0 ratings0% found this document useful (0 votes) 81 views21 pagesFunctions, Limits & Continuity
Function limits and continuity basics
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content,
claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF or read online on Scribd
Functions and Limits
4 FUNCTIONS
gnomes and other sciences we have to deal with more than one variable. The
economics variable are not of great importance unless they are associated with
‘ed variables. The way in which one variable depends on other variables is
es in relat : ;
ered by means of functions which pervade all mathematics and its applications,
jsarelation which associates any given number with another number. Functions
defined jn several waysty
ea function from the’ set X into the set Y as a set of ordered pairs (x Y)
jement of X and y is an element of ¥ such that for each x in X there is only
y) in the function f-'The notation used is
We defin'
prere x is an el
me lordered pair @
FX Yorx 3f@) ory =f)
Avfunction is 2 mapping or transformation of x into y or f(x). The variable x presents
hents of the domain and.is called the independent variable. The variable y representing
Fonts of the range is called the dependent-variable. The function y = f() is often:
bia single valued, [function since there is a unique y in the range for each specified x.
ily be true. Domain Range
= f(a) is thejiniage of ©)
A function whosé domain
Tange are sets of real
fumbers is called a real valued
function of a real variable.
A function is a constant
function if the range consists of
‘single element. It may be written y = k or f(x) = & where k is-a constant.
{lffey=¥ for all x it is an identity function’
f@)= lah is the absolute value function.
independent variables. If there are 1” independent ~
Often a function depends on several i
he set of all possible values of-y corresponding
Varig .
ables x), x9,......, X, and the range is tMarinate AND STATISTICS FOR pe
Dab be
? .
x.y we say that y is a function oF 47'S
in of (44 Be
eo)
yas
Letters other than f may be used to represent @ function.
0 | if and onl:
Equality of functions. TO functions f and g are equal i they
same domain and f(x) = 8(4) for all x in th
Ex. 1. If p is the price and.x the quantity of a
we write the demand function:
x=f@)
Ex. 2. If stands for saving,
s=f)
saving depends on income.
come and also on rate of interest r, saving is a fy,
Ne
oy
to the dora
¢ domain. Mey
commodity demanded by the ca,
Hn,
Y for income
conveys that
Ex. 3. If saving depends on in
of two variables 7, ¥.
s=f%
Ex. 4: If wis a function of three variables xy, 2 we waite
u=f%y2
Ex. 5 If production (x) isa function of land (D), labour (L), capital (K)-organigas
(OQ) we can write : tog
x=f(D, LK, 0)
as the production function.
Ex. 6. If utility is a function of n commodities whose quantities are represented jy
then the utility function can be written ~
U = UC, Xan)
ty Xp
Explicit and Implicit Functions
If one variable is expressed directly in teims of other variables, it.is x case of a
explicit function.
Ex. 7. y = 3x +2, y = 4x2 +9 are explicit functions.
_If the relation between the variables is given by an equation containing all te
variables we have an implicit function which may not distinguish between dependent ad
independent variables.
Ex.8 9 2+ Ixy + 9y?+8 =0
yoxlogy =2
fy) =0
are implicit functions.
Graphs of Functions
graph of a function f(x) is a set of points in the plane
e can picture a function y = :
- S een ¥=F(4) a8 a graph showing the relation between xan}
ty point (x, y) which satisfies the equation y = f(x) is on the curve.TS
ND LIME
cons : 247
eoorinates of on, Point (x, y) on the curve satis!
tre Ff a function consists of all points in the form [x,
ih
eae
fy the equation y = f(x). Thus
{02} where x is a number in
aus OF A FUNCTION AT A Pomny
ine ve ofthe function fs) when xis replaced by a
wis
poe y =f@) = fx4T
f00) = fT fe =Jant
1-12 S420) = fa etarinayasy
fe }) =90 fla-1) fant =fa
px 10.18 fe) =Lx—3] then
£0) =3 Fla+3) =1a43~3) =lal
£G) =0 f@~2) =13-x-3] =[al
fCD =6 Falls) =11x- 3]
Ex. 1.Sf f(x) =2 then
F(@) = 2, AO) = 2, fS) =2
Ex 12QIf s(x) =2? +2x+ 1 find fla +b). Ans. a? + 2ab +b? +a4b+1
1
BIBI g6) = 27 find g(0), g(2), (4). Ans. 0, 22,2
Ex. 14. If h(x)= 2° show that 'A(- x) = — AQ).
Bx. 15.If h(x) =x show that h@ x) = A(x).
Ee 16. Find LO-LO a) for the following:
\ xa
f)-f@ _x-a_,
@ fax Ans. (i)
x-a x-a
-a aw:
(i) fase Hot OE - s40
. _(a-x)
(ii) fox) = Ue (i)
' 1
() fa)= fx wy) rege
Ex. 17, If ftx) =|x—2I find (0), 2) f- 2)- Aas. 2, 0, 4
%8 NATURE OF SOME FUNCTIONS
Bren and oda Functions
A function f(x) is said to be an even function if for every x in a certain range,
f- 2) = fx)MATHEMATICS AMD STATISTICS FOR Bey,
Mt,
i vt certain range,
‘A function fix) is an odd function if for every x in ac 2 .
Se
ee eRe "a
Ex. 18. f(x) = x? is an even function.
tion.
Ex. 19, f(x) = 2° is an odd func /
Ex. 20. Prove that if flx), g(x) are both odd functions then
fix) + g(x) and f(x) — g(x) are also odd functions.
Single and multivalued functions
If to each value of x there corresponds one and only one value of y,
said to be single valued or uniform,
y=x(x-1)
If more than one value of y corresponds to one value of x the function is Said to,
multivalued or multiform, e.g.,
ya yx
This is a two valued function because an:
y(ie, +2 and —2),
the function it
y value of x say 4, gIVES to valu
Ex. 21, Given the implicit function between the variables uy
3x-y=0
this can be written as
@ 3r=yorx=
»f8 making x the dependent variable and y the independey
variable,
|
i) y = 3x making y, x the dependent anid inde;
In this example we have described
getting two relationships,
Ex. 22. If? + y=
Pendent variables respectively,
‘an implicit function
or two explicit functions,
9 we have the explicit functions
@ #29-P~orx=4 Jo-¥7
(ii) Y=9-Poryas, 9- x2
Ex. 23.5)? +32) 4.20
ed implicit function cannot be Conveniently expressed in the form of explitt
Ex. 24. If f(x) = 2-2 4 Wy
Show that f(a) + f(- a) = 0
Bx. 28. If f(x) = x4 ~ 322 4 10 show
Also Sad the value of 2x) ~ af),
F28) = 24) ~ 3028) + 10 = 16,4 1224 10
2fla) = 204 — 6:2 4.29
fla) ~ 2ftx) = 14x — 19.2 19
in an explicit form tus
that f(x) = L(x)AND LIMITS
ro
piven) = 3=2r 4 2
BE por fie DASA
M9
3-2(-
simil - tag
x5+252 =
fc) =3-3- Ee
px Let y=. 192 cy
Munatond$)48404 1)
a
fe) =art+b
fla) =a-a+b=ayy,
flea) =-a-at Pa
a a a
Ag) -eFrbeeo
fi) =a-k+b
flo.) =a-0+b=b
fr?) =p eto bebe0
Ex. 28. For flx) = 2* + 3 show that (i) 2) = 24 — 1),
(i) 3) = AO) + fU) +2) - 5
fonotone Functions
A function is monotone if it is either increasing or decreasing,
A function is increasing if f(xy) < flx,)-for x, flx) for x, < x,
A function is non-increasing if f(xy) 2 flx2) for x $ xp
verse Functions
If there is an implicit function between x and y we can derive two explicit functions
mit,
() yas an explicit function of x, ke, y=J)
(i) x as an explicit function of y, Le, x= 80)
The functions y =f) and x = 8)
‘nvetse functions, Each is inverse to the other
Ifa), a(x) are two functions so related that
flg(4)] = x for every x in the domain of g(*).
he 8{flx)] = x for every x in the domain of fix)
Six) and g(x) are called inverses of each other.marnumarics ANP STATISTICS POR, Hey
hy
i 7
" 1
. Jonoted by S W(x) (read, f inverse, or
a function fx) 8 0fteR *
erso of ;
The inverse 0 !
of f) so that
" syed !
sly) =* |
1
¢ oxists. : ;
ato t necessarily have an inverse.
Bvery function does no!
x+6
22
shay 2 5x6 BETS
Ex. 29
are inverses of each other because |
yt6)_6e
nores(2£") 62s
Sx- 646 _
or sso =a |
Ex. 30, Find the inverse of .
: ii) 5 mea |
@ (i) 2 - 4x Wi) ZH :
1 r
A (i) 2% Era
Ans, (i) er feed
(iy EM) No inven,
Note that f(x) and f-(x) are inversely related functions of x. The subscript ~1 yy
symbol for an inverse function, not an exponent. It is true, however, that
1
-!=——
YO Fe)
but this has nothing to do with an inverse function.
9.4 ALGEBRA OF FUNCTIONS
We can combine two (or more) functions under the operations of addition, subtraction
multiplication and division to form new functions,
Let flx) and g(x) be two functions
Their sum is the function + YS fQ) + a)
Their difference is the function Y= SQ) ~ g(x)
Their product is the function Y= fla) + g(x)
Their quotient is the function Y = fl)/g(x) where g(x) #0
‘The composite function of fby g is f (g(x)
‘These functions are defined for all
a
It $ sa defint
The commutative, associative and i those values of x for which fand g are
ributive laws hold for functions.xs ANP LIMITS
,,6nRAIC AND TRANSCENDENTAL Fu
IN
tic junctions are obtained through a fin ICTIONS
: 0, subtraction, multiplication, division inite number
ail ae equations. Polynomials, rational ang aT tt
ical
Fe gn that is not algebraic is a transce
ct
251
o
ine if algebraic operation like
Fe ovine 2 finite number of
ions are algebraic.
function ! ne
janelle Oe uetice cigeeee aeta ‘al function. Trigonomettc, ex
‘ pobynanal fynction is of:the form error
ye ao ON! test Oy + ay where 1}
eal numbers: "1S a positive integer and ao, ay,... dy
tis is a polynomial function of degree minx
oostgnt Functions
‘A zero degree polynomial function is a
onstant function.
Ex. 31. fe) = 3, g(x) =m, A(x) = - k are
ypstant functions
near Functions
‘A polynomial function of degree 1 is a linear
mnction.
Ex. 32. fl) = mx + cis a linear function.
‘The linear function fi) = x is called the
identity function
The graph of a linear function is a straight
A linear function
line.
Quadratic Functions
A polynomial function of degree 2 is a quadrat
functions of higher degrees.
ic function. We can similarly have
9 ‘
‘A quadratic functionMATHEMATICS AND STATISTICS FOR Econ,
Mic
1
| sepa ein a quadratic function. 16 graph 18 # Prahola
Aa fry =
He 34, fix) = 30 - 7x2 4 de Lisa cubic function.
x, M4. fix) = 3
y
yearsbrrortd
A cubic function
Rational Functions
‘A rational function is of the form
~ £2) snore f(x), a(x) are polynomials and g(x) #0
gC)
Ex. 35. y= is a rational function.
3x? +2x-5
9.6 PERIODIC FUNCTIONS—TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
Trigonometry deals withthe problem of measurement and solution of triangles. Many of
the important applications of trigonometry to business cycles and elsewhere do not involve
triangles specifically. They deal with the properties and applications of circular functions
Periodic Functions
A function is periodic with period p(p # 0) if flx + p) = /lx) (see diagram)
Y
‘Trigonometric or Circular Functions
In the angle PAX, CB is drawn per i
, di formi i i
ABC. The point C may be taken aaah ah aml ti ane
\5 AND LIMITS
t10N
* ing tri 259
we define the following trigonometric functioy
ine of angle written as ns, >
9 =-opp-side_ _ BC
o hypotenuse AC
Cosine of angle @
adjacent side _ AB
cos @ =—————— =
hypotenuse AC
tangent of angle @
BC
AB A Adjacentside 2 x
AB
‘these trigonometric functions are the most important periodic functions.
more tri ic functi
‘There are three more trigonometric functions—secant, cosecant and cotangent defined
sec 0 = Ic0s ©, cosec @ = Isin 8, cot @ = 1/tan 8
‘The following identities follow easily.
sin?@ + cos’@ = 1
sec?® ~ tan?@ = 1
cosec’® - cot = 1
in
sin _ tan.0, £82 ~ cor,
sind
cos6
7 INCLINATION AND SLOPE
ira line AP is not horizontal, its angle of inclination is the least positive angle through
ich the positive x-axis must be rotated-to coincide with AP. @ is the angle of inclination
FAP. If AP is horizontal, @ = 0. If AP is vertical @ = 90°.
The slope of-a line PQ is defined by m = tan 8.
Ex. 36. What is the slope of a line
‘with inclination 45° which passes through
the origin?
|| Take a point P on the line. Draw
PM L OX. Then the slope is given by
tan 45° = a = 1 by geometry since
UP= oe
| Ex. 37. The slope of the lines with
| ‘inclination 30°, 60° respectively can be
| Proved to be
tan30°=—L., and tan 60° = 3asa MATHEMATICS AND STATISTICS Fog Reon
0
fo
y
Ex, 38, The slope of a horizontal line
is vero.
Fx. 39. The slope of a vertical line is
infinite
Ex. 40, Consider the cost function
c= 2x
where c stands for cost and x for output.
Is slope is found by taking any point
P on it and drawing the perpendicular PM.
PM = 5, OM = £
PM
~ Sh = tan @ = ——
lope = tan om
The following values of tan @
corresponding to different values of 8 may
be noted:
6 oO 30° 45° 60° 901808 270°. 3699
tan 6 o + qe ee 0 9
a
9.8 LOGARITHMIC AND EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS
In the equation
@=x
the exponent y is called the logarithm of x to the base a. We write the equation inti
alternative form
yslog,x x>0, a>0, a#l1
This is the logarithmic function, The expressions
x= @ and y = logy x
are equivaleht and give the same relation.
x may be called the antilogarithm of y to the base a.
Ex. 41.
log: 16 = 4 since 2 = 16
Jogi 100 = 2 since 102, = 100
log, 1 = 0 since d=]
1
logs’ — | =-3 i
(23) as
logy x =1 sinceons AND LIMITS
ral
Fe qperties of logarithmle function, a
1
: “rhe logarithm of the product of two quanti
: 7 tities
logan = logan + Jog,u uals the sum of their logarithms
jis true Because iF U = a, y= then yy -
. logauv = x + y= logan 4 log,v
gx. 42. logio (16 x 49) = logig 16 + logig 49
gs 43. loge (15 29% 47) = 108,915 + og, 99 ;
0.29 4
The logarithm of the quotient of
Da minus the logarithm of the dey Hie
B10 47
Wwantiti
nominate ities equals the logarithm of the
u
loga — = log, u— log, y
=a
cMATHEMATICS AND STATISTICS FOR Econ
ig,
256 | wi) =1
) io
x) logy iti) 14 e &,
(wii) 4 28 + + logi 240 ~ Io,
(plop (28°« Y2AD x4] = 6 1080 28 3 Big 3
Ex. 48, Show (i) log
37 x AT x32 Hlogio 37 + 5logi9 47
Gi) S810 O94 x4 x 100
/m logy *
) loge!"
Ex. 49,Show (i)
(ii) Toga 71 = ~ 1084 *
base as follows:
d to any other
thm can be change
IV. The base of a logarit
log, #
log, ¥
x =log, u, then =u
log, u =
It is true because if
loggu _log,v* _ 108s _ y Jog, u
log,» log,v — logav
10810 40 |
Ex. 50.() logy 40 Tog; 20 |
ogy 1000
Gi) logio9 1000 Togo 100
log,a __ 1
logy a=
log,v log,v
From this it follows that since
logy’ =
ee Tog, ¥
logy ax logy v = 1
logs 15 logs 15 logs 15
bess, __togs15___logsi5_
oe 1¥logs50 ~ log;5+log,50 ~ log, 250
1
=los ee
ied log,5 250
Exponential Functions
A simple exponential function with base a is defined by the equation x = 4,49
The logarithmic function y = log, x is the inverse of the exponential function ="
It should be noted that exponential functions are different from
(Linear functions eg. y=ax, xeky
(ii) Power functions eg. yext, xay
An exponential function is of the form
YER, reyys AND LIMITS
0
ane
7
th and decay in
ws of growth a ay In economics a
‘toe HO tial function. This Occurs whem tnd tHe Sciences Provide an applincativn
pone 4 the rat 4
fine oer n with respect to time is Proportional iothe Of change of the variable und
\c! 1 of time. Mount of the variable Present at
sen instan
Ans. If fix) = gt ontr ft oe
53. Compare the properties of f(x) = fea a9 2 aa
7 logs x with th .
Jaterence? 95€ OF lx) = loging (2). What is
log; x = 28%
log3
logx _ oy
logy 3 x = —S% ~ logx
B13 * = Toen8 =lg3
logsx = — logigx
Bx. 54. Show that x = 0 is the solution of
logs (x + 1) + logs (x + 3)=1,
y= logy osx
Ex. 55. Show that log, b. log, a= 1 for a, b> 0;a, b#1.
Ex. 56. Show that Jn (In x) = In (log x) ~ In (log e),
Ex. 57. Solve e3t = 4. Ans, 0.231
Ex. $8. Draw the graph of y = logos x.
(1% @ Continuous and decreasing function. For s= 05, y= 05; = hy =0;x=2,
WT ~ 05 etc, See the diagram). :
© 59. Draw the graph of ft) = y = logy x (See the dingram)
ug \l8® draw the graph ofits inverse g(x) = 3¥ (Both the functions are continuous and
Teasing, For x = 3,y=ljx=1,y=0etc).
+ ®%.60. Draw the Sraphs of f(x) = logy x and g(x) = 2%.MATHEMATICS AND STATS TESTS ECON,
258 OM
t
0.9 HOMOGENEOUS FUNCTIONS
ous functions is a special (yPe ©
jegree nif when ea
4 times the orig
+ function frequently used 9 econ,
oe i
bee: ch of its variables is re
‘A function is homogencous of de
times the vanable, the new function Is
If = fix. y) is homogeneous of degree 7”
then Aik, ky) = R= kofix, )
‘
; Pla
inal function. Meg by,
Ex. 61. fox, ))= 7-39 + Sytisa homogeneous function of degree 2 because
filer, ky) = 2_ 3hx «ky + SKY?
2? Bayt 5) EEL
Ex. 62. f(L, K) is homogeneous of degree aif
flak, aK) = 4% fil, K)
2 3x?
_ © is homogeneous of degree one.
2
Ky? 3k? xk yar
. Ae
Ex. 63. fis 2) =
=x 2)
A linearly homogeneous function of degree one is such that if
z =f y), files, ky) = fs y)
Ex.64. fx, y) =x + y is linearly homogeneous.
@ fil by = e+ y= Meet) =H»)
@ fey= df ax’ + by® is linearly homogeneous
file, ly) = fak®x? + bey? =k fax? by? = if (x, y)
Ex. 8. flr, y, 2) =22-5%
x
yD
Here f(x, y, z) is homogeneous of degree zero.
Ex. 66. Show that the following functions are linearly homogeneous
@ z=ax+ by (3) z= far thy rey?
(ii) = (a2 + bay + Pyle 5)
i COBB DOUGLAS PRODUCTION FUNCTION
L stands for labour, K for capi :
aoe for capital and c, B are constants such that ct + B = | then in
tion function, replaci
, replacing L, K by
Y=al¢ xs y pL, pK|
ss AND LIMITS
puncrion 19
We have a-(PLY"(pKYP =a. pty. BKB
=a: p™8 128 io
sa: p™P LK = p. aps 1 = bY since w+ B= 1
Hence the Cobb Douglas production function is linearly homogeneous.
67. Show that oy -( 4,By"
Ex rete
GY = al8K + 1 yer
ayo vomogencous of degree I,
etus to scale
Let Y = AK, L) be a linearly homogeneous production function in labour L and
capital Ke
Raising all inputs of L, K c-fold will raise the output c-fold.
since flcK, cL) = c¥
In other words, a linearly homogeneous production function implies constant returns
toscale in production. If no input is used there is no output. If inputs are doubled, output
js doubled.
|
|
|
|
941 DEMAND FUNCTIONS AND SUPPLY FUNCTIONS
Let x denote the quantity of a commodity demanded and p its price. x and p being
variables we may write the demand function
| x= Alp) showing dependence of x on p or
| p= F(x) showing dependence of p on x
|
‘These are the explicit forms of the implicit demand function g(x, p) = 0.
‘The..variables, in the case of a demand function, as in the case of other functions in
economics, are hypothetical quantities and not actual observable quantities. Changes in
the values of parameters cause shifts in the demand curve.
The arguments given above apply to a supply function also if x stands for the
variable supply. The slgpe of a supply curve is positive and that of a demand curve is
negative, in general.
| Ex. 68. Construct the market demand schedule and plot the demand curves given by,
@ x=10-2p (i) x= 10p
(ii) x=- 3p? +p +65 (iv) x=5fp
Ex, 69. Draw the supply curves () x=37-3 (i) x=3p a3
9.12 COST FUNCTIONS AND PRODUCTION FUNCTIONS
Ifxis the quantity produced by a firm at total cost C, we have the total cost function
C= ftx) explicitly. We may write this in the implicit form:
BC, x)=0MATHEMATICS AND STATISTICS POR FONG,
. erage COs! roduction oF COs s obtained by dividing total
st per unit is ob! ined by d 1 %
Average cost of production o
quantity produced
= Clxor C=AC+X ; '
‘ a from a knowledge of production functions, —
Cost curves can be o!
A uy
relationship is described by inputs associated with specified amounts of oupy,, net
production function on 7
L, K are quantities of labour and capital a a ase r
wm me ca) ties i open
C=LP, + KPx
Ex. 70. Plot the total cost and average. cost curves for the cost function.
Ca- 30+ 4x4 60
Ex. 71. The liquidity preference function
M=fr)
where M is the total quantity of money and r the interest rate.
500 and show that the interest rate of 2% is the liquidity trapix
2
can be written
Plot the curve M
this case.
9.13 LIMITS
The concept of limits is useful in developing some mathematical techniques and als
analysing various problems in economics.
We know, for instance, that the rate of interest r can never fall to zero, however lage
be the quantity of capital available. There is a minimum below which r cannoi fall. Lt
this minimum be 2 per cent. Then if K stands for capital and a is a positive constant, we
may write, roughly,
ra24
K
If K is small ris large.
If K is large ris small.
However large K may become r will n
- : ever be less than 2. The limit of ras &
increases is 2. We write this
Limr=2
Ke
In a similar manner,
ot go however large the
A variable x may
number N. Then we
We can see that there is a Jj
quantity of output.
y increase without bound in such a Way that x is larger than any 88°
Say that x tends to infinity. We write this
X00
fon I
imit below which average cost WlTS
us AND LIMIT
ONS
sc
ction fU) may become infinite ag tends
an on
an Lim f(x) = 0 10 Some value ¢. We write this
re
a function may attain a finite value | ag * tends to
Lim f(x) =1 a value k. Then we write
rok
This statement means sa Provided Aix) is defined for att values of x in some range
jxapproaches a given number k in that range then f(x) approaches a limit I. 7
jn other words (i) if the difference between x and k is made as small as we please
ite 7) then (i) the difference between fo) sy E
id J can be made as small as we
(ie, fo) 29
Note: x= we=2
xol a
These two are ‘not identical statements. Althou
jures of arriving at the answers are different
arily be the same always,
Consider the function fx) = x
‘Asx tends to infinity, f(x) tends to zero.
igh the answers are the same the
| Moreover the answers need not
We write ‘
Limd=o
cae
Ifflx) = x2 + 3, lx) approaches 7 as x approaches 2.
We write
Lim (x7 +3)=7
x2
inition of a limit, Let fix)-be a function.
If there exists a number J such that f(x) may be made as close to ! as we please by
sing for x any number close to a given number k, we say that
limit of f(x) as x approaches k is 1.
We write this symbolically
Lim f(x)=!
rk ;
_ This statement means that fx) is close to 1 if x. tends to (but is not equal to) k. If we
ike x sufficiently close to k we can have flz) as close to Las we like,
___ The definitions of the limit of a sequence and the limit of a function are identical but
nis restricted to positive integers in a sequence, the functions fix) is defined for all
fl numbers in a given range,
4 THEOREMS ON LIMITS OF FUNCTIONS
!. If ais a constant
Lim a=a
xkMATHEMATICS AND STATISTICS FOR FON,
z $
Ira, bare constants
Lim tart bye ak eb
=m
ai Lim foysh Lim (9)
(i) Lim [fly + ganl=l+m™
pa
(i) Lim [fd ga= tm
ot
£22! mao
(ii)
rok g(x) om
(jw) Lim 4 Fe =7.
(0) Hf Lim f(x) =b, Lim (2) =
Lim f(x): g(x) =0
sak
Now consider the following:
x
Lim £ wee; Lim ke= =; Lim [=<
rao x ey i
These are some: convenient though pedogogically bad methods of writing tiny
when division and multiplication by infinity or division by zero is involved. It is prefers,
to talk of no limits in such cases.
In evaluating a limit we let the variable approach the limiting value. Often this may
not be feasible in which case factorisation may remove the difficulties. Sometimes 4
convenient division ofthe terms in the numerator and the denominator by certain quantities
is found useful.
Ex. 72. Lim x=a@
We have not set x = a, this is not the idea of a limit. We have expressed that, in the
limit, x approaches a.
Ex. 73. Lim (5x~-7)=Lim 5x-Lim 7=10-7=3
x92 x92 x2
Ee
Bx. 74, Lim ~4 = Lim S42) @-2)
F2 x—-2 2? gD
Here factorisation is useful in finding the limit,
= Lim (x+2)=4
a a),
Bx, 15, Lim 21 pig HO =a? Lt a?
wot aD rot Pi ED Tog?
(Dividing numerator and denominator by“)
7 1
Since +50 05 x—ye0
z
Here the division of nu ym x
mel i is
Talor and denominator by x2 js useful, «s
« AND LIMIT
10%
76. Prove the following results:
pee 76+
Lima? =4
1?
x-4x43 1
Lin +2x-3 2
@ (iy
@ ty
Lim(7-x— 22) =7
4 4
Lim 2 =~ 4,3
Lim Vee - JIE,
190
3
Lim 2 =8 4
por p-2
Lim 4x72
xo x? 46x-7
2
3
{+4
noohlxth x
i
ya yod
2x5 -1
Lim 122 =11
mi 4
Ans. (i) — (v) no limit (vi) t (ii) 2 (viii) 1 (ix) - 1) $
2x+3x7
() TAN 3x4 2x ww
+bx
oa) tin =o (vt
ro
_ Pos _ 1
i) LP +6 22 ®)
2x41 1
wid a Puasa gO
| (xt he aa? :
win ig R= ase
gx. 7. Evaluate the limits if they exist:
a
@ Lim a
. xl
_ 5
oo ne ®
in.
Lim wi
) La :
dx, 8 ) -
: i MZ (vil
co tim ( x+4 x+4 (viii)
3_ 4x7 48
ws Lin S48 «
paar
3
B78 Lim 24) = Lim
rap [x2 49-5 4
= Lit
ma
= 240
x4) (0? £4416) 2 49 +5)
G7 +9-5) G7 +945)
x(x? tax $16) ft +949)
ip HE AEH IO) Of $9459)
xt4MATHEMATICS AND STATISTICS Fey key
Ne
My.
B+ f5+ ule Ls ‘
)
a)
a-J3 DUH YS+ G4 Y 5)
im
rd
(9- (5+ x) 1+ f5—2)
4 (1-5-2) G+ 642)
fox I+f5-e 1
ae | “=x 34 f5tx 3
im —24=2)-3 4
Ee et = NGE a
je cosmx/2 Puly=x-1
eo en) I-x 9 Asx>1y>0
nm my
cos( 242) u csin my/2 _ 1
= Li “Ln a2
geo} ny yo y 2
-fl x 1
Ex. 82, Lim 2a ieee,
x90 sin? x 2
A
i
Ex. 83, Lim “20°=D_>
ml rel
9.15 LIMITS AND CONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS
Lim ffx) may or may not be the same as fla).
mu
If Lim ftx) = fa), a finite quantity, then f(x) is said to be a continuous function, oh
ou
atx=a, j
If any of the two conditions, viz.
(Lim fx) = fla), a finite quantity
roa
(i) fla) exists
is not satisfied for any value of x, (x) is said to be disco1
The discussion of a limit is necessi
Concepts of limit and continuity are essei
ntinuous for that value of x,
‘ary to get a precise concept of Continuity, The
ntial in the study of calculus.
1 ‘ 1
Ex, 84, =— =
x, Se) — and Lim f(x) a
If x — 2, fx) does not have a finite value
A) is continuous for any value of a except 2nCTIONS AND LIMITS
px.85 f= VO-1N Gay
This function is continuous only in the interval a
al (1, 2)
Al
265
=!
Ex. 86. f(x)= Zaat
This function is discontinuous at x = a, x
1x=-a,
916 A NOTE ON FINITE DISCONTINUITY AND INFINITE DISCONTINUITY
When a limit exists it means it exists finitely
i ‘X) = 0, it
If Lim f(x) means that as x — a, f(x) becomes larger and larger and not that
_ fee) equals = which is not a number at all.
‘flz) is continuous on an interval if it is continuous at every point of the interval.
If y = Ax) is continuous in the interval-[a, ,
5] then the range of y is the i
ge of y is the interval (a, b]
and f(x) cannot pass from one Value to another value in the interval without assuming at
least once each intermediate value. sd
The graph of a function which is continuous in an interval {a, b], is a continuous
unbroken curve.
The concept of a limit should not be applied to a discrete function which is defined
for a finite number of values in an interval and is discontinuous at all other points.
Price, cost, demand, supply and other functions in economics are often discrete but
are treated as continuous for convenience in the applications of mathematical analysis. |
A function f(x) has a finite discontinuity, at x = a if (x) exists but changés abruptly at
x=a. Thus f(x) = (e’ + 5)" has a finite discontinuity at x = 0 though at all other points
itis continuous. .
Infinite discontinuity at x = a implies that as x —> a, f(x) becomes infinite. Thus at
eats has an infinite discontinuity since f(5) does not exist though f(x) exists
25, fla)
atall points other than x — 5.