EARTH SCIENCE

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE EARTH NECESSARY TO SUPPORT LIFE

Earth exists for 4.543 billion years. In its early formation life is not possible because the
environment does not permit it. However, as time goes by life flourish from minute
microorganism into a more complex organism. The presence of life on Earth was made
possible due to the following factors:

1. Temperature. It influences how quickly atoms, molecules or organisms move. Low

temperature slows down chemical reaction and produces ice that makes liquid water
unavailable. High temperature can cause break down of important biological molecules. In
Earth’s condition, temperature is just right to support life.

2. Water. It is one of the important ingredients on the different biological processes. Absence of
this will interfere reactions necessary for life. However, solid form of this will also hinder living
organisms to use it. Water in earth has different forms. It is solid (ice) in the 2 poles and liquid
along the equator which allows living organisms to consume it.

3. Atmosphere. It provides significant insulation or shielding from the sun and impact of small
to medium size meteorites. Greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4)
traps heat and avoid our planet from freezing. Moreover, ozone (O3) layer shields the Earth’s
surface from harmful UV radiation. Atmosphere also provides chemicals needed for life, such
as nitrogen and carbon dioxide. Size of the planet and its distance from the sun affects its
ability to hold significant amount of atmosphere. Earth has a right size and distance from the
sun that permits it to have a right amount of atmosphere. The presence of gravity also helps in
sustaining its atmosphere.

4. Energy. Earth has available energy- rich sunlight to support life. Living organisms like plants
and photosynthetic bacteria use light as the source of their energy. Some chemosynthetic
organisms rely on chemical energy to support various biological processes. Earth is at right
position from the sun that enables it to harness enough amount of sunlight.

5. Nutrients. It is an essential factor used to build and maintain organism’s body structure.
Insufficient or absence of nutrients can impede synthesis of the different biological molecules.
In Earth, there are processes that recycle nutrients. Water, carbon and oxygen, phosphate and
nitrogen cycles are some of the examples. Volcanism also helps in cycling the nutrients.

6. Magnetic Field. The magnetic field deflects sun’s radiation and other charged particles
emitted by the sun that may destroy Earth.
Earth’s Subsystems and the Flow of Matter and Energy

Earth is a complex system of interrelating physical, chemical, and biological processes. It is a

system in which sets of interconnected components are interacting to form a unified whole.
Earth is comprised of four major smaller systems known as subsystems. These are also called
as spheres of the Earth. These are the atmosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere.

Atmosphere serves as the Earth’s blanket. Its name rooted from the Greek word atmos which
means gas and sphaira which means globe or ball. It is composed of gases in varying amount
and its relative abundance is also crucial in different parts of the earth. The air in the
atmosphere is generally composed of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 0.9% argon and the remaining
0.10% is made up of different trace gases and vapor. It serves as the Earth’s protection form
harmful UV rays and keeps the planet warm through greenhouse gasses. Atmosphere is
affected by the Earth’s gravity, so this is the reason why as the altitude increases the amount of
gases in the atmosphere decreases. It is composed of layers namely: troposphere, stratosphere,
mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere.

Geosphere comes from the Greek word geos meaning ground. It pertains to the solid part of the
earth. It is divided in to three layers such as the crust, mantle, and the core. It is composed of
naturally occurring solid aggregate of minerals, organic material or natural glass called rocks. It
is also composed of loose particles of rocks that enveloped the surface of Earth called regolith.
It contains all the soil, rocks, and minerals present in the crust to the core of the Earth. It
comprises the geologic landforms such as mountains and hills.

Hydro is a Greek word which means water. Hydrosphere is composed of all the water on Earth
in any form. This includes ice, water vapor and liquid water. The permanently frozen part of this
subsystem is called cryosphere. Earth is the only planet in the solar system that are known to
contain water in all three phases. Water on Earth is constantly and consistently moving because
of temperature and salinity. It also plays an important role in absorption and redistribution of
solar radiation.

Biosphere came from the Greek word bios meaning life. It is composed of all living things and
the areas where they are found. It includes all animals, microbes, and plants. It extends to the
upper areas of the atmosphere where insects and birds can be found. It also extends to the
deep parts of the oceans where marine organisms can still survive. It is also in this zone that
the interaction between the different subsystems is most dynamic. In biosphere, each organism
plays an important role to the food web. If one is lost the others will be affected.

Matter and energy interact and cycle between the four subsystems to sustain and make life on
Earth possible. The geosphere is where the rocky part of the earth is in contact with water, air,
and life. It is also generally where the spheres intersect and affect each other. The processes
that move matter and energy from one sphere to another is called as sphere interactions.
Changes in any sphere greatly affect the other spheres as well since all the spheres are
interconnected system.
The Earth System

A system can be described by the way that matter and energy are transferred within the system
or to and from other systems. All systems have boundaries, and many systems have matter and
energy that flow through them.

Even though each system can be described separately, all systems are linked. A large and
complex system, such as the Earth system, operates as a result of the combination of smaller,
interrelated systems. The operation of the Earth system is a result of interaction between the
two most basic components of the universe: matter and energy.

• Matter is anything that has mass and takes up space.

• Energy is defined as the ability to do work. Energy can be transferred in a variety of forms,
including heat, light, vibrations, or electromagnetic waves.

• Closed system is a system in which energy, but not matter is exchanged with the
surroundings.

• Open system is a system in which both energy and matter are exchanged with the
surroundings.

Technically, all systems that make up the Earth system are open. However, the Earth system
is almost a closed system because matter exchange is limited. Energy enters the system in
the form of sunlight and is released into space as heat. Only a small amount of dust and rock
from space enters the system, and only a fraction of the hydrogen atoms in the atmosphere
escape into space.

The four subsystems are closely linked through the biogeochemical cycles which involves
biological, geochemical, and chemical factors. These cycles are alleyways by which
substances move through biotic which is the biosphere and abiotic which is the geosphere,
atmosphere and hydrosphere, components of Earth. It allows the circulation of important
nutrients that form and support life like carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium, and
water. It also maintains the balance of substances in the different subsystem of the Earth.
Any interference and disturbances in the flow of matter and energy may cause damage to any
of the subsystems and its components.
 MINERALS

Mineral Characteristics Shared By All Minerals:

1. Natural

 occurs naturally

 NOT manmade

2. Inorganic

 Is not alive

 Was never alive

3. Crystalline

 Atoms are arranged in an orderly pattern

4. Define Chemical Composition

 Chemical formula

 SiO2 (Quartz)

 NaCl (Salt)

 FeS2 (Pyrite)

5. Solid

 Not a gas,

 not a liquid

WHERE DO MINERALS COME FROM?

 Mineral cystal can form in two main ways:

- From stuff dissolved in liquids (Evaporation & Hot Water)

- From cooling molten mineral

 Minerals and Crystals from Magma & Lava

“Extrusive” Cooling: Lava cools fast

 Short time = Small crystals

 Minerals form from hot magma as it cools inside the crust, or as lava cools on the
surface

 When these liquid cools to solid, they form crystals (minerals)

 Size of the crystals depend on time it takes to freeze into a solid

“Intrusive” Cooling: Magma cools slowly

 Long time = Large crystals

MINERALS FORMED BY EVAPORATION

Some minerals form when solutions/mixtures evaporate:

▪ When water evaporates, it leaves behind the stuff that’s dissolved in it.

▪ The longer it takes to evaporate, the larger the crystal.

▪ i.e. salt & water – ocean,

▪ Halite, Gypsum, Calcite

Physical Properties of Minerals:

1. Color

 First impression

 Not very reliable because lots of minerals can occur in many different colors

2. Streak

 The TRUE color of a mineral

 Color of a mineral’s powder

 Minerals with a hardness greater than “7” usually don’t create a streak on the streak
plate because they are harder than the Porcelain tile (unless the streak plate is
specially made).

3. Hardness

 A mineral’s resistance to being scratched

  The Mohs Hardness Scale is used as a convenient way to help identify minerals. A
mineral's hardness is a measure of its relative resistance to scratching, measured by
scratching the mineral against another substance of known hardness on the Mohs
Hardness Scale.

 The scale is named for its creator, the German geologist and mineralogist Friedrich
Mohs.

MOHS HARDNESS SCALE

 Hardness depends on how “tightly packed” the atoms are

4. Cleavage

 Splits along definite planes

5. Fracture

 Breaks irregularly, jagged edges

 6. Luster

 How light shines off a mineral

Special Properties of Minerals

1. Magnetism

 Attracted to a magnet

 Contains IRON, cobalt, or nickel

 2. Double Refraction

 Looking through it, you see “double”

 Ex. Calcite

3. Fluorescence

 Glows under ultraviolet (UV) light

4. Phosphorescence

 Continues to glow even after the UV light has been removed

5. Piezoelectric

 Electricity is generated from Pressure

 Example: Quartz

6. Reactivity

 Reacts with acids

 Example: Quartz

Identification Test of a Mineral

1. Hardness

2. Streak (True Color)

3. Acid Test

• Use hydrochloric acid or nitric acid

•Tests for carbonate (calcite)

MINERALS: Uses, Classification, Mining

Uses:

In households, we use toothpaste that contains fluoride from fluorite mineral. Face
powder contains talc – the softest mineral. In the kitchen, salts are commonly used to enhance
the flavor of our food. Kitchen utensils like casserole are made of aluminum – a light and
durable metal, and stainless wares that contains mostly of iron, chromium and carbon.
Moreover, minerals such as silicon, silver and gold are used as components of gadgets like
cellphones and computers. Copper is the mostly used electrical wiring because it is less
expensive.

Titanium is a strong but very light metal and is used in making medical and dental tools. It
is also known for its biocompatibility which makes it important in prosthetics and in dental
implants. In taking care of our dental health, dentists use many tools appropriate for a purpose.
There are also lots of other minerals that they use for cleaning and surgery. Examples are
gypsum in plaster cast, and alloys like stainless steel that is primarily composed of iron,
chromium, and carbon in their tools.

In construction, skyscrapers that tower up to 50 stories high, use durable minerals like
iron steel – a combination of iron and carbon and concrete that contains limestone, lime and
chalk that make them strong and stand still against strong wind and earthquake. They also use
glass made mainly of quartz and silica. Floors are made up of granite and marbles. Aluminum
are used in window and door panels.

Power plants use minerals to provide us electricity and energy. In nuclear power plant,
radioactive minerals like Uranium is used as source of heat energy to run a nuclear reactor.
Likewise, coal power plants also use mineral coal to generate electricity. On the hand batteries
for electric cars need minerals like nickel, copper, and lithium.

In agriculture, NPK Fertilizers contain vital minerals for the plant to grow healthy. These
minerals include Nitrogen, Phosphorous and Potassium. Moreover, minerals like lime are also
used to lower the acidity of the soil.

For our health, the pharmaceutical industry manufactures supplements that contain many
essential minerals that keep us strong and healthy like Calcium, Magnesium and Zinc.

CLASSIFICATION OF MINERALS:

The Dana System divides minerals into eight basic classes.

1. NATIVE ELEMENTS: This is the category of the pure metals. Most of the minerals are
 made up of combinations of chemical elements

2. SILICATES: Silicates are made from the metals which combine with the silicon and
oxygen atoms. This is the largest group of minerals and most abundant in the Earth’s
crust than the sum of all the mineral groups.

3. OXIDES: Oxides form from the combination of a metal with oxygen. The oxide class
includes the oxide and the hydroxide minerals. This group ranges from dull ores like
bauxite to gems like rubies and sapphires.

4. SULFIDES: Sulfides are made up of compounds of sulfur usually with a metal. They tend
to be heavy and brittle. Several important metal ores come from this group like pyrite.
Sulfides minerals generally have metallic luster, high density and low hardness. Many of
the sulfide minerals are economically important for metals.

5. SULFATES: Sulfates contain the sulfate anion, (SO4)2-. They are large group of minerals,
which are made up of compounds of sulfur combined with metals and oxygen. Sulfate
minerals tend to be soft, and translucent like barite (barium sulfate).

6. HALIDE GROUP of minerals form from halogen elements like chlorine, bromine, fluorine,
and iodine combined with metallic elements. They are very soft and easily soluble in
water e.g. sodium chloride commonly known as table salt.

7. CARBONATES GROUP of minerals are made up of carbon, oxygen and a metallic

element. They contain (CO3)2- anions. The common minerals are calcite and aragonite
(both calcium carbonate), dolomite (magnesium/calcium carbonate) and siderite (iron
carbonate).

8. The PHOSPHATE GROUP of minerals are made up of minerals having PO4 complex ions
acting as a non-metal with a metallic element. The most common example is apatite
found in teeth and bones of many animals. This class includes phosphate, arsenate,
vanadate, and antimonate
Locating and Mining Minerals
Finding and Mining Minerals

 Geologic processes create and concentrate minerals that are valuable natural resources.
Geologists study geological formations and then test the physical and chemical
properties of soil and rocks to locate possible ores and determine their size and
concentration.

 A mineral deposit will only be mined if it is profitable. A concentration of minerals is only

called an ORE DEPOSIT if it is profitable to mine.

Ore

 An ore is a rock that contains minerals with useful elements.

 Aluminum in bauxite ore is extracted from the ground and refined to be used in
aluminum foil and many other products
  An ore deposit must be profitable to mine by definition. If it is no longer profitable, it is
no longer an ore deposit.

Mining

 It is the process of extracting useful minerals from the surface of the Earth, including the
seas.

Ways of Mining Ores

• Surface Mining

• OPEN PIT MINING

• Quarrying

• Strip mining

• Placer mining

• Dredging

• Underground Mining

• SURFACE MINING allows extraction of ores that are close to Earth’s surface. Overlying rock is
blasted and the rock that contains the valuable minerals is placed in a truck and taken to a
refinery. (100 m -1 km depth)

• OPEN-PIT, OPEN-CAST OR OPEN CUT MINING is a surface mining technique of extracting

rock or minerals from the earth by their removal from an open pit or borrow.

• A QUARRY is a type of open-pit mine in which dimension stone, rock, construction aggregate,
riprap, sand, gravel, or slate is excavated from the ground.

• STRIP MINING, removal of soil and rock (overburden) above a layer or seam (particularly coal),
followed by the removal of the exposed mineral.

The cycle of operations for both techniques consists of vegetation clearing, soil removal, drilling
and blasting of overburden (if needed), stripping, removal of the coal or other mineral
commodity, and reclamation.

• PLACER MINING, ancient method of using water to excavate, transport, concentrate, and
recover heavy minerals from alluvial or placer deposits (concentration of loose minerals that
has been redeposited in unconsolidated form by the action of a water).

Examples of deposits mined by means of this technique are the gold-bearing sands and gravel
that settle out from rapidly moving streams and rivers at points where the current slows down.

• DREDGING is the underwater excavation of a placer deposit by floating equipment.

• UNDERGROUND MINING is used to recover ores that are deeper into Earth’s surface. Miners
blast and tunnel into rock to gain access to the ores. How underground mining is approached —
from above, below, or sideways — depends on the placement of the ore body, its depth, the
concentration of ore, and the strength of the surrounding rock.

Underground mining is very expensive and dangerous. Fresh air and lights must also be brought
into the tunnels for the miners, and accidents are far too common.

ORE EXTRACTION

The ore’s journey to becoming a useable material is only just beginning when the ore leaves the
mine. Rocks are crushed so that the valuable minerals can be separated from the waste rock.
Then the minerals are separated out of the ore.

A few methods for extracting ore are:

• HEAP LEACHING: the addition of chemicals, such as cyanide or acid, to remove ore.

• FLOTATION: the addition of a compound that attaches to the valuable mineral and floats.

• SMELTING: roasting rock, causing it to segregate into layers so the mineral can be extracted.

MINERAL PROCESSING

Is the process of extracting minerals from the ore, refining them, and preparing these minerals
for use. The primary steps involved in processing minerals include

1. SAMPLING – is the removal of a portion which represents a whole needed for the
analysis of this material.

2. ANALYSIS – is important to evaluate the valuable component in an ore. This includes

chemical, mineral and particle size analysis.

3. COMMINUTION – is the process where the valuable components of the ore are
separated through crushing and grinding. This process begins by crushing the ores to a
particular size and finishes it by grinding the ores into a powder form.

4. CONCENTRATION – involves the separation of the valuable minerals from the raw
materials

5. DEWATERING – uses the concentration to convert it to usable minerals. This involve

filtration and sedimentation of the suspension and drying of the solid materials
harvested from this suspension
MINING IN THE PHILIPPINES

 Most valuable Minerals: Gold PhP 44.81 Billion Estimated value of gold produced in 2018.
Nickel & Nickel Products PhP55. 18 Billion Estimated value of nickel and nickel products
produced in 2018. Copper PhP20.

 The Tampakan deposit is a large copper and gold ore body located in the south of the
Philippines in Tampakan, South Cotabato. Tampakan represents one of the largest
copper resources in the Philippines and in the world having an estimated resource of
2.94 billion tonnes of ore grading 0.6% copper.

 In Mindanao, the Caraga region has been considered as the mining capital of the
Philippines.
Rocks

 A rock is a naturally occurring solid mixture of one or more minerals, or organic matter.

 Rocks are classified by how they are formed.

 Rocks change over time through the rock cycle.

THE ROCK CYCLE

Classification of Rocks

 IGNEOUS ROCKS

 SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

 METAMORPHIC ROCKS

Igneous rock begins as magma and forms when molten rock (magma) cools and hardens.
IGNEOUS ROCK may be classified based on its..

Igneous Rock based on Formation

Intrusive Igneous Rocks: also known as plutonic rocks

This type of igneous rock is formed from solidification of magma below the surface They have
large crystals of minerals that formed over time through the slow process of crystallization in a
magma. Granite, diorite, gabbro, pegmatite, and peridotite are examples of this type of rock.

Extrusive Igneous Rocks: also known as Volcanic rocks

This type of igneous rock is formed through a faster rate of solidification of lava on the surface
of Earth. They can become glassy in appearance due to less crystallization or vesicular like
Scoria, due to the air that was trapped inside when they solidified and formed on the surface of
the earth

Igneous Rock based on Texture

PHANERITIC:

▪ Coarse-grained takes longer to cool, giving mineral crystals more time to grow

APHANITIC:

▪ Fine-grained cools quickly with little to no crystals

PORPHYRITIC:

▪ Large crystals with small crystals

GLASSY:

▪ Non-ordered solid from rapid crystallization

Igneous Rock based on Composition

FELSIC:

▪ light colored rocks that are rich in elements such as aluminum, potassium, silicon, and
sodium

MAFIC:

▪ dark colored rocks that are rich in calcium, iron, and magnesium, poor in silicon

Sedimentary Rocks

 Sediments form through the processes of weathering and erosion of rocks exposed at
Earth’s surface.

 This forms from the compaction and/or cementation of sediments known as

lithification.

Sediments are:

▪ Rock pieces
 ▪ Mineral grains

▪ Shell fragments

 These sediments accumulate in layers and over long period of time harden into rocks.

 Compaction - Due to increase of pressure of layered sediments, they bind together to

form the sedimentary rocks.

o Strata – layers of rock

o Stratification – the process in which sedimentary rocks are arranged in layers

 Sedimentary rock can also form from the chemical depositing of materials that were
once dissolved in water. When water evaporates, minerals are left behind and form rock.

Types of Sedimentary Rocks

Clastic – made of fragments of rock cemented together with calcite or quartz

Chemical sedimentary – minerals crystallize out of solution to become rock

Organic sedimentary – remains of plants and animals

Metamorphic Rocks

Metamorphic rock forms from existing rock types called “parent rock” in the process called
metamorphism, which means a change in form. The original rock which can be an igneous,
sedimentary, or another metamorphic rock is subjected to heat and pressure, causing a
profound chemical or physical change.

Metamorphism - transformation of one rock type into another

2 types of metamorphism:

1. Regional-due to changes in pressure and temperature over large region of the crust

2. Contact - mainly by heat due to contact with magma

Classification of Metamorphic Rocks

 Type of Metamorphism

 Foliation - any planar arrangement of mineral grains or structural features within the
rock.

 Contact Metamorphism – heated by nearby magma

 Increased temperature changes the composition of the rock, minerals are changed into
new minerals

Hornfels is a fine-grained non-foliated metamorphic rock produced by contact metamorphism.

 Regional Metamorphic Rocks – Regionally metamorphosed rocks usually have a

squashed, or foliated appearance – examples include slate, schist and gneiss which are
formed by metamorphism of mudstones, and also marble which is formed by
metamorphism of limestone

 Foliated - contain aligned grains of flat minerals

Gneiss is foliated metamorphic rock that has a banded appearance and is made up of granular
mineral grains.

 Non-Foliated – mineral grains are not arranged in plains or bands

Marble is a non-foliated metamorphic rock that is produced from the metamorphism of

limestone. It is composed primarily of calcium carbonate.