Wave Motion

A Propagating Wave is a self-sustaining disturbance of a medium that

travels from one point to another, carrying energy and momentum.
Mechanical waves are aggregate phenomena arising from the motion of
constituent particles. The wave advances, but the particles of the medium
only oscillate in place. A wave has been generated on the string in Fig. 22-1
by the sinusoidal vibration of the hand at its end. Energy is carried by the
wave from the source to the right, along the string. This direction, the
direction of energy transport, is called the direction of propagation of the
wave.

Fig. 22-1

Each particle of the string (such as the one at point-C) vibrates up and
down, perpendicular to the direction of propagation. Any wave in which the
vibration direction is perpendicular to the direction of propagation is called
a transverse wave. Typical transverse waves, besides those on a string, are
electromagnetic waves (e.g., light and radio waves). By contrast, in sound
waves the vibration direction is parallel to the direction of propagation, as
you will see in Chapter 23. Such a wave is called a longitudinal (or
compressional) wave.
Wave Terminology: The period (T) of a wave is the time it takes the wave
to go through one complete cycle. It is the time taken for a particle, such as
the one at A, to move through one complete vibration or cycle, down from
point-A and then back to A. The period is the number of seconds per cycle.
The frequency (f) of a wave is the number of cycles per second: Thus,

If T is in seconds, then f is in hertz (Hz), where 1 Hz = 1 s−1. The period and

frequency of the wave are the same as the period and frequency of the
vibration.
The top points on the wave, such as A and C, are called wave crests. The
bottom points, such as B and D, are called troughs. As time goes on, the
crests and troughs move to the right with speed υ, the speed of the wave.
The amplitude of a wave is the maximum disturbance undergone during
a vibration cycle, distance y0 in Fig. 22-1.
The wavelength (λ) is the distance along the direction of propagation
between corresponding points on the wave, distance AC, for example. In a
time T, a crest moving with speed υ will move a distance λ to the right.
Therefore, s = υt and

whereupon

This relation holds for all waves, not just for waves on a string.
In-Phase Vibrations exist at two points on a wave if those points undergo
vibrations that are in the same direction, in step. For example, the particles
of the string at points-A and -C in Fig. 22-1 vibrate in-phase, since they
move up together and down together. Vibrations are in-phase if the points
are a whole number of wavelengths apart. The pieces of the string at A and
B vibrate opposite to each other; the vibrations there are said to be 180°, or
half a cycle, out-of-phase.
The Speed of a Transverse Wave on a stretched string or wire is

Standing Waves: At certain vibrational frequencies, a system can undergo

resonance. That is to say, it can efficiently absorb energy from a driving
source in its environment that is oscillating at that frequency (Fig. 22-2).
These and similar vibration patterns are called standing waves, as
compared to the propagating waves considered above. These might better
not be called waves at all, since they do not transport energy and
momentum. The stationary points (such as B and D) are called nodes; the
points of greatest motion (such as A, C, and E) are called antinodes. The
distance between adjacent nodes (or antinodes) is λ. We sometimes call the
portion of the string between adjacent nodes a segment, and the length of a
segment is also λ.

Fig. 22-2

Conditions for Resonance: A string will resonate only if the vibration

wavelength has certain special values: the wavelength must be such that a
whole number of wave segments (each λ long) exactly fit on the string. A
proper fit occurs when nodes and antinodes exist at positions demanded by
the constraints on the string. In particular, the fixed ends of the string must
be nodes. Thus, as shown in Fig. 22-2, the relation between the wavelength
λ and the length L of the resonating string is ), where n is any
integer. Because λ = υT = υ/f, the shorter the wave segments at resonance,
the higher will be the resonant frequency. If we call the fundamental
resonant frequency f1, then Fig. 22-2 shows that the higher resonant
frequencies are given by fn = nf1.
When driven at its natural or resonant frequency a mechanical system
(e.g., a wine glass, or a loose window on a bus) will absorb energy and
vibrate vigorously.
Longitudinal (Compression) Waves occur as lengthwise vibrations of air
columns, solid bars, and the like. At resonance, nodes exist at fixed points,
such as the closed end of an air column in a tube, or the location of a clamp
on a bar. Diagrams such as Fig. 22-2 are used to display the resonance of
longitudinal waves as well as transverse waves. However, for longitudinal
waves, the diagrams are mainly schematic and are used to indicate the
locations of nodes and antinodes. In analyzing such diagrams, we use the
fact that the distance between node and adjacent antinode is λ.
The speed of a compression wave in a solid or liquid depends on the
medium’s bulk modulus B [Eq. (12.7)] and its mass density ρ:

The larger B is, the more rigid the material. In the more specialized case of a
long, narrow solid rod, compression waves travel at a speed given by
Young’s modulus Y [Eq. (12.5)] and the mass density ρ:

The larger Y is, the more rigid the rod.

PROBLEM SOLVING GUIDE

As ever, be careful with the units. Enter everything into the equations in SI,
and the rest will take care of itself. It would be helpful to go back and
review Chapter 11. You might also refresh your memory of Chapter 12 and
 the various moduli.

SOLVED PROBLEMS
22.1 [I] Suppose that Fig. 22-1 represents a 50-Hz wave on a string. Take
distance y0 to be 3.0 mm, and distance AE to be 40 cm. Find the
following for the wave: its (a) amplitude, (b) wavelength, and (c)
speed.

(a) By definition, the amplitude is distance y0 and is 3.0 mm.

(b) The distance between adjacent crests is the wavelength, and so

λ = 20 cm.

(c) υ = λf = (0.20 m)(50 s−1) = 10 m/s

22.2 [I] Measurements show that the wavelength of a sound wave in a

certain material is 18.0 cm. The frequency of the wave is 1900 Hz.
What is the speed of the sound wave?

From λ = υT = υ/f, which applies to all waves,

υ = λf = (0.180 m)(1900 s−1) = 342 m/s

22.3 [I] A horizontal cord 5.00 m long has a mass of 1.45 g. What must be
the tension in the cord if the wavelength of a 120-Hz wave on it is
to be 60.0 cm? How large a mass must be hung from its end (say,
over a pulley) to give it this tension?

We know that the speed of a wave on a rope depends on both the

tension and the mass per unit length. Moreover,

The tension in the cord balances the weight of the mass hung at its
 end. Therefore,

22.4 [II] A uniform flexible cable is 20 m long and has a mass of 5.0 kg. It
hangs vertically under its own weight and is vibrated
(perpendicularly) from its upper end with a frequency of 7.0 Hz.
(a) Find the speed of a transverse wave on the cable at its
midpoint. (b) What are the frequency and wavelength at the
midpoint?

(b) Because wave crests do not pile up along a string or cable, the
number passing one point must be the same as that for any other
point. Therefore, the frequency, 7.0 Hz, is the same at all points.

To find the wavelength at the midpoint, we must use the speed we

found for that point, 9.9 m/s. That gives us

22.5 [II] Suppose that Fig. 22-2 depicts standing waves on a metal string
under a tension of 88.2 N. Its length is 50.0 cm and its mass is
0.500 g. (a) Compute υ for transverse waves on the string. (b)
Determine the frequencies of its fundamental, first overtone, and
second overtone.

(b) We recall that the length of the segment is λ/2 and we use λ =
υ/f. For the fundamental:
 For the second overtone:

22.6 [II] A string 2.0 m long is driven by a 240-Hz vibrator at its end. The
string resonates in four segments forming a standing wave pattern.
What would be the speed of a transverse wave on such a string?

Let’s first determine the wavelength of the wave from part (d) of
Fig. 22-2. Since each segment is λ/2 long,

Then, using λ = υT = υ/f,

υ = fλ = (240 s−1)(1.0 m) = 0.24 km/s

22.7 [II] A banjo string 30 cm long oscillates in a standing-wave pattern. It

resonates in its fundamental mode at a frequency of 256 Hz. What
is the tension in the string if 80 cm of the string have a mass of
0.75 g?

First we’ll find υ and then the tension. The string vibrates in one
segment when f = 256 Hz. Therefore, from Fig. 22-2(a):

The mass per unit length of the string is

22.8 [II] A string vibrates in five segments at a frequency of 460 Hz. (a)
What is its fundamental frequency? (b) What frequency will cause
it to vibrate in three segments?

Detailed Method

If the string is n segments long, then from Fig. 22-2 we have n( λ)

= L. But λ = υ/fn, so L = n(υ/2fn). Solving for fn provides

We are told that f5 = 460 Hz, and so

Substituting this in the above relation gives

fn = (n)(92.0 Hz)

(a) f1 = 92.0 Hz.

(b) f3 = (3)(92 Hz) = 276 Hz

Alternative Method

Recall that for a string held at both ends, fn = nf1. Knowing that f5
= 460 Hz, it follows that f1 = 92.0 Hz and f3 = 276 Hz.

22.9 [II] A string fastened at both ends resonates at 420 Hz and 490 Hz with
no resonant frequencies in between. Find its fundamental resonant
 frequency.

In general, fn = nf1. We are told that fn = 420 Hz and fn+1 = 490 Hz.
Therefore,

420 Hz = nf1 and 490 Hz = (n + 1)f1

Subtract the first equation from the second to obtain f1 = 70.0 Hz.

22.10 [II] A violin string resonates at its fundamental frequency of 196 Hz.
Where along the string must you place your finger so its
fundamental becomes 440 Hz?

For the fundamental, L = λ. Since λ = υ/f, it follows that f1 =

υ/2L. Originally, the string of length L1 resonated at a frequency of
196 Hz, and therefore

with a resonance at 440 Hz,

Eliminate υ from these two simultaneous equations and find

To obtain the desired resonance, the finger must shorten the string
to 0.445 of its original length.

22.11 [II] A 60-cm-long bar, clamped at its middle, is vibrated lengthwise

by an alternating force at its end. (See Fig. 22-3.) Its fundamental
resonance frequency is found to be 3.0 kHz. What is the speed of
longitudinal waves in the bar?

Because its ends are free, the bar must have antinodes there. The
clamp point at its center must be a node. Therefore, the
 fundamental resonance is as shown in Fig. 22-3. Because the
distance from node to antinode is always λ, we see that .
Since L = 0.60 m, we find λ = 1.20 m.

Then, from the basic relation (p. 274) λ = υ/f, we have

υ = λf = (1.20 m)(3.0 kHz) = 3.6 km/s

22.12 [II] Compression waves (sound waves) are sent down an air-filled
tube 90 cm long and closed at one end. The tube resonates at
several frequencies, the lowest of which is 95 Hz. Find the speed
of sound waves in air.

The tube and several of its resonance forms are shown in Fig. 22-
4. Recall that the distance between a node and an adjacent
antinode is λ/4. In our case, the top resonance form applies, since
the segments are longest for it and its frequency is therefore
lowest. For that form, L = λ/4, so

λ = 4L = 4(0.90 m) = 3.6 m

Using λ = υT = υ/f gives

υ = λf = (3.6 m)(95 s−1) = 0.34 km/s

22.13 [II] At what other frequencies will the tube described in Problem
22.12 resonate?

The first few resonances are shown in Fig. 22-4. We see that, at
resonance,
 Fig. 22-3

Fig. 22-4

where n = 1, 3, 5, 7, …, is an odd integer, and λn is the resonant

wavelength. But λn = υ/fn, and so

where, from Problem 22.12, f1 = 95 Hz. The first few resonant

frequencies are thus 95 Hz, 0.29 kHz, 0.48 kHz, … .

22.14 [II] A metal rod 40 cm long is dropped, end first, onto a wooden floor
and rebounds into the air. Compression waves of many
frequencies are thereby set up in the bar. If the speed of
compression waves in the bar is 5500 m/s, to what lowest-
 frequency compression wave will the bar resonate as it rebounds?

Both ends of the bar will be free, and so antinodes will exist there.
In the lowest resonance form (i.e., the one with the longest
segments), only one node will exist on the bar, at its center, as
illustrated in Fig. 22-5. We will then have

Then, from λ = υT = υ/f,

Fig. 22-5

22.15 [II] A rod 200 cm long is clamped 50 cm from one end, as shown in
Fig. 22-6. It is set into longitudinal vibration by an electrical
driving mechanism at one end. As the frequency of the driver is
slowly increased from a very low value, the rod is first found to
resonate at 3 kHz. What is the speed of sound (compression
waves) in the rod?

Fig. 22-6

The clamped point remains stationary, and so a node exists there.

Since the ends of the rod are free, antinodes exist there. The
lowest-frequency resonance occurs when the rod is vibrating in its
 longest possible segments. In Fig. 22-6 we show the mode of
vibration that corresponds to this condition. Since a segment is the
length from one node to the next, then the length from A to N in
the figure is one-half segment. Therefore, the rod is two segments
long. This resonance form satisfies our restrictions about positions
of nodes and antinodes, as well as the condition that the bar
vibrate in the longest segments possible. Since one segment is λ/2
long,

L = 2(λ/2) or λ = L = 200 cm

Then, from λ = υT = υ/f,

υ = λf = (2.00 m)(3 × 103 s−1) = 6 km/s

22.16 [II] (a) Determine the shortest length of pipe closed at one end that
will resonate in air when driven by a sound source of frequency
160 Hz. Take the speed of sound in air to be 340 m/s. (b) Repeat
the analysis for a pipe open at both ends.
(a) Figure 22-4(a) applies in this case. The shortest pipe will be
λ/4 long. Therefore,

(b) In this case the pipe will have antinodes at both ends and a
node at its center. Then,

22.17 [II] A pipe 90 cm long is open at both ends. How long must a second
pipe, closed at one end, be if it is to have the same fundamental
resonance frequency as the open pipe?

The two pipes and their fundamental resonances are shown in Fig.
22-7. As can be seen in the diagram,
 Fig. 22-7

22.18 [II] A glass tube that is 70.0 cm long is open at both ends. Find the
frequencies at which it will resonate when driven by sound waves
that have a speed of 340 m/s.

A pipe that is open at both ends must have an antinode at each

end. It will therefore resonate as in Fig. 22-8. From the diagram it
can be seen that the resonance wavelengths λn are given by

Fig. 22-8