transcedenca
Jaspers felt that psychiatry could also diagnose delusions in the same way.
He argued that clinicians should not consider a belief delusional based on
the content of the belief, but only based on the way in which a patient holds
such a belief (see delusion for further discussion). Jaspers also distinguished
between primary and secondary delusions. He defined primary delusions as
"autochthonous" meaning arising without apparent cause, appearing
incomprehensible in terms of normal mental processes. (This is a distinctly
different use of the term autochthonous than its usual medical or
sociological meaning of indigenous.) Secondary delusions, on the other
hand, he classified as influenced by the person's background, current
situation or mental state.
Jaspers considered primary delusions as ultimately 'un-understandable,' as
he believed no coherent reasoning process existed behind their formation.
This view has caused some controversy, and the likes of R. D. Laing and
Richard Bentall have criticized it, stressing that taking this stance can lead
therapists into the complacency of assuming that because they do not
understand a patient, the patient is deluded and further investigation on the
part of the therapist will have no effect.
Contributions to Philosophy and Theology
In Philosophy (3 vols, 1932), Jaspers gave his view of the history of
philosophy and introduced his major themes. Beginning with
modern science and empiricism, Jaspers points out that as we question
reality, we confront borders that an empirical (or scientific) method simply
cannot transcend. At this point, the individual faces a choice: sink into
despair and resignation, or take a leap of faith toward what Jaspers
calls Transcendence. In making this leap, individuals confront their own
limitless freedom, which Jaspers calls Existenz, and can finally experience
authentic existence.
Transcendence (paired with the term The Encompassing in later works) is,
for Jaspers, that which exists beyond the world of time and space. Jaspers'
formulation of Transcendence as ultimate non-objectivity (or no-thing-ness)
has led many philosophers to argue that ultimately this indicated that
Jaspers had become a monist, though Jaspers himself continually stressed
the necessity of recognizing the validity of the concepts both of subjectivity
and of objectivity.
1
Although he rejected explicit religious doctrines, including the notion of a
personal God, Jaspers influenced contemporary theology through his
philosophy of transcendence and the limits of human experience.
Mystic Christian traditions influenced Jaspers himself tremendously,
particularly those of Meister Eckhart and of Nicholas of Cusa. He also took
an active interest in Eastern philosophies, particularly Buddhism, and
developed the theory of an Axial Age, a period of substantial philosophical
and religious development. Jaspers also entered public debates with Rudolf
Bultmann, wherein Jaspers roundly criticized Bultmann's "demythologizing"
of Christianity.
Jaspers also wrote extensively on the threat to human freedom posed by
modern science and modern economic and political institutions.
During World War II, he had to abandon his teaching post because his wife
was Jewish. After the war he resumed his teaching position, and in his
work The Question of German Guilt he unabashedly examined the
culpability of Germany as a whole in the atrocities of Hitler's Third Reich.
For Jaspers, the term "existence" (Existenz) designates the indefinable
experience of freedom and possibility; an experience which constitutes the
authentic being of individuals who become aware of "the encompassing" by
confronting the "Limit Situations" (Grenzsituation) such as suffering, conflict,
guilt, chance, and death. Jaspers discussed the idea of the Limit Situation in
his early work, Psychology of Worldview (1919) and elaborated in his major
work, Philosophy (1932).
Jaspers' major works, lengthy and detailed, can seem daunting in their
complexity. His last great attempt at a systematic philosophy of Existenz—
Von Der Wahrheit (On Truth)—has not yet appeared in English. However, he
also wrote accessible and entertaining shorter works, most
notably Philosophy is for Everyman.
Commentators often compare Jaspers' philosophy to that of his
contemporary, Martin Heidegger. Indeed, both sought to explore the
meaning of being (Sein) and existence (Dasein). While the two did maintain
a brief friendship, their relationship deteriorated—due in part to Heidegger's
affiliation with the Nazi party, but also due to the (probably over-
emphasized) philosophical differences between the two.
The two major proponents of phenomenological hermeneutics, Paul
Ricoeur (a student of Jaspers) and Hans-Georg Gadamer (Jaspers's
successor at Heidelberg) both display Jaspers's influence in their works.
2
3
