of moist curing, and supplementary cementitious materials such as silica fume, to reduce
permeability. Increasing the concrete cover over the steel also helps slow down the migration of
chlorides. Other methods of reducing steel corrosion include the use of corrosion inhibiting
admixtures, epoxy-coated reinforcing steel, surface treatments, concrete overlays, and cathodic
protection.

Resistance to Alkali-Silica Reaction (ASR) - ASR is an expansive reaction between reactive

forms of silica in aggregates and potassium and sodium alkalis, mostly from cement, but also
from aggregates, pozzolans, admixtures, and mixing water. The reactivity is potentially harmful
only when it produces significant expansion. Indications of the presence of alkali-aggregate
reactivity may be a network of cracks, closed or spalling joints, or movement of portions of a
structure. ASR can be controlled through proper aggregate selection and/or the use of
supplementary cementitious materials (such as fly ash or slag cement) or blended cements
proven by testing to control the reaction.

Abrasion Resistance - Concrete is resistant to the abrasive affects of ordinary weather. Examples
of severe abrasion and erosion are particles in rapidly moving water, floating ice, or areas where
steel studs are allowed on tires. Abrasion resistance is directly related to the strength of the
concrete. For areas with severe abrasion, studies show that concrete with compressive strengths
of 12,000 to 19,000 psi work well.
Concrete Crack
Concrete, like most materials, will shrink slightly when it dries out. Common shrinkage is about
1/16th of an inch in a 10-foot length of concrete. The reason contractors place joints in concrete
pavements and floors is to allow the concrete to crack in a neat, straight line at the joint, where
concrete cracks due to shrinkage are expected to occur. Control or construction joints are also
placed in concrete walls and other structures.

Moderate to Severe Exposure Conditions for Concrete

The following are important exposure conditions and deterioration mechanisms in
concrete. Concrete can withstand these effects when properly designed. The Specifier’s Guide
for Durable Concrete is intended to provide sufficient information to allow the practitioner to
select materials and mix design parameters to achieve durable concrete in a variety of
environments.
Resistance to Freezing and Thawing - The most potentially destructive weathering factor is
freezing and thawing while the concrete is wet, particularly in the presence of deicing chemicals.
Deterioration is caused by the freezing of water and subsequent expansion in the paste, the
aggregate particles, or both. With the addition of an air entrainment admixture, concrete is highly
resistant to freezing and thawing. During freezing, the water displaced by ice formation in the
paste is accommodated so that it is not disruptive; the microscopic air bubbles in the paste
provide chambers for the water to enter and thus relieve the hydraulic pressure generated.
Concrete with a low water-cementitious ratio (0.40 or lower) is more durable than concrete with
a high water-cementitious ratio (0.50 or higher). Air-entrained concrete with a low water-
cementitious ratio and an air content of 5 to 8% will withstand a great number of cycles of
freezing and thawing without distress.

Effect of Admixtures on concrete

As can be predicted from the effect of water-cement ratio on shrinkage, admixtures that
increase the water requirement of concrete increase shrinkage and those that decrease the water
requirement decrease it. Calcium chloride in the amount often added as an accelerator – 2 per
cent by weight of the amount of cement – may increase drying shrinkage by as much as 50 per
cent.
The over-all effect of the use of air entrained concrete is not to increase shrinkage. Some
admixtures, if used in somewhat larger than normal doses, do increase shrinkage greatly and care
must be exercised in the proportioning

CHEMICAL ATTACKS CARBONATION - Chemical attacks on concrete structures causes

deterioration of structure and its durability is affected. The life of structure reduces and it can
lead to failure of structures. The various types of chemical attacks and their effects on concrete
structures are discussed below:
(a) Chlorides attacks on concrete structures:
High concentrations of chloride ions cause corrosion of reinforcement and the products of
corrosion can disrupt the concrete. Chlorides can be introduced in to the concrete either during
or after construction as follows.
(i) Before construction Chlorides can be admitted in admixtures containing calcium
chloride, through using mixing water contaminated with salt water or improperly
washed marine aggregates.
(ii) After construction Chlorides in salt or sea water, in airborne sea spray and from de-
icing salts can attack permeable concrete causing corrosion of reinforcement.

Chemical attack on concrete columns

(b) Sulphates attacks on concrete structures:
Sulphates are present in most cement and some aggregates. Sulphates may also be present
in soils, groundwater and sea water, industrial wastes and acid rain. The products of sulphate
attack on concrete occupy a larger space than the original material and this causes the concrete to
disintegrate and permits corrosion of steel to begin. BS8110: Part 1, clause 6.2.5.3, states that the
total water-soluble sulphate content of the concrete mix expressed as SO3should not exceed 4%
by mass of cement in the mix. Sulphate-resisting Portland cement should be used where
sulphates are present in the soil, water or atmosphere and come into contact with the concrete.
Super-sulphated cement, made from blast furnace slag can also be used although it is not widely
available. This cement can resist the highest concentrations of sulphates.

(c) Carbonation of concrete structures:

Carbonation is the process by which carbon dioxide from the atmosphere slowly
transforms calcium hydroxide into calcium carbonate in concrete. The concrete itself is not
harmed and increases in strength, but the reinforcement can be seriously affected by corrosion as
a result of this process.
 Normally the high pH value of the concrete prevents corrosion of the reinforcing bars by
keeping them in a highly alkaline environment due to the release of calcium hydroxide by the
cement during its hydration. Carbonated concrete has a pH value of 8.3 while the passivation of
steel starts at a pH value of 9.5. The depth of Carbonation in good dense concrete is about 3 mm
at an early stage and may increase to 6–10 mm after 30–40 years. Poor concrete may have a
depth of Carbonation of 50 mm after say 6–8 years. The rate of Carbonation depends on time,
cover, concrete density, cement content, water-to-cement ratio and the presence of cracks.
(d) Alkali—silica reaction in concrete structures:
A chemical reaction can take place between alkali in cement and certain forms of silica in
aggregate. The reaction produces a gel which absorbs water and expands in volume, resulting in
cracking and disintegration of the concrete.
The reaction only occurs when the following are present together:

1. a high moisture level in the concrete

2. cement with a high alkali content or some other source of alkali
3. aggregate containing an alkali-reactive constituent
The code recommends that the following precautions be taken if uncertainty exists:

1. Reduce the saturation of the concrete;

2. Use low alkali Portland cement and limit the alkali content of the mix to a low level;
3. Use replacement cementitious materials such as blast furnace slag or pulverized fuel
ash. Most normal aggregates behave satisfactorily.
DETERIORATION OF CONCRETE
DURABILITY OF CONCRETE IN MARINE ENVIRONMENT
Concrete has had extensive use as construction material for seaways, jetties, groins,
breakwaters, bulk-heads and other structures exposed to sea water. The performance record has
generally been good but there are some causes occurring on the structures due to few conditions.
Freezing and thawing cycles is one cause of marine concrete deterioration i.e., due to the
expansion of ice crystals concrete will be under such conditions which tend to crumble and spall.
Other causes are chemical in nature and relate to the corrosion of reinforcing steel, sulfate water
attack on the concrete or aggregate reaction. Air entrainment also reduces segregation and
bleeding, results in lower permeability, and increases cohesiveness and workability in structures
where freezing and thawing are not factors.
The corrosion of reinforcing steel rates high among the chemical causes of deterioration
of concrete in a marine environment. Such corrosion results from electro-chemical processes
induced by the action of salts on the steel. Corrosion causes expansion and pressure which in
turn causes concrete rupture and spalling along the plane of the reinforcing bars. Sea salts
absorbed by rein-forced concrete produce corrosion cells wherein anodic (positive) and cathodic
(negative) areas are established. Corrosion products formed on the anodic areas of the steel are
sufficient to rupture the concrete. Such corrosion has occurred in concrete that is permeable due
to a high water/cement ratio. It has also occurred in cases where there is insufficient concrete
covering over the steel.
Another chemical cause of marine concrete deterioration is the use of reactive aggregates.
Alkalies in cement often react with aggregates and certain types of shale, all of which contain
hydrated silica, to form alkali-like silicates that may rupture and crack concrete. Such aggregates
should be avoided, but if this is impossible then low alkali cement and a pozzolanic admixture
will tend to re-duce the problem of excessive alkali-aggregate reaction. Some authorities believe
that the use of low alkali cement alone is sufficient to avoid the reaction, thus eliminating the
dangers of low early strength and the greater volume change in the concrete during wetting and
drying which sometimes accompany the use of pozzolans.
Proper placement of marine concrete, especially with-in the tidal zone which is 2 feet
below and above high tide, is also important in avoiding conditions leading to deterioration.
Placement in this zone should be a continuous operation and horizontal joints and seams avoided
whenever possible. If construction joints must be used the concrete should be left to harden
undisturbed. The bonding surface should then be cleaned thoroughly, cement grout broomed into
the wet surface, and new concrete placed immediately.

The following practices are recommended to produce marine concrete of excellent durability:
 Proper mix proportions using the optimum cement content will yield a dense, impervious
and relatively unabsorbent concrete.
 The optimum concrete and the water/cement ratio should not exceed cement to produce a
mix that is plastic and workable.
 Reinforcing steel must have a minimum of 3 inches of concrete cover.
 Non-reactive aggregates should be used. The alternative is to compensate with low-alkali
cement and/or pozzolans.
 An air entraining agent will reduce the danger of deterioration due to freezing and
thawing.
 Especially at the tidal zone concrete should be placed in a continuous operation; if
construction joints are necessary the bonding surface should be cleaned and grouted and
new concrete placed immediately.
 Concrete should be compacted thoroughly to avoid honeycombing and to provide a
dense, homogenous mass.