TOLANI MARITIME INSTITUTE

ISO 9001:2015 CIP Grade1 (Outstanding)

COURSE NOTES
Naval Architecture Paper-II
Code: UG 21 T 3602 Prepared for Academic Year: 2019 – 2020
Compiled by: Capt. Manoj Kumar Hirkane Reviewed by: Capt. Govindarajan
Krishnaswamy

Table of Contents

Sr. No. Contents Page No

1 Unit 1- Principle of Design (10+5=15 Hrs) 2

2 Unit-2 Shipyard Plans and Practices (10+5=15 Hrs) 7

3 Unit 3 – Various Specialised Ships (7+3=10 Hrs) 17

4 Unit 4 – Ships Corrosion & Control (7+3=10 Hrs) 26
5 Unit 5 Surveys & Classification Societies (7+3=10 Hrs) 31

6 Unit 6 International Tonnage Regulations (7+3=10 Hrs) 35

7 Unit 7 International Load Line Regulations (7+3=10 Hrs) 39
Unit 8 Factor of Subdivision and Criterion Numeral
8 49
(7+3=10 Hrs)
9 Past Question Papers & Solutions

(1) These notes are solely for the purpose of guidance and students are to refer to text and
reference books available.

Unit 1- Principle of Design (15 Hrs)

Syllabus – Common principles governing design and construction of various types of steel ships
with respect to following: Longitudinal, transverse and vertical strength, Continuity of strength,
Strength under static and dynamic conditions and water tightness.
(Ship design & construction – Robert Taggart, Editor Chapter-1)

The economic factor is a prime importance in designing a ship. An owner requires a ship which will
give him the best possible return for his initial investment and running cost.
This means that the final design should be arrived at taking in accounts not only present economic
consideration, but also those likely to develop within the life of the ship. With the aid of computers,
it is possible to make a study of a large number of varying design, and to choose one, which is not
only technically feasible but more important is the most economically efficient.
Principles of ship design
1. Safety – all human activities involve risk. In marine industry one has to accept a certain amount of
risk to life, property and environment. An accidental hazard may take place due to one or more risk
factors occurring simultaneously causing loss of life and property. A design with absolute safety will
be costly and unaffordable. Therefore, a ship is designed to certain acceptable level of safety. This
safety level must be acceptable to owner, builder, classification society, statutory authorities,
operating personnel and society at large. The ship design must consider following for safety
a) Personal safety on board – Bulwark or railings of minimum 1.0 m height. All openings on
freeboard deck must have a sill height/coaming height and fitted with weather tight closing
devices. Scuppers and freeing port for faster drainage of green seas. Openings below the
freeboard deck fitted with non-return valves. Walkways and guard rails for crew on board. Anti-
skid flooring on open decks of passenger ships. Means to rescue people on board in case of
emergency. First aid and dispensary facility.
b) Stability and safety – Sufficient reserve buoyancy, assessment of intact and damaged stability,
monitoring of watertight closing devices on the hull below LWL.
c) Motions and safety – evaluation of stresses in probable extreme sea conditions.
d) Controllability and safety – a vessel should have good controllability to avoid any collision. Good
mooring and anchoring equipment. Emergency facilities and redundancy in equipment.
e) Fire safety – division of accommodation into zones, approved bulkheads, approved material
inside cabins, firefighting arrangements, and escape provisions.
f) Machinery safety – redundancy of critical/important equipment.
g) Rule based design and risk based design.

2. Sustainability – one has to consider technologies and their effect on environment

a) Air pollution due to exhaust gases
b) Energy efficiency design index
c) LNG as a fuel
d) Alternative energy sources
e) Ocean pollution – due to oil, garbage, sewage, ballast water, paints.

3. Efficiency – Powering and resistance, propulsive efficiency, hull efficiency, optimization of

powering.
4. Nature of service requirements – routes, ports, type of cargo,
5. Dimensional requirements – L, B, Draft/Depth restrictions
6. Manpower requirements – as per type of ship, size of ship, national/international requirements.
7. Deadweight displacement ratio and Volume requirements -
8. Seakeeping and maneuverability – minimize amount of water shipped on deck by making a well
flared forward section. The heavily flared forward section will increase pitching. A bulbous bow may
help in reducing pitching. Stabilizers, bilge keels will minimize rolling. Deep draft reduces slamming.
Bottom needs to be extra strengthened to prevent effects of slamming. The ship should have a good
turning ability. She should be able to keep a straight line course.
 9. Strength – Longitudinal strength, transverse strength, torsional strength, fatigue. The hull girder
strength is greater than the load strength of static and dynamic forces.
10. Stability and trim – a ship should be stable in all conditions of loading, trim shall not be excessive.
Stable at small and large angles. Minimum free surface effect, guarded against grain shifting. Ship
can survive after damage.
11. General arrangement -
12. Corrosion factor – in deciding the measures/systems to be used to control corrosion.
13. Economic factor – investment cost and return

The detail steps will depend upon the type of ship. The owner has to say what is needed so the
starting point is a set of requirements.
1. Requirements – requirements will define the functions of the ship and the operational capabilities
it should possess, such as speed, carrying capacity, machinery, accommodation, etc.
2. Design Phases – The characteristics of the ship gradually evolve as decisions are made on how best
to meet the requirements. The machinery must provide enough power and speed. The hull must be
able to withstand a reasonable amount of damage. The electric, hydraulic and air conditioning must
be adequate. To meet these the design process will have four stages. Concept, Preliminary,
contract and detail design.

Concept design or feasibility design:

It translates the mission requirements into naval architectural and engineering
characteristics. It embodies technical feasibility studies to determine such fundamental
elements of the proposed ship as length, beam, depth, draft, fullness, power, speed, cargo
cubic and deadweight. It includes preliminary lightship weight estimate usually derived
from curves, tables or experience. Alternative designs are analysed to determine the most
economical design solution. This design then used to obtain approximate costs.

Preliminary Design:
Preliminary design further refines the major ship characteristics affecting cost and
performance. Certain controlling factors such as length, beam, horsepower, and deadweight would
not be expected to change upon completion of this phase. Its completion provides a precise
definition of a vessel that will meet the mission requirements; this provides the basis for
development of contract plans and specifications.

Information provided by the preliminary design

When the preliminary design is selected, the following information is available: -
(a)DIMENSIONS:
The dimensions are based on cargo carrying capacity of the vessel. For passenger vessel, the
dimensions are based on the height and length of the superstructure containing the
accommodation.
If the maximum length is not specified, then the length should be minimum keeping in mind the
required speed and the form of the vessel. This is because an increase in length produces higher
longitudinal bending stress, where require additional strengthening and therefore a greater
displacement for a same amount of cargo carried.
Breadth should be such, so as to provide adequate transverse stability.
The depth is based on the maximum draft plus statutory freeboard but at the same time an increase
in depth will result in a reduction on the longitudinal bending stress, which provides an increase in
strength or even allow a reduction in the scantling. Therefore, an increased depth is preferred to
an increased length. Draft is controlled with respect to, but if it can be increased, then it will be to
its advantage.
Many vessels are required to make passages through various canals, and this will be limitations on
dimensions. For example, Suez Canal has draft restrictions. Some canal have limitations over height
above the waterline, because of overhead bridges. Some canals may have restrictions over length
and beam.
(b)DISPLACEMENT OF VESSELS:
It consists of the light weight plus deadweight. Lightweight is the weight of vessel, when built.
Deadweight is the weight of cargo, fuel, stores, freshwater, ballast, crew & passenger & their
Baggage.
It is important to keep the light displacement as small as possible, at the same time maintaining
adequate strength of the vessel. Also, since “weight of the cargo” of the total deadweight, is the
earning capacity, the other items should be kept minimum as long as it fulfils all other
requirements.
(c)STATICAL STABIITY AND STRENGTH
When determining dimensions of the vessel, the statically stability curve should be sufficient in all
possible conditions of loading. The beam and depth are the main influences. The statutory
freeboard and shear are important along with distribution of weight in order to arrange layout of
the vessel.
(d)PROPULSION:
The propulsion performed should ensure that the vessel attain the required speed. The form of the
hull should be such that it offers minimum resistance. This will help to ensure that the main engine
with minimum power with economically light machinery is installed with a loss of specified cargo
capacity.
Service speed is the average speed at sea with normal service power and loaded under an average
weather condition. A trail speed is the average speed obtained using the maximum power over a
measured course in a calm weather with a clean hull and specified loaded condition.
A hull form similar to that of a known performance vessel could be used. Tank test of model may
also be used. These provide the designer with the range of speed and corresponding power for
their respective hull form, which could include a change in hull form. Information may also be
obtained from accumulated speed records and Hull test which may be used to prepare the Hull
form. The owner could also specify the type and make of the main propulsion machinery
installation with which his shore and floating personnel are familiar.
(e)GENERAL ARRANGEMENT:
The plan is made in the presence of the owner, with respect to the standard of accommodation,
which is appropriate to the company.
The plan should also take into account, the efficient working of vessel, keeping in mind the
compliances with regulation at various ports on the trade routes.
(f)REQUIREMENTS OF CLASSIFICATION SOCIETY/ OWNER:
All vessels are built to the requirement of the classification society like IRS (Indian Register of
Shipping), LRS (Lloyd’s Register of shipping), ABS(American Bureau of Shipping) etc. Based on the
standard of classification specified, the structural scantlings will be taken into account by
shipbuilder. The owner can specify the thickness and material requirement in excess of that
required.
The classification society, which must be compliable by the owner, may also ask for any special
structural features with respect to owner’s trade route.
g) CARGO HANDLING
If the ship is going to operate between well-defined ports where cargo handling facilities does not
exist, then the ship has to be provided with cargo gears.
h) Manning/Complement
a significant factor in deciding the size of the ship and general arrangement is the complement of
the ship. This is decided by type of the ship, machinery, automation, policy of maintenance and
national /international requirements.
i)Aesthetics
This applies to both external as well as internal look of the ship. Other actions include removing
clutter, accessible cabling, ducting and piping for easy maintenance.

Contract (Full) Design:

The contract design stage yields a set of plans and specifications which form an integral part of the
ship building contract document. It refines the preliminary design. This stage describes more
precisely such features as hull form based on faired set of lines, powering based on model testing,
seakeeping and manoeuvring characteristics, the effect of propeller/s on hull form, structural
details, use of different types of steel, spacing and type of frames. Estimates of weight and centre
of gravity taking into account the location and weight of each major item in the ship. The final
general arrangement is also developed during this stage. This fixes the overall volumes and areas
of cargo, machinery, stores, fuel oil, fresh water, living and utility spaces and their interrelationship.
The accompanying specifications delineate quality standard of hull and outfit and the anticipated
performance for each item of machinery and equipment. They describe the test and trials that shall
be performed.

Typical plans developed during Contract Design:

Outboard profile, inboard profile, GA Plan, Lines plan, Midship Section, steel scantling plan,
arrangement of machinery, power and lighting system plan, fire control diagram, ventilation and
air conditioning, pumping and piping system, electric load plan, capacity plan, curves of form
floodable length curves, preliminary trim & stability booklet, Preliminary damaged stability booklet.

Typical sections specifications decided in Contract Design:

Structural hull, houses & bulkheads, doors, manholes, hatches, hull fittings, insulation posts, masts,
booms, davits, air conditioning, heating, ventilation, fire detection and extinguishing, navigating
equipment, lifesaving equipment, furniture, plumbing fixtures, cargo stowage and handling, main
and auxiliary machinery, turbines, main propulsion, shafting, bearings, propeller, distilling plant,
FO system, LO system, Sea water system, fresh water system, compressed air system, tanks,
ladders, gratings, floor plates, platforms, walkways, workshops, generators, incinerator, OWS,
switchboards, radio equipment, communication system, batteries, test and trials , and general and
critical spares.

Detail (Build) Design:

It is carried out by the builder’s own design staff, working closely with the production department.
The input is the output from the contract design and CAD system is used to develop the detailed
design. The output is the information needed by the production department to build the ship and
order equipment and material. It includes details of the tests to be carried out as fabrication
proceeds. Tests will include water tightness, operations, stability, sea trials. A mass documentation
is prepared to define the ship for the users and maintainers.

A METHODICAL DESIGN APPROACH – 1. Using a Type Ship, 2. Without a Type Ship

Using a Type Ship is the traditional, evolutionary, process. Having selected a suitable ship of the
right type with required performance abilities, the designer will note the following:
Experience with the type ship indicating how the design might be improved. Specific difference like
better LSA and so on. Changes in regulations to be met on new ship. These changes will be
incorporated into the old design to create a new design. All characteristics can be assessed and a
new design develops in detail.

Without a Type Ship the designer must:

Estimate overall size. An estimate of displacement, principal dimensions and form parameters.
Obtain estimate of power needed to get a speed. Assess the size of crew and accommodation.
Develop the general ship configuration reflecting how the ship is to operate and so on.

Functions, Capabilities and Attributes – It is a good discipline to regard the ship as

-being able to carry out a number of basic functions.
- has a number of capabilities to achieve the functions and
- has a number of attributes which underpin the capabilities.

Functions
Float – at a reasonable draft with adequate freeboard, be stable and able to withstand a degree of
damage. Seaworthy and able to take loads imposed on it in service.
Move –Able to move in controlled fashion at intended speed and manoeuvre satisfactorily.
Trade – Must carry correct amount of cargo in good condition and able to load and unload.

Capabilities
The move function will require capability of achieving desired speed, follow a straight course,
manoeuvre in confined waters, stopping at reasonable distance. The capability for trade function
is ability to load, carry and discharge cargo in good condition within intended time.

Attributes
The designer must build in certain inherent attributes that enable the ship to carry out its functions
economically and efficiently. The ship must possess attributes such as stability, strength,
maneuverability, seaworthiness, a good internal environment, less noise and vibration, cargo
handling system, navigation system, sensors and actuators, anchoring and mooring system.

Inter-dependencies
Designer can produce diagram showing how the various elements of a design combine and interact
to give it a specific capability. For eg. to meet speed element, the ship will need
-main machinery
- uptakes and outtakes
- Fuel, cooling water, lubricating oil
- gear box
- shaft, bearings, stern tube, propeller, etc.
These major elements will entail supporting equipment /systems such as tanks, pumps, piping,
electrical supplies, etc. The dependency diagram will show how all these elements are linked and
how failure of any one element would affect the overall speed capability.

ACTION BY THE DESIGNER

Apart from meeting all the legal requirements, a designer should:
1. Consider whether any novel features of a design require special considerations.
2. Look for potentially weak spot which can be improved. Cost of improvement will be small if action taken
in the design process.
3. Use dependency diagram to establish where duplication of equipment is desirable.
4. Ensure the design intent is carried through the ship’s service life.
5. Carry out failure mode effect analysis of critical equipment and system
6. Consider probability of occurrences of damage and survivability.
Unit-2 Shipyard Plans and Practices (15 Hrs)
FromSC Capt Erol Fernandes Ch-III

Syllabus – General ideas on various plans supplied by shipyard. An outline knowledge of shipyard
practice and procedures. Preparation for launching and Sea trials.

Fig 2.1
Fig 2.2

Fig 2.3
 Fig 2.4
A ship is built for a specific purpose. The purpose being carriage of cargo or passengers, etc. the
ship must be of a particular type, size and capacity.
In the initial stages the owner has a very broad idea of what kind of ship he desires to build and this
is known as Concept Design. The Naval Architect gives further shape to owner’s ideas and a
Preliminary Design is drawn up.
1. Preliminary Design – Important points considered while drawing the preliminary design.
a. Dimensions – The main dimensions of length, breadth and depth must be considered keeping in mind
the intended use or the market for the ship.
A longer length permits a larger freeboard, but it increases the bending moments experienced by the
ship and to counter this she must have extra stiffening which will increase the lightship and cost.
A large breadth gives better transverse stability, however the angle of flooding reduces for a given draft.
Also a large breadth will be a disadvantage when passing through locks and canals. Besides large breadth
will have larger water resistance which will reduce the speed.
A greater depth increases the strength of the hull girder reducing bending moments and hence reducing
scantlings required, however there may be draft limitations in some of the ports needs to be considered.
b. Displacement – The carrying capacity or the deadweight of the ship must be maximized. The lightship
weight must be minimum so as to have maximum deadweight at any displacement. The ship must have
a proper weight to volume ratio. Some ships require large volume and some require more capacity to
carry weight.
c. Strength and Stability – The ship will have sufficient strength to withstand stresses such as shear force,
bending moments and torsional stresses in all her life. The strengthening shall take into account such as
length, breadth, depth, sheer, freeboard, load density, openings in decks, superstructures, machinery,
lifting appliances, etc. The ship must fulfill all IMO stability criteria in all service conditions.
d. Propulsion – The size of the main engine will depend on the ship’s size and service sped requirements.
The engine selected on criteria such as power, weight, type and quantity of fuel consumption, cost, hull
form and maintenance requirements.
 e. General Arrangement – layout will mainly depend on the type of ship and for a particular type of ship on
the means to achieve an efficient and safe operation of ship. It will also depend on safety regulations,
company’s policies and national and international regulations.
f. Classification Society Regulations – The plans, materials, welding electrodes, scantlings, equipment and
testing will have to be approved by classification society and a certificate of class will be issued to the
vessel. All IMO regulations will obviously have to be complied with.
g. Special features – Like Great Lake fittings, Australian hold ladders, strengthening for ice, etc.

Once these factors are decided a fuller design can be prepared which is known as a Contract Design.

2. Contract Design – This design can be circulated to various shipyards through tenders and quotations
obtained for construction of the ship.

3. Sequence of events in the construction of a ship

a. Ship Design
b. Drawing of Plans – Sheer Plan (Side view), Half Breadth Plan (Top view), Body Plan (End view)
c. Approval of Plans
d. Filling of Plans – Table of offsets and fairing, Mould loft(full scale), 1/10 scale plan, 1/100 glass negatives,
Numerical controls, CAD/CAM
e. Transfer of Plan to Plate – Traditional mould loft, Optical marking, Numerical controller, Computer
controlled flame profilers.
f. Plate preparation – Issue of plates, Grit blasting, Priming
g. Plate and Sections – Marking, Cutting, Machining, Bending & Shaping
h. Production of sub-assemblies and assemblies
i. Fabrication of units
j. Erection and welding
k. Launching
l. Trials, Tests & Certification.

4. Ship Building Practice

a. Prefabrication – The introduction of welding gave rise to the process of prefabricating sections instead
of starting from the keel and riveting parts together from the bottom upwards. With prefabrication, the
parts of the ship assembled into large sections or blocks in the shop, not on the building ways or the
erection dock. Plates and sections are cut, machined and sent to different bays for sub-assembly. Curved
shell plates, frames, etc. are held in position by clamps or placed on jigs and tack welded into position.
The size of the sub-assembly is determined according to the shipyard resources. Plate length for
machining or welding, block weight and dimensions, ability for pipe-fitting, etc. are some of the
considerations that determines sub-assembly size.
As much machinery and piping as possible for each sub section are fitted in place during shop assembly.
With CAD/CAM every small fitting can be listed, assembled and lifted with the prefabricated unit.
The sub sections are then moved to the building ways or the erection dock. The C.G. is calculated and
lugs fitted for lifting so that the sub-assembly can be lowered into position and welded to the main body.
This technique is developed by each shipyard through proper design, quality control and experience.
Erection sequence is done considering the shipyard resources, but in general starts from aft to forward
and bottom to top.
DB Tanks – Transverse bulkheads – side shell with frames – wing tanks – deck units with girder – mast
houses – Accommodation modules – deck fittings – wiring – Final painting.
Prefabrication has developed into an advanced shipbuilding technique over a period of years and is
extensively used today.
Advantages of prefabrication –
1. Assembly and prefabrication can be carried out in sheltered conditions on the shop floor.
 2. Facilities like tools, jacks, cranes, electrodes, gases for cutting, electric power and compressed air are
easily available.
3. Vertical and overhead are kept to a minimum by the ability to turn units over resulting in time saving and
better results.
4. Work in inaccessible, uncomfortable and dangerous positions are reduced.
5. Proper planning can reduce labour, time and material and the shipbuilding sequence can be controlled.
6. Jobs can be contracted out to specialist while the shipyard retains the overall responsibility of assembly.
b. Lines Plan – The form of the ship can be determined by passing a set of parallel planes through the hull at regular
intervals and measuring the outline of these planes. The plan that defines the outline of the ship by use of such
planes is known as the Lines Plan.
When the planes are vertical and parallel to centerline, a Sheer Plan is obtained which is a side view of the ship.
When the planes are horizontal and parallel to the waterline the form obtained is a Half-Breadth Plan which is a
bird’s eye view of the ship.
When the planes are vertical and perpendicular to the centerline, a Body Plan is obtained which is an end view
of the ship.
The scale of lines plan may vary from 1:50 for small ships to 1:200 for large ships.
The Sheer Plan and Half-Breadth Plan are often overlapped.

c. Sheer Plan – For the sheer plan the ship is divided into convenient equally spaced ordinates called design stations.
At the fore and aft ends where the change of shape is greater, half ordinates are used for greater accuracy. The
plan is divided vertically by equidistant horizontal lines called water lines. The fore and aft outline of the ship forms
bow and buttock lines. These depict the contour of the stem and stern. It is conventional to draw the starboard
view. The information like sheer of the deck, position of side stringers, location of transverse frames, arrangement
of superstructure, etc. can be found from this plan.
d. Half-Breadth Plan – The half breadth plan is drawn for half of the ship only. It is conventional to draw the port
side. This plan is usually superimposed on the sheer plan. Waterlines appear curved while bow and buttock lines
are straight. It shows the shape of the waterplane at different waterlines, shape of decks, position of transverse
bulkheads, etc.
e. Body Plan – The body plan shows the transverse sections at designed stations which appear as curved shapes. The
portside is used to depict the forward part of the ship and the starboard side the aft part. Waterlines appear as
straight lines. The body plan shows the shape of frames, transverse bulkheads, floors, knees, margin plates,
position of girders, longitudinal, decks, panting beams, stringers, tank top, etc.
This plan is used to obtain values for various parameters needed for the calculation of ship’s particulars such as;
1. Block co-efficient, prismatic co-efficient, waterplane area co-efficient
2. Displacement at various drafts
3. Transverse and longitudinal centres of buoyancy
4. TPC, BM, BML, MCTC, CF, etc.
5. Cross curves of stability
6. Wetted surface areas
7. Resistance calculations
8. Flooding calculations
9. Strength calculations,
10. Hold capacities and tank capacities
11. Approximate tonnage
12. Launching calculations.
f. Lofting and fairing – The actual construction of any type of ship is complicated by the various curves of the hull,
the compound angles formed by the joints between the various structural members, and the necessity of
producing hull that is absolutely symmetrical and fair (having regular curves and surfaces that are smooth).
Because of these requirements, it is almost impossible to build any form of ship directly from small scale plans,
as is done in the case of other kind of structures. Instead the ship builder, before beginning work, must resort
to the practice of lofting or laying down, the lines of the ship.
After the lines plans are approved, the gaps between the design stations need to be filled in so as to get a full
scale picture of the ship. Since the plans only depict dimensions or profiles at design stations, the interval
between the stations needs to be filled out and faired so as to obtain the smooth curve between two stations.
From the lines plan a table of offsets is drawn up. This table of offsets is actual numerical values of dimensions
obtained from the lines plan. It is a list of half breadths, lengths at various waterlines and at various distances
from the centerline, heights of decks, the deck stringers, tanktop, etc. The measurements are taken at each of
the design stations. The table is then sent to loftsmen for fairing.
Lofting consists essentially of preparing in full size an exact skeleton plan of the hull to be built. Computers and
dedicated programs for shipbuilding are used wherein the table of offsets is fed in and the full scale plan is
drawn with fairing done automatically. This plan is saved in a wire frame model and can be rotated and viewed
from any angle, and dimensions of any individual section can be obtained from this.
g. Transfer of plan to plate – After fairing, the full scale plan of the ship structure used to be laid down on the flat
floor of a special room or building known as the mould loft. From this plan the builder determines the
dimensions and forms of the frames and plates which will make up the ship structure. Paper or wooden patterns
called templates, of the pieces of the hull are then constructed from this plan and are used in the building shops
to cut and form the plates and frames to the required configuration.
Due to the inconvenience of laying it down full size by specially skilled draftsmen using improved drawing
techniques and precision equipment such as beam compasses, magnifying verniers, microscopes and magnifying
glasses. The paper used has great stability of temperature and humidity, clear transparency and no smudging of
ink.
The lines are drawn accurately with a uniform thickness outside, so that the cut plate is of exact dimensions.
Templates are taken from this plan and photographed with high precision reproduction equipment resulting in
transparencies one-hundredth of full size. These negatives are scheduled in a circular magazine for the plate
cutting program.
The original one-tenth plan or the one-hundredth transparencies may then be input directly into photo electric
automatic gas cutting machines (flame profilers) which read the data and cut the plate accordingly.

h. Drawing Office or Optical Detailing or Design Office – The one-hundredth size negatives are projected from a
projection tower onto a plate. The negative and plate distance is correctly adjusted and the image is focused so
that the magnification is exactly 100 times. The outline is then marked off using cord and chalk or hammer,
punch and paint. The traditional method was gradually replaced by Drawing Office or Optical Detailing or Design
Office.
The advantages of optical marking are many:
1. A full size mould loft became redundant
2. Drawings could be made under ideal conditions and in advance
3. Use of material for making template is eliminated
4. Time saved and faster progress in shipbuilding
5. More centralized control of production
6. Ships of similar design can be constructed in any shipyard.
7. The methods is extenable to computerization.

i. Use of Computers - The handling of complex mathematical calculations became easier using computers.
Computers made the ship calculation and mathematical fairing very quick and accurate. The ship’s hull form
was defined by a series of equations and using the table of offsets as inputs, a 3D mathematical representation
of the ship’s structure could be defined.
The computer generated form of the ship could be used to produce following;
1. One-tenth scale drawings for photo electric gas cutting machines
2. One-hundredth scale negatives for the projection tower and manual cutting
3. Magnetic tapes or punched tapes for numerically controlled machines
4. Floppy diskettes for computer controlled flame profilers or robots.

Other particular such as displacement, stability, subdivision, strength, etc. could also be
 mathematically calculated. Computers are also used for research in hydrodynamics, ship motions,
structural analysis, etc.
Today CAD/CAM software programs for ship construction are available which can be run on
ordinary PCs. These programs can be design a ship according to one’s own requirements. Besides hull
design and production of plans it is also possible to calculate hydrostatics and stability, internal
structural design, strength, wind and sea resistance and power requirements. Several add-on modules
are available with the basic design software. E.g. a pipeline module would enable pipelines to be laid
out in the ship design taking into account supporting plating, stiffeners, support pads, expansion joints,
U-bolts and fasteners, etc. This information would be included in dwt calculations, plate cutting and
prefabrication, material requirements and so on. Classification societies have developed software
which takes into account classification society regulations.
For bending the plate, it calculates the amount of heat required at every point and uses
computer controlled induction heating to bend the plate to required curvature.

j. Numerical Controls – These machines are operated and controlled by the insertion of numerical data. Numerical
data is a sequence of numbers which describe the profile of the part to be produced. This numerical data may
be contained in a variety of ways on magnetic tapes, punch tapes or punch cards. The data contains instructions
to the flame profiler which cuts the plate according to the data fed into it. This numerical data is prepared by
the computer from the mathematical hull form. Other machines such as hydraulic frame benders and welding
machines may also be controlled by numerical data. A large number of steel pieces which make up the ship can
be identified with the unique number according to various criteria such as type of material, thickness of plate,
location on ship, etc. It is thus possible to cut, dispatch and track the movement of various parts of the ship from
the stockyard to the fitting berth. Once the work is scheduled for the day, the various parts required can be
adjusted within the plate in the most economical manner so as to have the minimum wastage. This is known as
Nesting.
A more advanced version of Numerical Controlled machines are computer controlled machines or robots. These
machines can be made to perform a large number of repetitive and risky jobs with a higher output and lower
cost. They can be used for grit blasting, painting, cutting, welding, bending or shaping.

Progress of a plate from stockyard to ship

a. Steel Stockyard – Plates and sections stored in open in the stockyard where they may be affected by
mill scale and rust. The plates have an identification code according to the unit for which they have to
be used. Plates are handled by Electric Overhead Travelling (EOT) Cranes or gantries. They pick up the
plates and put them on rollers or conveyors. Prior to being marked, the plate may go through the plate
straightening, shot blasting and painting process.
b. Plate straightening
c. Blasting and painting
d. Edge preparation
e. Cutting, Drilling, Bending, shaping
Sub-assembly halls/bays
5. Testing
6. Launching of a ship – The ship may be assembled on the building ways or in a dock. In the latter
case, when the hull is completed, the dock is flooded and the ship is floated out. Docks are used in
the assembly of very large ships. Most other ships are assembled on the building ways. The ways
are on ground above the edge of the water and slant towards the water. When the ways are at the
right angles to edge of the water, the ship is end launched. When the water is narrow, the ways may
be parallel to it in that case the ship is side launched. The ways consist of two sets of heavy timbers-
the fixed ways which extend on either side of the ship from the point of building to below the high
water mark and the movable ways, which slid on the fixed ways and support the weight of the ship
by means of an elaborate wooden cradle. The fixed and movable ways are firmly fastened together
so that the ship will not move on the ways until the moment of launching arrives.
 When the ship is ready for launching, the cradle is set in position, the keel blocks used during
building are removed, and the surfaces of both the fixed and movable ways are heavily lubricated.
At that time the spikes or other fastenings holding the ways are released and the ship slides down
into the water of its own weight. The construction of ways and the launching of ships, particularly
large ones are precise and delicate operations.

7. Sea trials – Prior to handing over the vessel to the owner extensive trials of the vessel will be carried
out at sea to ensure that she complies with speed, power, consumptions and other specifications
and that there are no adverse loads, vibrations, etc. of the hull, superstructure and main engine.
The trials are carried out in shelter water often used for this purpose, the requirements being
minimum of wind and current, adequate depth of water, sea room, no traffic and the presence of
measured mile markers. These are two sets of leading lights are beacons exactly one mile apart. The
ship is brought on to the course generally perpendicular to the direction of the markers with the
engines on full ahead. The time of passing the leading lights in line is carefully observed by telescope
and noted by stopwatch. Two independent observations are done from the forward and aft part of
the vessel and the time averaged. An up and down run on reciprocal courses is carried out to nullify
the effect of any current, if present.

Unit 3 – Various Specialised Ships (10 Hrs)

Syllabus – Types of ships. General ideas on strength and construction, Mid-ship sections of
specialized carriers- Passenger ships, LASH, Ro-Ro, refrigerated cargo carrier, Liquified Gas Carrier
(LNG & LPG), (chemical tankers.
1. Types of Ships
2. Strength, Construction and Mid ship sections of
a. Passenger ship
b. LASH
c. Ro-Ro
d. Refrigerated Cargo Ship
e. Liquefied Gas Carrier (LNG & LPG)
f. Chemical Tanker

Passenger ship – Ship Construction by Capt Cornel Valentine D’Mello

1. Large amounts of superstructure is an interesting feature. Several tiers of decks are fitted with large
open lounges, ballrooms, swimming pools and promenade areas.
2. Any ship more than 12 pass is considered a pass ship as per SOLAS convention. In construction of the
ship SOLAS requirements predominate in relation to subdivision, intact stability, damaged stability and
structural fire protection. Rules take into account global and local stress consideration of these ships,
particularly in respect to the large superstructures fitted.
3. The superstructures are constructed of aluminium alloys, which reduce the weight and improve
stability.
4. Stabilizers and bow thrusters are provided.
5. Flooding detection system for watertight spaces below the bulkhead deck.
6. Main engine must have reserve power to maintain schedule. Other machinery must hav stand by
provisions.
7. Fig Page No.96– Midship section (CS by Capt D’mello)

LASH ( Lighter Aboard Ship) – (NA & SC by AS Tambwekar

1. Dumb barges (lighters) loaded with cargo are bodily lifted and placed aboard the ship. Stern of the ship
is shaped to bring a floating lighter in position. It is lifted by a gantry crane and placed aboard as
required. Accommodation is nearer to the forward end. This type of ship is suitable for trade between
ports connected with Inland Waters.

2. LASH barges are loaded at inland river and shallow ports. Then, the barges are towed to ocean port's fleeting
areas to meet the LASH mother vessel. On arrival, the mother vessel crane lifts the LASH barges onto the
ships. LASH cargo does not require transshipment as the movement from the origin to destination takes place
with a single bill of lading.
3. An important technical problem raised by the invention of the new transport system was the shape of the
lighters. Several other designs, differentiated mainly by the shape of the lighters and the loading mechanism,
were proposed, but the LASH system found the largest range of applications. In this approach, the lighters
were individually lifted onto the carrier ship by a large crane located at the stern of the ship. The crane could
move the entire length of the ship and stack the lighters atop each other in the ship's body and on the deck.
The cranes had a load-carrying capacity of more than 500 Mp. Loading or unloading a lighter took on average
fifteen minutes. LASH ships were constructed in Europe, Japan the USA with almost uniform parameters.
4. OHP of Lash sketches from internet.

5. Lash
Fig 3.1

Fig. 3.2
 Fig. 3.3
RO-RO Cargo Ship
1. Carry vehicles or vehicles loaded with cargo.
2. Vehicle decks without obstructions. Decks are supported by pillars.
3. Limited transverse bulkhead. Web frames and web beams provide transverse strength to hull girder.
Longitudinal framing in bottom and upper.
4. Risk of loss of stability due to FSC.
5. Bilge pumping or draining arrangement fitted for each deck.
6. Detection and monitoring system for flooding, is fitted in spaces below the bulkhead deck.
7. Watertight door fitted behind the forward ramp for safety.
8. Fixed firefighting system provided for vehicle decks.
9. Fig of RO-RO Midship section SC by SSC Page 94, SC by D’Mello Page 94

Special features of Ro-Ro ships- (SC by Capt Errol Fernandes Page 274 )
a. Internal bulkheads impede the movement of vehicles. The transverse watertight run up to
freeboard deck because of operational restrictions and even then they have large openings,
protected by sliding watertight doors.
b. Stability is poor because of high G. Chances of large FSE and loss of GM.
c. The ship is generally B60 or B100 with a low freeboard because of large effective length of
superstructure. This facilitates entry of water if bow or stern doors are leaking.
d. Fire integrity is difficult. This is overcome by horizontal zoning and provision of firefighting
equipment.
e. Rolling causes excessive stresses. Also problem of synchronized rolling.
f. Difficult cargo securing.
g. Ship has large windage area.

Bow and stern door and ramps

a. Ships have several decks connected by ramps and elevators.
b. All opening to lower decks from freeboard deck are closed by weathertight covers.
c. Ramp may serve as hatch cover when horizontal.
 d. Bow and stern doors are above freeboard deck and are closed weathertight. Doors are used as
ramps, distortion of ramps takes place.
e. Stern ramps are angled for the ship to berth along a wharf.

Strength
a. Longitudinal, transverse and vehicle deck strength must be sufficient.
b. SF and BM are more in ballast condition.
c. Side doors to be carefully designed to provide longitudinal strength.
d. Transverse strength must be enough to withstand torsional stresses and effects of rolling. Torsional
boxes are used.
e. To avoid obstruction on deck pillars are only placed at centre line. Transvers Strength is provided by
web frames, transverses and beams. Combined system of framing is used with transverse frames
and webs providing transverse strength and longitudinal supporting decks and tank top and
providing longitudinal strength.

Stability
a. The GM of the vessel is small. A good GM will result in easy motions. Cargo securing will affect by
violent rolling. Stabiliser fins are provided on RoRo ferries.
b. The stability gets reduced in case of flooding.
c. Stability requirements in the damaged condition are very high.
d. Vessel has to meet severe wind rolling criterion for the intact stability of passenger and cargo ships.

Chemical Tanker (SC by Capt SSChaudhary Page 81-83)

1. Transports chemicals in bulk.
2. Cargo tanks made of stainless steel or coated with phenolic epoxy or zinc paint.
3. Tank heating system to maintain viscosity of certain cargo.
4. Modern ships have separate pumps and piping for each tank.
5. Tank cleaning after discharge is important.
6. Type1 ship –products with very severe environmental and safety hazards which require max
preventive measures to preclude an escape of cargo.
7. Type2 ship –products with appreciably severe environmental and safety hazards which require
significant preventive measures to preclude an escape of cargo.
8. Type3 ship – products with sufficiently severe environmental and safety hazards which require a
moderate degree of containment.
9. Lining of cargo tanks can be used to categorize chemical tankers.
10. Corrugated bulkheads used for better tank cleaning.
11. Longitudinals and other strength members are provided outside the tanks.
12. Sketches of midship sections.

Liquified Gas Carriers ( SC by Capt Errol Fernandes Page 266 to 271)

 Fig 3.5
a. Gasses are liquefied by pressure, refrigeration or by a combination of both for transportation.
b. Some cargoes are liquefied by pressuring. Temperature of Cargoes which have critical temp below
ambient temp is brought down below critical temperature by refrigeration and then pressurized.
c. The BP of LNG is -163◦C. The ductility of space is lost at this temperature and it becomes brittle.
Cryogenic materials used to overcome this problem. Nickel is added to steel to make it more ductile.
d. No insulation is perfect and the temperature of cargo does go up due to conduction of heat to the
tanks. Tank pressure increases and safety valve lift to release the pressure resulting in cargo loss
and pollution. It can happen if no reliquefaction system on board. Other ships the boil off is
pressurized, cooled , reliquefied and recirculated to the tank
e.

Refrigerated Cargo Ships

a. General cargo ships with large refrigerated spaces. All cargo refrigerated then it is called refrigerated
ship or Reefer.
b. Used for transport of perishable cargo which require temperature controlled spaces.
c. Fitted with large refrigerators. A lot of space is taken by the insulation.
d. Ships are fast and hulls painted white to reflect the sun heat.
e. Strengthening is done similar to general cargo ships . Explain in detail?
 Fig. 3.6

Chemical Tankers and Gas Carriers

Q4. (a) Categorise different types of Chemical Tankers and Sketch location of their Cargo Tanks,
as per IBC Code. (5)
Answer 4a) Types of Chemical Tankers

Chemical cargoes can be very dangerous, most of them being flammable and/or toxic, some of
them extremely so. The IBC Code defines three ship types (ST) of chemical tankers: ST1, ST2, and
ST3.

– ST1 is a chemical tanker intended to transport most dangerous products, which require maximum
preventive measures to preclude an escape of such cargo. Accordingly, a type 1 ship should survive
the most severe standard of damage stability and its cargo tanks should be located at the maximum
prescribed distance onboard from the shell plating.

– ST2 is a chemical tanker intended to transport products requiring significant preventive

measures.

– ST3 is a chemical tanker intended to transport products requiring moderate degree of

containment to increase survival capability in a damaged condition.
The IBC Code lists, in its fourteen chapters, the requirements that must be satisfied by a ship prior
to it being certified as a chemical tanker regardless of the specific cargoes it is intended to carry.
Within each chapter the designer is given an option of the level of compliance required. If
compliance with the more onerous requirements is chosen, the ship will be more sophisticated and
will therefore be able to carry the more hazardous cargoes.

Tank capacity limitation:

ST 1 : The quantity of cargo required to be carried in ship < 1,250 m3 in any one tank

ST 2 : The quantity of cargo required to be carried in ship < 3,000 m3 in any one tank

ST 3 : There is no filling restriction for chemicals assigned to Ship Type 3 Cargo Tank

Tank location:

Cargo tanks shall be located at the following distances inboard – MEAN OF DOUBLE BOTTOM
HEIGHT TO THE BASE LINE OR MOULDED LINE (ABOVE THE BOTTOM PLATE).

ST 1 : from the side shell plating, not less than the transverse extent of damage (B/5 or
11.5mwhichever is less), and from the moulded line of the bottom shell plating at centerline, not
less than the vertical extent of damage (B/15 or 6 m whichever is less), and nowhere less than 760
mm from the shell plating. This requirement does not apply to the tanks for diluted slops arising
from tank washing.

ST 2 : from the moulded line of the bottom shell plating at centerline, not less than the vertical
extent of damage ( B/15 or 6m whichever is less), and nowhere less than 760 mmfrom the shell
plating. This requirement does not apply to the tanks for diluted slops arising from tank washing.

ST 3 : no requirement
Q.4 (b) Classify & Explain different types of Gas Carriers as per IGC Code. (5)

Answer 4b) Types of Gas carriers as per IGC Code

Ships should be designed to one of the following standards:
1. A type 1G ship is a gas carrier intended to transport products indicated in Chapter 19 which require
maximum preventive measures to preclude the escape of such cargo.
2. A type 2G ship is a gas carrier intended to transport products indicated in Chapter 19 which require
significant preventive measures to preclude the escape of such cargo.
3. A type 2PG ship is a gas carrier of 150 m in length or less intended to transport products indicated
in Chapter 19 which require significant preventive measures to preclude escape of such cargo, and
where the products are carried in independent type C tanks designed for a MARVS of at least 7 bar
gauge and a cargo containment system design temperature of -55° c or above. Note that a ship of this
description but over 150 m in length is to be considered a type 2G ship.
4. A type 3G ship is a gas carrier intended to carry products indicated in Chapter 19 which require
moderate preventive measures to preclude the escape of such cargo.
Thus a type 1G ship is a gas carrier intended for the transportation of products considered to present
the greatest overall hazard and types 2G/2PG and type 3G for products of progressively lesser
hazards. Accordingly, a type 1G ship should survive the most severe standard of damage and its cargo
tanks should be located at the maximum prescribed distance inboard from the shell plating.
Gas Carrier Cargo Tank Location as per IGC Code
Cargo tanks should be located at the following distances inboard :
1. Type 1G ships: from the side shell plating not less than the transverse extent of damage specified
from the moulded line of the bottom shell plating at centreline not less than the vertical extent of
damage specified and nowhere less than 760 ㎜ from the shell plating.
2. Types 2G/2PG and 3G ships: from the moulded line of the bottom shell plating at centre-line not
less than the vertical extent of damage specified and nowhere less than 760 Ô from the shell plating.

For the purpose of tank location, the vertical extent of bottom damage should be measured to the
inner bottom when membrane or semi-membrane tanks are used, otherwise to the bottom of the
cargo tanks. The transverse extent of side damage should be measured to the longitudinal bulkhead
when membrane or semi-membrane tanks are used, otherwise to the side of the cargo tanks (see
figure 2.1). For internal insulation tanks the extent of damage should be measured to the supporting
tank plating.
Except for type 1G ships, suction wells installed in cargo tanks may protrude into the vertical extent of
bottom damage specified that such wells are as small as practicable and the protrusion below the
inner bottom plating does not exceed 25% of the depth of the double bottom or 350 ㎜ , whichever is
less. Where there is no double bottom, the protrusion below the upper limit of bottom damage
should not exceed 350 ㎜. Suction wells installed in accordance with this paragraph may be ignored in
determining the compartments affected by damage.

Fully Refrigerated LPG Carrier - Prismatic Tank – Independedt Type a Tank -

Sketch and describe an independent prismatic tank Type A used on fully
refrigerated LPG ships.
Fully refrigerated ships carry LPG at temperatures between -550C and -0.50C.
The tanks are made from carbon-manganese steel and are insulated.
An independent prismatic tank has double bottom tanks, together with topside
or complete side ballast tanks. Prismatic free standing tanks are the most
common, being supported on wooden chocks and keyed to the hull to permit
expansion and contraction. This type of tank usually has an internal centerline
bulkhead to improve stability and reduce sloshing. A secondary barrier is
normally provided to protect against leakage by the use of special steels for
the tank tops, and the hull sheerstrake and upper ballast tanks. The hold is
usually inerted. The tanks are not built to withstand pressure much more than
atmospheric pressure. Relief valves are set to lift at pressure of 1.2 bar which
is slightly more than atmospheric pressure.

Unit 4 – Ships Corrosion & Control (10 Hrs)

Corrosion is a natural process, which converts refined metal to their more stable oxide. It is the
gradual destruction of materials by chemical reaction with their environment.
1. Corrosion Triangle
Corrosion is an electro-chemical reaction between the metal and the environment.
Metal, water and Air (Oxygen) are the three sides of the corrosion triangles.