Chapter Six: Medias of Communication

6.1 Written Media

Written communication involves any type of interaction that makes use of the written word. It is
one of the two main types of communication, along with oral/spoken communication. Written
communication is very common in business situations, so it is important for small business
owners and managers to develop effective written communication skills. Some of the various
forms of written communication that are used internally for business operations include memos,
reports, bulletins, job descriptions, employee manuals, and electronic mail. Examples of written
communication avenues typically pursued with clients, vendors, and other members of the
business community, meanwhile, include electronic mail, Internet Web sites, letters, proposals,
telegrams, faxes, postcards, contracts, advertisements, brochures, and news releases.
6.1.1 Business Letters
Introduction
Customers and other organizations base their impression of a firm in its letter as much as
anything. By definition a letter is a written message in a particular format. Properly planned,
designed and neatly typed letter contribute toward reputation and goodwill of business
organization. The following elements usually constitute the structure of a business letter.
Components of Business Letter
When writing a letter requesting something, ask yourself this all–important question: What kind
of letter would I like to receive if I were being asked for something? You would probably decide
that you would want the writer to be as brief as possible – to avoid wasting your time. On the
other hand, you would want the writer to give you complete information so that you wouldn't
need to write for more details. And you would probably expect the writer to be courteous and
tactful.
1. Heading
The letterhead helps the reader know where the letter is coming from and where to reply to the
letter. Letterheads contain the name (return address), the postal address, the telephone number,
fax, and e-mail address.
2. Date

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Date establishes the correspondence as a matter of record and provides a reference point for
future correspondence. It is typed two spaces below the last line of the letterhead. It is indicated
either in the upper right-hand corner or upper left-hand corner as: 20 May, 2007 or
May 20, 2007.
3. Reference - The code given to a letter for easy identification.
4. Inside Address
The full address should be written two spaces below the date and reference number and tow
spaces above the attention line or if there is no attention line two spaces above the salutation in
the left margin.
5. Attention
To ensure prompt attention, sometimes a letter, which is addressed to a company, is marked to a
particular officer in the organization. The attention line is written two spaces below the inside
address and two spaces above the salutation. This line is generally underlined.
Example: Attention: Dr Habtamu
Attention: General Manager
6. Salutation
Salutation is similar to greeting. It is placed two spaces below the attention line; if there is no
attention line, below the inside address.
7. Subject
The purpose of the subject is let the reader know immediately what the message is about. It
saves time if the letter has to pass to some other officer or department. It can be done quickly.
8. Body
The main purpose of a letter is to convey a message and the main purpose of a message is to
produce a suitable response in the reader. This is done mainly through the body of the letter.
9. Complimentary Close
Complimentary close is a polite way of ending a letter. It is typed two spaces below the last line
of the letter. Eg: Sincerely, Sincerely yours, Cordially, Yours faithfully etc.
10. Signature

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Signature is the signed name of the writer. It is placed below the complimentary close. The
name of the writer is generally typed four space below the close line providing enough space for
signature.
11. Identification Mark
Identification mark is put in the left margin to identify the typist of the letter one or two space
below the signature.
12. Enclosure
If anything is attached to the letter, it must be indicated against the enclosure line typed two
spaces below the identification marks. The enclosure notation reminds the reader that material is
enclosed with the letter.
Example: Enc._______ Or Enclosure(s) ______
13. Copy to
Copy to is used when there are other organizations or individuals required to receive and know
the message.
Structure of a Business Letter
(i) Heading
______________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
_____________________________________

(ii) Date __________________

(iii)Your Reference ___________________
Our Reference ___________________
(iv) Inside address
_____________________________________
________________________________
_____________________________
(v) Attention
_____________________________
(vi) Salutation
__________________
(vii)Subject
____________________________________________________

(viii) Body

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 _____________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________

(ix) Complimentary close

_____________________________

(x) Signature
___________________________
(xi) Identification marks
__________________________
(xii) Enclosure
__________________________

(xiii) Copy to __________________

Styles of presentation
There are several styles, which are used for writing business letters. A business organization can
choose what suit it best. The following three styles are examples of styles used by business
organizations.
(1) Block style: the date, the complementary close and the signature are aligned with the right
margin; all other parts except the letterhead are flush left.
___________Heading________________________________________
_________________________________________
_______________________________
__Date___________
________________________
________________________
________________________
__________
___________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
____________
_________________________

_________________________
_______________________
(2) Semi-block style: this is like the block style except that the paragraphs of the body of
the letter are indented. It is believed to be easy for reading.

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 _______________________________________________________
____________________________________
____________________________

_________________
_____________________________
_____________________________
_____________________________

_________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________

______________________
_____________________
_____________________
_____________________

(3) Complete – Block style

In complete-block style, all parts of the letter, except the printed letterhead, are aligned with the
left margin. Example of complete-block style letter:
____________________________________________________
________________________________________
__________________________
________________________
_________________________
_________________________
________________________
_______________

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______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________
______________________________
__________________________
____________________
____________________
kinds of Business Letters
In business you write many types of letters. You may write:
 To apply for a job
 To ask for information, advice, or favors
 To collect money
 To apologize for a mistake
 To say "no" to an unreasonable request
 To sell your company's products or services etc.
The following kinds of business letters are among those most frequently written.
 Employment letters
 Asking and transmittal letters
 Letters answering requests
 Claim and adjustment letters
 Credit and collection letters
 Sales letters
 Employment letters
Sometime in your life–perhaps several times–you will probably seek a job through a written
presentation. Therefore, you will have occasion to write one or more of the following
employment letters.
 A letter of application. This may be written:
- in response to a newspaper advertisements
- at the suggestion of a relative, friend, teacher or business acquaintance.
- at your own instigation
 Letters to various persons asking permission to use their names as references

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  A follow up letter to thank an employment interviewer for the time he gave you
and to reemphasize some of your qualifications that particularly fit you for the
job.
 A letter accepting a position
 A letter refusing a position
 A thank you letter to each person who helped you in your job seeking campaign.
 A letter resigning from a position
1. Letter of Application and Resume (curriculum vitae/ bio-data)

Written document of any type must stand on its own. This general rule also applies to an
application letter and the resume. The writer of the application and resume will not be present
when they are read and explain or illustrate the intended meaning of his message

Of course, a letter of application can get into an executive's office even when it may not be
possible for you to do so. Thus, it is your personal representative. The employer looks upon the
application letter as a screening device. Those who write good letters get through the screen;
those who do not are left outside. The application letter, then, is important enough to warrant
careful and thorough planning.

The resume is a document you will use to sell yourself in the job search process. Its
purposes are to convince potential employers that they should interview you. A well designed
resume will emphasize your skills, abilities, talents and experiences for potential employers.

Checklist for a Resume

 Opening Section:
Your name, address, telephone numbers
Job title, career goal
Summary of basic qualifications:

 Education:
Advanced schooling and training – school names, locations, dates attended, degrees and
certificates. (including high school and military, if significant)

 Work Experience:

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 Employer names, location; dates (month, year); titles and positions held; duties;
accomplishments; etc.

 Activities, Achievements, Awards:

School and community memberships, offices held, honors, publications, language, and
self–support.
 Other relevant facts (if not included under 1–4 above)
 References: name some persons who can certify your data is correct.
2. Asking and Transmittal Letters
Asking Letters
Asking letters are letters that request for something. Many asking letters are written in every
business. As a business person you may write to:
 a supplier, asking for a catalog or a price lists
 a publisher, asking for reprints of an article or for subscription
 a hotel, asking that a conference room be arrange (reserved), for a meeting, and son
on.

While these characteristics are applicable to any kind of business letter, they are especially
important in asking letters. Therefore, asking letters should be: brief i.e. concise, complete, and
courteous.

Particularly pleasant words like thank you, pleas, grateful, and appreciate will do more to make
readers to go out of their way to help you than will a brusque demand.

Here are some typical beginnings for effective asking letters:

“May I please…?”
“I shall be grateful if you will …"
“Will you please…?”
“I should appreciate having…. "
“Please send me ….”
Following are typical endings for effective asking letters:
“I am certain we can count on your cooperation."
“I would appreciate your help."
“We shall be grateful for this special service."

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When the stated reason for a request will promote the reader to give you better service, then you
should state such a reason in your letter. If the reason for a request is obvious, and the reader is
expected to grant it without question, there is no need to state the reason.

Here are specific suggestions for writing asking letters:

 Write to a particular individual, if possible, rather than to a company to speed up the
handling of your request.
 Be clear in your own mind as to what you want or want to know.
 Do not make unnecessary work for the reader by asking for information that you
could have obtained from reference books or other sources available to you.

Letters of Transmittal

Transmitting Letters should do the following:

 Identify what is being sent and how many (if money, the amount)
 Specify any action necessary on the part of the recipient.
 If transmitting money, identify the purpose for which the money is to be used –
for purchases made, for services rendered, in settlement of a certain invoice no,
etc.

3. Letters Answering Requests – Acknowledgements

A usual business practice – and always very good business practice – is to acknowledge by letter
any money or business papers received, favors granted, appointments made, and agreements
reached orally.

The first reason for writing letters of acknowledgement is that writing such letters is the
courteous thing to do. A letter from you acknowledging or confirming something tells the
recipient that he need not worry–you have received safely what he sent.
A second, and equally important, reason for writing acknowledgement letters is to avoid
misunderstandings or mistake. If you have received an order and will make shipment as soon as
possible, the customer will want to know. If he does not hear from you, he may assume that you

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did not receive his order, or he may wonder what you are doing about it if you did. A written
acknowledgement assures him that you have the merchandise in the quantity he requested and
that you are going to fill his order quickly.
A third reason for writing acknowledgement letters is to provide a record. Records are the
memory of business. You would not want to trust your own memory as to the date on which you
promised delivery of an order; the carbon copy of your acknowledgement, therefore, provides
the information.

4. Sales Letters
To write a good sales letter you have to draw an effective letter plan. This plan calls for four
steps, the ABCD's of sales letters.
 Attracting attention – by opening with a striking paragraph (e.g. a question. A
challenging statement).
 Building interest and desire – by making an appeal to some buying motive. (E.g. health,
personal appearance, economy, future prospects. Etc).
 Convincing the reader – by supporting the claims made, giving guarantees, providing
evidence of tests, etc.
 Directing favorable action – by persuading the reader to do what you want him to do.
(E.g. to seek for further information, visit your show room, place an order).
5. Memos: In some cases it is called interoffice memorandum, are used for internal commutation
purpose. They are used for the routine and day-to- day exchange of information within an
organization with people or departments. Memo ensures quick and smooth flow of information
in all directions. It serves as a reference and evidence for the future.
Different organizations may have their own forms of memo formats; some may print the date,
receiver’s name, the sender’s name and the subject (date, to, from, subject) to save time.
Eg.
_____________Company
Interoffice Memo
Date______________________
To_______________________
From_____________________
Subject____________________

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Message(body)
______________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
6.1.2 Report Writing

Introduction

Report writing is a time consuming business so it is a great shame if, having devoted all that time
to writing your report, the quality is such that hardly anyone can be bothered to read it. Quite
frankly, most report readers do not actually read all the report; they are too short of time. You
might as well know it and accept it -- that is normal. They only read the parts that interest them.
Frequently these are the summary, the conclusions and recommendations.

Of course, some readers do need all the details you so carefully included, they are specialists, but
most do not. Most readers just need two things: that the information they want is where they
expect it to be so they can find it, and that it is written clearly so that they can understand it.

It is similar to reading a newspaper. You expect the news headlines to be on the front page; the
sports coverage to be at the back; the TV listings on page whatever and the editorial comment in
the middle. If what you want is not in its usual place then you have to hunt for it and you may get
irritated. So it is with a report.

There is a convention as to what goes where. Stick with the convention and please your readers.
Break the convention and people may get slightly irritated - and bin your report.

So what is that convention, the standard format?

Standard Sections

Title Section: In a short report this may simply be the front cover. In a long one it could also
include Terms of Reference, Table of Contents and so on.

Summary: Give a clear and very concise account of the main points, main conclusions and main
recommendations. Keep it very short, a few percent of the total length. Some people, especially
senior managers, may not read anything else so write as if it were a stand-alone document. It isn't
but for some people it might as well be. Keep it brief and free from jargon so that anyone can
understand it and get the main points. Write it last, but do not copy and paste from the report
itself; that rarely works well.

Introduction: This is the first part of the report proper. Use it to paint the background to 'the
problem' and to show the reader why the report is important to them. Give your terms of
reference (if not in the Title Section) and explain how the details that follow are arranged. Write
it in plain English.

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Main Body: This is the heart of your report, the facts. It will probably have several sections or
sub-sections each with its own subtitle. It is unique to your report and will describe what you
discovered about 'the problem'.

These sections are most likely to be read by experts so you can use some appropriate jargon but
explain it as you introduce it. Arrange the information logically, normally putting things in order
of priority -- most important first. In fact, follow that advice in every section of your report.

You may choose to include a Discussion in which you explain the significance of your findings.

Conclusions: Present the logical conclusions of your investigation of 'the problem'. Bring it all
together and maybe offer options for the way forward. Many people will read this section. Write
it in plain English. If you have included a discussion then this section may be quite short.

Recommendations: What do you suggest should be done? Don't be shy; you did the work so
state your recommendations in order of priority, and in plain English.

Appendices: Put the heavy details here, the information that only specialists are likely to want to
see. As a guide, if some detail is essential to your argument then include it in the main body, if it
merely supports the argument then it could go in an appendix.

Formal report writing in professional, technical and business contexts has evolved certain
conventions regarding format, style, referencing and other characteristics. These will vary in
detail between organisations, so the information given below should be treated as general
guidelines which hold good in the absence of any more specific `house styles'.

Format

The full format of a long report can be as follows:

Title page
Acknowledgements
Summary
Table of Contents
Introduction/Terms of Reference/Scope
Procedure
Findings (the evidence)
Conclusions
Recommendations
References/Bibliography
Appendices

Referencing

The Harvard (author-date) system is the one usually encountered in the sciences and social
sciences, and is the system promoted in Professional Writing & Communication subjects and the

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University of South Australia generally. All the examples below relate to the author-date system
of referencing.

5.6.1 Citations

When you write an assignment you must cite in your text references to all material you have
used as sources for the content of your work. These citations must be made wherever and
whenever you quote, paraphrase or summarise someone else's opinions, theories or data (in
your text). Your references may be to books, periodicals, articles, newspapers, reports or personal
communications. A list of references, in alphabetical order of authors' surnames, must be
attached to the end of your report, giving complete details of all references actually used in the
report (see 5.6.2).

5.6.1.1 For the citations in your text, only the author's surname, year of publication for the
material cited, and page numbers, if required, should be listed. Page numbers for your references
are necessary only when you quote or paraphrase particular passages, lists or figures from your
sources:

Smith (1971, p. 45) has argued that 'the relative seriousness of the two kinds of errors differs
from situation to situation.'

5.6.1.2 If you paraphrase material from your sources you must make it clear from your reference
that you are giving a modified version of someone else's work in your own words:

A recent study (Jones and Smith, 1974) has shown . . .

5.6.1.3 Reference to material written by more than two authors should include the surnames of
all authors the first time the citation appears. In later citations of the same reference, include only
the surname of the first author and the abbreviation et al. (meaning 'and the others'):

A recent study (Jones, Smith, Brown and White, 1973) has shown . . .

The research previously cited (Jones, et al., 1973)

5.6.1.4 Reference to different authors with the same surname should be distinguished by use in
the authors' initials:

A recent study (C.L. Jones, 1974) has shown . . . but A.G. Jones (1956) has suggested . . .

5.6.1.5 When you have read an account of original work by one author (primary reference) in
another book or article (secondary reference), both sources must be acknowledged in your
reference:

Smith (Jones, 1961) states that . . .

or

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Smith's experiment in 1952 (cited in Jones, 1961) states . . .

or

Jones (1961), in reporting Smith's 1952 study, states that . . .

Smith is the primary reference, Jones is the secondary reference.

5.6.1.6 If you need to cite several references at the same point, separate the authors' names by
semi-colons, with surnames in alphabetical order:

Recent studies (Brown, 1971; Miller and Smith, 1972; Jones, 1966) show . . .

5.6.1.7 References to two or more publications in the same year by a given author should be
distinguished by adding a, b, and so on:

A recent study (Jones, 1974b) has shown . . .

Recent studies (Jones, 1972, 1973a and b) have shown . . .

6.2 Oral Media

Introduction
In this medium of communication the two parties in communication exchange their ideas or the
message with the help of words of mouth. The message – instruction order, directive, etc, is
conveyed through spoken words. This method can be observed in a number of forms of
communication, such as conferences, committee meetings, interviews, telephone conversations,
face– to–face talks etc.
6.2.1 The Telephone

Characteristics
 It is brief or short
 Speakers may be in different environments making it susceptible to disruptions
 Deprived of nonverbal communication
Conversing in telephone
 When the receiver responds identify yourself immediately
 Ask whether it is convenient to talk
 Be attentive and active in listening
 Close your call courteously (say thanks)

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Receiving calls
 Be prepared to receive calls
 Answer the call immediately when it rings
 Identify yourself
 Make every effort to get the message correctly
 Explain any delays (if any)

6.2.2 Interviews
Interviewing like all interpersonal communication, normally involves face–to–face interaction
between two parties (interviewer and interviewee) who take turns acting as sender and receiver.
This definition makes it clear that interviewing is a special kind of conversation differing from
other forms of conversations.
Characteristic of Interviews
The first characteristic of interviews is that they are purposeful, conducted to achieve some
specific objective. Second, interviews are more structured i.e. it has some pre–established
agenda that is followed during the conversations. Third, interviews also have an element of
control not present in casual interaction. Fourth, interviews are more carefully prepared than
are informal conversations.
Types of Interviews in organizations
 Employment interviews
It is a formal, in–depth conversation conducted aimed at evaluating the qualities of
candidate by direct face to face discussion. Interview is an effective technique to measure
the knowledge, understanding, competence, and interest in the work, personality and to
finally evaluate an applicant’s acceptability.
 Disciplinary Interviews
When an employee violates a policy or breaks a rule, the employer usually will initiate a
disciplinary interview with that employee. Generally, these interviews attempt to show
the employee what he or she did wrong, remind him or her of the rules involved, inform
him or her of the disciplinary actions, if any, to be taken, and lay out clear expectations
for performance improvements in the future.
 Appraisal Interviews

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 Their functions is to review the performance objectives established for the employee in
the previous appraisal interview, review the employee's performance in relations to those
objectives, establish new or revised objectives for upcoming months or years and to
layout specific strategies for performance improvement.
 Grievance Interviews
The grievance interview is initiated and largely controlled by the employee. The range of
employee discontent is wide and may focus on such matters as poor working conditions,
incompetent fellow employees, unfair treatment, and inadequate salaries.
 Counseling Interview
It is usually directed toward personal consideration of employee. Personal problems can,
and often do, create and intensify problems at work, for example, alcoholism, marital
discord, fear of retirement, drug abuse, unanticipated change, failure to get promotion,
etc. In these cases, counseling interviews are often legitimately used to obtain valuable
preliminary information and to encourage workers to obtain professional assistance.
 Exit Interviews
The exit interview occurs at the end of those productive years or at a time of change in
the employee's organizational affiliation. It is normally carried out to establish the reasons
for employee's leaving and also to give insights that might make the job a more
rewarding one for future employees.
 Persuasive Interviews
The Most common example of this type is the sales transaction in which a salesperson
attempts to sell a specific product to a prospective customer.
Basic steps for the interview process
Although interviewing is a common organizational activity, it is not an easy one. It is therefore
necessary to properly organize sequential steps for the interview process, thus:
 Interview Planning
It is essential to effective employment interviews. The physical location of the interview
should be both pleasant and private, providing for a minimum of interruptions. The
interviewer should have a pleasant personality, empathy, and the ability to listen and
communicate effectively. He/she should become familiar with the applicants
qualifications by reviewing the data collected from other selection tools.

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  Creation of Rapport
Rapport is aided by beginning the interview on time and starting with non–threatening
questions. The interviewer may use body language to help relax the applicant. A smile, a
handshake, a relaxed posture, and moving a side paper work, all communicate without
words.
 Information exchange
The interview process is a conversation in which information is exchanged. An
interviewer will ask questions in a way that elicits as much information as possible
especially about the applicant's background, skills, and interests.
 Termination
As the list of questions dwindles or the available time ends, the interviewer must draw the
session to close.
 Evaluation
Immediately after the interview ends, the interviewer should record specific answers by
the candidate and his/her general impression about the candidate.
Using Questions in the Interview
A key communication tool used by interviewers is the question. Whatever the overall design,
many questions are asked as a primary means of collecting data needed to assist in planning and
decision making. There are two basic types of questions: Open or closed questions.
 Open questions
They are broad in nature and basically unstructured. Often they indicate only the topic to
be discussed and allow the interviewee considerable freedom in determining the amount
and kind of information he/she will provide. Example of open questions is: (i) Tell me
about yourself? (ii) Why did you major in management?
The advantages of open questions are: they allow the interviewee to talk with relative
freedom; they are not very threatening and tend to reduce interviewee anxiety; they allow
interviewee to volunteer information for which the interviewer would not have thought to
ask; it also gives the interviewer insights into the interviewee's prejudices, values, and
commitments.
The disadvantages of open questions are: they take a good deal of time; collect much
irrelevant information; require several follow–up questions; demand excellent listening

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 skills on the part of the interviewer; and can be difficult to evaluate following the
interview.
 Close questions
These are structured, restricted, and often include several possible answers from which to
choose. Thus, potential responses are limited example- How many years did you spend in
the university? Others are extreme yes/no questions Example "do you smoke?.
The merits of closed questions are: it save time; increase the probability of obtaining
relevant responses; and are relatively easy to tabulate following the interview.
The major draw backs of closed questions are: they generate limited information and
often cause interviewees to respond less accurately; they decrease interviewee talking
time and increase the number of questions the interviewer must generate; and they fail to
explore reasons behind attitudes and behaviors.
Interview Guidelines
 The hiring department should be concerned with the applicant's qualifications as related
to duties and responsibilities of the position, as well as conditions of the work.
 The questions should be job-related and not of a personal nature.
 The person responsible for interviewing should have a good working knowledge of the
position.
 It is important for the interviewers to be well-prepared and informed about Equal
Employment Opportunity laws.
 Preplan for the interview by conducting a thorough review of job requirements, create
a series of job-related interview questions, and seek job-related work examples in the
interview.
 Treat all applicants with fairness, equality, and consistency.
 Follow a structured interview plan that will achieve fairness in interviewing.
 Ask the same general questions and require the same standards for all applicants.
 Although all applicants are asked the same set of questions, the interviewers may ask
more specific questions based on responses to initial questions or to clarify relevant work
experience and education identified on the applicant’s employment application or resume.
 Conduct interviews that can predict job performance.

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  Use the same team of interviewers during each interview to ensure consistent treatment
of all applicants and consistent interpretation of the information obtained during the
interview.
 Keep notes from the interviews for each applicant interviewed and submit them to HR.
6.2.3 Meetings
 Meetings take place when individuals get together with the idea of talking about
or sharing their knowledge, ideas, views, experiences
 Many managers put "meeting " at the top of their lists of the greatest time–wasters
ever
 Practically however managers spend not less than 70 percent of their time in
meeting and this increases through the hierarchy
 Meetings are powerful communication tools in managerial performance
 They are, however, costly communication tools
 They must thus stem from clear goals
 Meetings can have four goals
- obtaining information
- giving information
- solving problems
- selling ideas
 When to call meetings
First, you should call a meeting when:
 You need to reach a group judgment as the basis for a decision.
 You need to discover analyze or solve a problem.
 You need to gain acceptance from the group for an idea, program, or decision.
 You need to achieve a training objective.
 You need to reconcile conflicting views
 You need t provide essential information for work guidance or for the relief of
insecurities or tensions.
 You need to assure equal understanding or company policy, methods, or decisions.
 You need to obtain immediate reactions to a problem that requires a speedy response.

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 On the other hand you should not call meeting:
 When other communication, such as telephone telegram, letter, or memo, will produce
the desired result.
 When there is not sufficient time for adequate preparation by participants or the meeting
leader.
 When one or more key participants cannot be available.
 When the meeting is not likely to produce satisfactory results because of personality
conflicts or conflicts with overall management strategy.
 When expected results do not warrant spending the money it will cost to hold the
meeting.
 Announcing Meeting
The written announcement should contain the following information:
 Why the meeting is held: members should know what the purpose of the meeting
is and what their role is to be.
 When the meeting starts and ends. Most announcements indicate the starting time;
too few say how long the meeting is expected to last.
 Where the meeting is to be held: If attendees are likely to be unfamiliar with the
location, a map or some description of how to find it should be included.
 Who is going to attend: The complete list of attendees should be provided for
everyone to see.
 What is going to be considered in the meeting: An agenda or outline of the
meeting's proceeding should be included.

 Conditions that make meeting effective

- Appropriate combination of members
- Agenda must be prepared and distributed well ahead of time
- Minutes of every meeting must be prepared, approved, signed, distributed and filed.
- Every meeting should begin and end at the specific time stated.
 Conducting the meeting
 Beginning the meeting

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 Effective openings get the meeting off to a good start. First, every one is given a clear
picture of what is to be accomplished. Secondly, a definition of how the group will try to
reach its goal. Finally, set a stage for good teamwork and, thus, good results.
 Encouraging participation
Members can be encouraged to participate in meetings through over head questions,
direct questions, reverse questions, and relay questions.
 Keeping discussions on track –Ensuring that issues to be discussed are specifically
focused on.
 Solving problems creatively
Meetings is a success when the groups have developed high –quality solutions when they
follow the reflective thinking sequence i.e. by defining the problems, analyze the
problem, develop solutions, decide on a solution and decide on how to implement
solution.
 Problems and Advantages of Meeting
a. Problems with meetings
 Time – even when they are productive, meetings take up a considerable amount of time.
Considerable time is often wasted in meetings for instance, in socializing that
accompanies the get together, time wasted for everyone to arrive, and in discussions that
have little or nothing to do with the purpose of the meeting. Sometimes group takes a
longer time to reach an agreement. It may result to delay of decisions on matters that need
urgent decisions.
 Domination by a few; especially when individuals who rank higher in status in the
organization are present.
 Minority domination or bad decisions – sometimes the quality of group action is reduced
when group gives into those who talk the loudest and the longest.
 Some group meeting experiences indecisiveness and back passing problems.
 Groups think and compromise – a tendency to suppress critical comments in the interest of
maintaining group solidarity and feeling of togetherness.
b. Advantages of Meetings
Meetings if well organized and well–managed produce more solutions than individuals, and the
solutions are likely to be better. In this sense, meetings are like marriages: when handled well,

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there is nothing likes them; handled poorly, they can be disastrous. The reasons why meetings
can be advantageous are:
 Greater Resources – The saying that "two good heads are better than one" hold true, because
good groups contain diversity of knowledge and skills that few individuals can match. To be
productive, of course, the group meeting must have capable members. A collection of
incompetents won't accomplish much of anything.
 Greater Accuracy – people working together can catch one another's errors.
 Increased Commitment – Group decision making also boosts members Commitment to
carrying them out. There are three reasons for this increased commitment:
 Participative decision-making – the members of the group would feel that it was their plan
and our plan and they would work harder to implement it.
 A final way in which meetings boost commitment involves peer pressure.

6.2.4 Public Speaking

Public speaking is the art of speaking to a group of people in a structured manner intended to
inform, influence or entertain the audience. Most careers will require that you give presentations
or deliver speeches. But for many people, public speaking is at best a chore marked by great
anxiety and at worst a potential career stopper. Speaking in public is one of the most feared
activities. Public speaking can be a downright terrifying experience, and few have the training
and confidence required to overcome the fear of public speaking and connect with an audience.
The reluctance to get up in front of an audience is often a major impediment to career
advancement. Mastering the art of public speaking will boost your confidence and give you a
competitive edge.
The following public speaking tips will help you learn about the common causes of speaking
anxiety and overcome stage fright. The articles herein provide information on public speaking
techniques to help in overcoming fear of public speaking, acquiring confident speaking skills and
improving your presentation skills. Readers will learn techniques to develop confidence, express
ideas with authority, and communicate with charisma to influence and win over an audience.
The importance of mastering public speaking techniques to address audiences effectively and
powerfully has been an issue since the beginnings of recorded history. The Bible's Old Testament
makes no bones about the fact that the most influential prophets and leaders were those who
could sway their audiences verbally. Throughout history, oratory skills have repeatedly proved to

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the decisive factor that turns the tide of public opinion. The Powerful oratory skills of many
leaders have won wars, averted mass panic and saved companies from financial disaster.

Successful public speaking involves more than just choosing the right words (though this is
certainly an important factor). Effective public speaking techniques include establishing a
rapport and relationship with the audience in many different ways.

Most of us have to overcome an initial fear of speaking in public (technically known as 'gloss
phobia' or 'stage fright). When an audience senses this fear in a speaker, it tends to shut him or
her out for that reason alone. Fear of public speaking has visible manifestations that any audience
can pick up immediately. These include:

· Shuffling from foot to foot

· Not knowing what to do with one's hands
· Stuttering and stumbling over words
· Speaking too fast
· Not looking at the audience while speaking
· Referring to written notes too many times
· Clearing one's throat repeatedly

These are reactions to public speaking that each of us experiences to begin with. Overcoming
them is a matter of practice and rising confidence levels. There is no shortcut or easier, softer
option. In mastering public speaking techniques, we must stand a trial by fire. It is very similar to
learning to ride a horse or bicycle. If we fall off, we must immediately get on again. Failing to
face one's fears in the public speaking arena will reinforce the fear. The result could be a
permanent aversion to public speaking.

The most effective public speakers make their audience comfortable in subtle, calculated ways.
These ways soon become second nature as the public speaker's confidence levels rise. Among the
most useful techniques is the use of humor. Cracking a joke - preferably at one's own expense - is
a sure-fire means of warming up an audience. This is why orators who use humor are more
effective than the serious, lecturing types.

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Controlling one's voice is equally important. A public speaker must pitch his or her voice high
enough to be clearly audible to everyone in the audience. At the same time, it should not be so
high-pitched to irritate or aggravate the audience. Thanks to modern amplification technology, it
is possible for us to address an audience in a conversational pitch of voice and still be audible.
Using this technology effectively is, once again, a matter of experience.

Building a relationship with one's audience is very important. A lecturing style of public
speaking does not include the audience as a participant. While lecturing is useful if the speaker
must convey a lot of information in a limited period, it can also be incredibly boring to an
audience. Involving one's audience by asking it questions, making it laugh and inviting any other
kind of feedback numbers among the most effective public speaking techniques.

Some successful orators advocate unorthodox methods, such as speaking on a relatively empty
stomach. Others even advise speakers not to empty their bladder before a speech, claiming that
this maintains the necessary edge in the situation. Finally, we must all discover our own most
suitable public speaking techniques. However, nothing beats practice and proper preparation
before the event.

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