DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS AND NANOTECHNOLOGY

SRM INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

21PYB102J –Semiconductor Physics and Computational Methods

Module 2

Lecture 13

1
Intrinsic semiconductors: In semiconductors and insulators, when an
external electric field is applied the conduction is not possible as there is
a forbidden gap, which is absent in metals (good conductors).
The field that needs to move electron to conduction band is extremely
large. Take the example of silicon, where the forbidden gap is about 1 eV.
This is approximately the energy difference between a location close to an
ion core and another location away from the ion core. The distance
between these two locations is about 1 Å (1010 m).

2
 Therefore, a field gradient of approximately 1V/ (10 10 m) = 1010 Vm1 is
necessary to move an electron from the top of the valence band to the bottom of
the conduction band. Such a high field gradient is not realizable in practice.

1
1  {exp[ E  EF ) / k BT ]}

A pure crystal of silicon or germanium is an intrinsic semiconductor. The

electrons that are excited from the top of the valence band to the bottom of
the conduction band by thermal energy are responsible for conduction. The
number of electrons excited across the gap can be calculated from the Fermi-
Dirac probability distribution at temperature:

3
4
5
6
The fraction of electrons at energy E is equal to the probability f(E). We can then write
for the number n of electrons promoted across the gap:
n = N exp(Eg/2kBT).
(3)

where N is the number of electrons available for excitation from the top of the valence band.
The promotion of some of the electrons across the gap leaves some vacant electron
sites in the valence band. These are called holes. As each excited electron leaves back
one hole, an intrinsic semiconductor contains an equal number of holes in the valence
band and electrons in the conduction band, that is ne = nh. The number of each of these
species is given by Equation(3). We can then write the conductivity  of an intrinsic
semiconductor as:
i = ne e e + nh e h
(4)
where e is the electronic charge, ne and nh are concentrations of electrons and holes
per unit volume.

7
Fermi level of Intrinsic semiconductor
calculation:-
The number of free electrons per unit
volume in an intrinsic semiconductor
is n in conduction band and The
number of holes per unit volume in an
intrinsic semiconductor is p in valence
band .
Since n = p in intrinsic
semiconductors.
If we assume that, m*_e(mass of
electron)=m*_p(mass of hole)

8
9
10
11
 3/ 2
 2 m kT *
 E F  Ec 
n  2   e
exp 
 kT 
2
 h 
electron  density

3
 2m  k T

 EV  E F 
2
p  2 h
 . exp  
 KT 
2
 h 
hole  density
12
 3 3
 2 m k T 
* 2
 E F  Ec   2 m k T 2  Ev  E F  
2 e  exp
   2  exp   h

 kT   h  kT 
2 2
 h  
int rinsic _ condition : n  p

m  exp
 2
3EF  EC   
 m
3
2 exp Ev  EF 
  
  KT 
e h
kT 
3
2 EF  mh  2
 E  Ec 
e kT   exp v 
 *   k T 
 me 

 mh   
2 EF 3
 loge  *   loge  exp Ev  Ec 
  k T 
kT 2  me  

13
 3kT m 
  Ev  Ec 
 log e  h
*

  2  
4 m e 
If we assume that, m*e  m*h

 Ev  Ec 
EF   
 2 
14
Fig.1.4. Position of Fermi level in an intrinsic semiconductor at various temperatures
(a) at T = 0 K, the Fermi level in the middle of the forbidden gap (b) as temperature increases, EF shifts upwards

15
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS AND NANOTECHNOLOGY
SRM INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

21PYB102J –Semiconductor Physics and Computational Methods

Module 2

Lecture 14

1
EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR

In an extrinsic semiconducting material, the

charge carriers originate from impurity atoms
added to the original material is called impurity [or]
extrinsic semiconductor.

• This Semiconductor obtained by doping

TRIVALENT and PENTAVALENT impurities in a
TETRAVALENT semiconductor. The electrical
conductivity of pure semiconductors may be
changed even with the addition of few amount of
impurities. 2
DOPING
The method of adding impurities to a pure
semiconductor is known as DOPING, and the impurity added
is called the dopping agent(Ex-Ar,Sb,P,Ge and Al).
The addition of impurity would increases the no. of
free electrons and holes in a semiconductor and hence
increases its conductivity.

SORTS OF SEMICONDUCTOR according to ADDITION OF

IMPURITIES
n-type semiconductor
p-type semiconductor

3
N – type semiconductor
When penta-valent impurity is added to the intrinsic
semiconductors, n type semi conductors are formed

n - type semiconductor
At T = 0K
Fig1.1
4
❖ When small amounts of penta-valent impurity such as
phosphorous are added during crystal formation, the impurity
atoms lock into the crystal lattice[ see above Fig1.1).

❖ Consider a silicon crystal which is doped with a fifth

column element such as P, As or Sb.

❖ Four of the five electrons in the outermost orbital of the

phosphorus atom take part in the tetrahedral bonding with the
four silicon neighbors.

❖ The fifth electron cannot take part in the discrete covalent

bonding. It is loosely bound to the parent atom.

5
❖ It is possible to calculate an orbit for the fifth electron
assuming that it revolves around the positively charged
phosphorus ion, in the same way as for the “1s” electron around
the hydrogen nucleus.
❖ The electron of the phosphorus atom is moving in the
electric field of the silicon crystal and not in free space, as is the
case in the hydrogen atom.
❖ This brings in the dielectric constant of the crystal into the
orbital calculations, and the radius of the electron orbit here
turns out to be very large, about 80 Å, as against 0.5 Å for the
hydrogen orbit. Such a large orbit evidently means that the fifth
electron is almost free and is at an energy level close to the
conduction band.
6
❖At OK, the electronic system is in its lowest energy state, all
the valence electron will be in the valence band and all the
phosphorous atoms will be un-ioniszed.

❖ The energy levels of the donor atoms are very close to the
conduction band.

❖ In the energy level diagram, the energy level of the fifth

electron is called donor level. The donor level is so close to the
bottom of the conduction band.

❖ Most of the donor level electrons are excited into the

conduction band at room temperature and become majority
charge carriers. 7
 At T > 0K At T =300K

If the thermal energy is sufficiently high, in addition to the

ionization of donor impurity atoms, breaking of covalent
bonds may also occur thereby giving rise to generation of
electron hole pair.

8
Fermi energy

9
 Variation of Fermi level with donor concentration with temperature

As T increases, Fermi level drops. Also for a given

temperature the Fermi level shift upward as the
concentration increases.
We can say that EF decreases slightly with increase
in temperature.
As the temperature is increased, more and more
donor atoms are ionized. For a particular temperature all
the donor, atoms are ionized.
11
 Further increase in temperature results in
generation of electron-hole pairs due to the breaking
of covalence bonds and the material tends to behave
in intrinsic manner. The Fermi level gradually moves
towards the intrinsic Fermi level Ei .

P -Type Semiconductor

When trivalent impurity is added to intrinsic

semiconductor, P type semi conductors are formed.

Al has three electrons in the outer orbital. While

substituting for silicon in the crystal, it needs an extra-
electron to complete the tetrahedral arrangement of bonds
around it.
12
 The extra electron can come only from one of
the neighboring silicon atoms, thereby creating a vacant
electron site (hole) on the silicon.
The Aluminium atom with the extra electron becomes a
negative charge and the hole with a positive charge can be
considered to resolve around the aluminium atom, leading to
the same orbital calculations as aboveT.

p - type semiconductor At T = 0K
13
 Since the trivalent impurity accepts an electron, the
energy level of this impurity atom is called acceptor level.
This acceptor level lies just above the valence bond.

Even at relatively low temperatures, these acceptor

atoms get ionized taking electrons from valence bond and
thus giving to holes in the valence bond for conduction.

Due to ionization of acceptor atoms, only holes and no

electrons are created.

14
 If the temperature is sufficiently high, in addition to the
above process, electron-hole pairs are generated due to the
breaking of covalent bonds.
Thus holes are more in number than electrons and hence
holes are majority carriers and electrons are minority carriers

(a) At T > 0K (b) At T = 300K

15
16
Fermi Energy

17
For a particular temperature all the acceptor atoms are ionized.
Further increase in temperature results in generation of electron-hole
pair due to the breaking of covalent bonds and the material tend to
behave in intrinsic manner.
The Fermi level gradually moves towards the intrinsic Fermi level.

Na

Na

18
19
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS AND NANOTECHNOLOGY
SRM INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
21PYB102J –Semiconductor Physics

Module-II Lecture-15

Carrier Generation & Carrier

Recombination

1
 Carrier Generation & Recombination

Carrier generation describes processes by which electrons gain energy and

move from the valence band to the conduction band, producing two mobile
carriers; while recombination describes processes by which a conduction
band electron loses energy and re-occupies the energy state of an electron
hole in the valence band.
Semiconductors are characterized by two types of mobile carriers,
electrons in the conduction band and holes in the valence band.
The generation rate gives the number of electrons generated at each
point in the device due to the absorption of photons..
Excess carriers, essential for device operation, are created by optical
excitation, electron. bombardment, or injected across a forward-biased p-n
junction. • These excess carriers can dominate the conduction process in
semiconductor materials.
2
In semiconductors several different processes exist which lead to generation
or recombination, the most important ones are:

⮚ Photon transition (or) Optical generation/recombination

⮚ Phonon transition (or) Shockley-Read-Hall
generation/recombination
⮚ Auger generation/recombination (or) Three particle transitions
⮚ Impact ionization

In thermal equilibrium the generation and recombination processes are in

dynamic equilibrium. When the system is supplied with additional energy,
for example through the absorption of photons or the influence of
temperature, additional carriers are generated. The most important
generation/recombination processes for the simulation of semiconductor
devices are summarized in the following.
3
 1. Photon Transition

Direct generation/recombination process. During photon assisted

recombination an electron from the conduction band re-combines with a hole
in the valence band. The excess energy is transferred to a photon. The reverse
process obtains its energy from radiation and generates an electron hole pair.
4
The photon transition is a direct, band-to-band, generation/recombination
process. An electron from the conduction band falls back to the valence-
band and releases its energy in the form of a photon (light).

The reverse process, the generation of an electron-hole pair, is triggered

by a sufficiently energetic photon which transfers its energy to a valence
band electron which is excited to the conduction band leaving a hole
behind. The photon energy for this process has to be at least of the
magnitude of the band-gap energy.

5
18PYB103J Module-II Lecture-3
2. Phonon Transition (OR) Shockley-Read-Hall generation/recombination

6
Another process is the generation/recombination by phonon emission. This process
is trap-assisted utilizing a lattice defect at the energy level Et within the
semiconductor band-gap. The excess energy during recombination and the
necessary energy for generation is transferred to and from the crystal lattice
(phonon). A theory describing this effect has been established by Shockley, Read,
and Hall. Therefore, the effect is throughout the literature referenced as Shockley-
Read-Hall (SRH) generation/recombination. Four sub-processes are possible:

Electron capture. An electron from the conduction band is captured by an empty

trap in the band-gap of the semiconductor. The excess energy of Ec - Et is
transferred to the crystal lattice (phonon emission).

Hole capture. The trapped electron moves to the valence band and neutralizes a
hole (the hole is captured by the occupied trap). A phonon with the energy Et -
Ev is generated.

7
Hole emission. An electron from the valence band is trapped leaving a hole in the
valence band (the hole is emitted from the empty trap to the valence band). The
energy necessary for this process is Et - Ev.

Electron emission. A trapped electron moves from the trap energy level to the
conduction band. For this process additional energy of the magnitude Ec - Et has to
be supplied.

8
3. Auger generation/recombination (or) Three particle transitions

9
In the direct band-to-band Auger mechanism three particles are involved. During
generation an electron hole pair is generated consuming the energy of a highly
energetic particle. In the opposite process, when an electron hole pair recombines,
the excess energy is transferred to a third particle. In detail the four possible
processes are as follows:
Electron capture. An electron from the conduction band moves to the valence band
neutralizing a hole in the valence band. The excess energy is transferred to an
electron in the conduction band.
Hole capture. Again, an electron from the conduction band moves to the valence
band and recombines with a valence hole. The excess energy is, in contrast to
Process 1, transferred to another hole in the valence band.
Electron emission. A highly energetic electron from the conduction band transfers
its energy to an electron in the valence band. The valence electron moves to the
conduction band generating an electron hole pair.
Hole emission. A highly energetic hole from the valence band transfers its energy
to an electron in the valence band which is then excited to the conduction band
generating an electron hole pair.
10
4. Impact ionization

11
Impact ionization is a pure generation process. Microscopically it is exactly the
same mechanism as the generation part of the Auger process: a highly energetic
carrier moves to the conduction or valence band, depending on the carrier type, and
the excess energy is used to excite an electron from the valence band to the
conduction band generating another electron hole pair. The major difference is the
cause of the effect. While it is purely the carrier concentration in the Auger
mechanism, for impact ionization it is the current density.

Two partial processes can be distinguished:

Electron emission. A highly energetic electron from the conduction band transfers
its energy to an electron in the valence band. The valence electron moves to the
conduction band generating an electron hole pair.

Hole emission. A highly energetic hole from the valence band transfers its energy
to an electron in the valence band which is then excited to the conduction band
generating an electron hole pair. 12
18PYB103J Module-II Lecture-3
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS AND NANOTECHNOLOGY
SRM INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
21PYB102J –Semiconductor Physics and Computational Methods

Module II Lecture-16

Solving Problems

1
1. Calculate the conductivity of intrinsic germanium at 300K
using the following data:

ni = 2.41019 m – 3 ; e = 0.39 m2 V –1s –1 ;h = 0.19 m2 V –1s –1

Solution:

 i ni e( e  h )  2.4  1019  1.6  10 19( 0.39  0.19 )

= 2.2272 ( ohm metre )– 1

2
2. A cadmium sulphide (Eg = 2.4eV) photo detector is illuminated with light
of wavelength 3000Å. The intensity of radiation falling on the detector is 30
W/m2. The area of the detector is 9 mm2. Assuming that each quantum
generates an electron-hole pair, calculate the number of pairs generated
per second.

Given data
wavelength= 3000 Å
Solution:-

6.625  10 34  3  108

hc
E 
 3000  10 10
6.625  10 19
 19
eV  4.13eV
1.602  10

3
Since this energy is higher than Eg(=2.4eV) electron-hole pairs will be generated.

Number of photons falling

30  9  10 6
  4.075  1014
6.625  10 19
Since each photon produces an electron-hole pair, the number of
pairs generated per sec = 4.075  1014

4
3. Calculate the number of states lying in an energy interval of 0.02eV above the Fermi
energy for sodium crystal of unit volume (EF = 3.22eV for sodium).

5
4. For silicon semiconductor with band gap 1.12 eV, determine the position of
the Fermi level at 300 K if me* = 0.12 m0 and mh* = 0.28 m0.

6
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS AND NANOTECHNOLOGY
SRM INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

21PYB102J –Semiconduuctor Physics and Computational methods

Carrier transport-Diffusion and drift current

Lecture-17

1
21PYB102J Module-II Lecture-17
 Preview of lecture

The net flow of the ‘electron and holes’ in a semiconductor generates the current.

The process through which these charged particles move is called transport.

Two basic transport namely : Drift & Diffusion.

The carrier transport phenomena are the foundation for finally determining the
current-voltage characteristics of semiconductor devices.

Subtopic :
I. Carrier Drift
II. Carrier Diffusion

2
21PYB102J Module-II Lecture-17
 Carrier Transport

Drift Diffusion
T The
The electric field (E) is
involved in the movement movement or flow of the
of the charge carrier. charge carrier due to
density gradient (dn/dx)

3
21PYB102J Module-II Lecture-17
 Carrier Transport Phenomena

Random motion and net movement along the

Random motion of carriers
direction opposite to the direction of field
without applied field
Net carrier displacement and thus a net
No net carrier displacement velocity opposite to the field.

This velocity is called the drift velocity,

which gives drift current.

4
21PYB102J Module-II Lecture-17
Carrier Drift

5
21PYB102J Module-II Lecture-17
 Current density

• In semiconductors, It is useful to compare current

density ‘J’ rather than current ‘I’

• Ohm’s Law:

• Where ρ is resistivity (in ohm-cm), L is length and

A is cross-sectional area

21PYB102J Module-II Lecture-17

Let electric field be

• I = JA and
Therefore

Or

Where is the conductivity (in ohm-cm-1)

Note we added subscript “drift” to J
21PYB102J Module-II Lecture-17
The electric current density is given by

J=nevd ; vd is the drift velocity

The conductivity is σ = J/E = (nevd /E)

σ = (ne /E) (eEτ/m) with vd = (eEτ/m)

σ = (ne2τ/m) , τ is the relaxation time between collisions

Again vd = μ E, μ is the mobility of charge carrier within the crystal.

Thus, J = nevd = ne μ E

σ = J/E = ne μ

or in terms of resistivity ρ
ρ = 1/ σ = 1/ ne μ

If the material is a semiconductor, the current flow would be due to electron and hole
movement.
21PYB102J Module-II Lecture-17 8
Correspondingly the current densities due to electron drift and hole are:

Jn (drift) = n μn eE

Jp (drift) = p μp eE

J (drift) = Jn (drift) + Jp (drift)

J (drift) = n μn eE + p μp eE

Comparison with J = σ E

σ= n μn e + p μp e

For an intrinsic semiconductor n = p = np

σi = nie(μn + μp )
21PYB102J Module-II Lecture-17 9
Carrier Diffusion

21PYB102J Module-II Lecture-17 10

 Diffusion
Current
The electrons present at left side of
the semiconductor material that
moves to right side, to reach the
uniform concentration of electrons.

The semiconductor material achieves

equal concentration of
electrons. Electrons that moves from
left side to right side will constitute
current. This current is called
• In p-type semiconductor, the diffusion
diffusion current.
process occurs in the similar manner.
11
21PYB102J Module-II Lecture-17
.
Let us suppose that the concentration Δn of electrons varies with distance x
In the semiconductor, the concentration of gradient being

d(Δn) /dx

Fick’s law states that the rate at which carriers diffuse is proportional to the
density gradient and the movement is in the direction of negative Gradient, the
rate of flow of electrons is proportional to

- d(Δn) /dx

From which the rate of flow across unit area is got, equal to

-Dn d(Δn) /dx , Where Dn is the diffusion coefficient for electron

Jn( diffusion) = -(e) (rate of flow across unit area)

= eDn d(Δn) /dx
21PYB102J Module-II Lecture-17 12
If an excess hole concentration is created in the same region, hole
Diffusion takes place in the same direction at a rate per unit area

= - Dp d(Δp) /dx

Resulting in a hole diffusion current density.

Jp( diffusion) = +(e) (rate of flow across unit area)

= - eDp d(Δp) /dx . Where Dp is the hole diffusion coefficient

If there is an electric field E and a concentration gradient in the x-direction,

the total hole current is the sum of the drift current.

Jp = Jp (drift) + Jp (diffusion)

Jp = peμp - eDp d(Δp) /dx

Similarly for electrons, the total current density

Jn = neμn + eDn d(Δn) /dx

21PYB102J Module-II Lecture-17 13
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS AND NANOTECHNOLOGY
SRM INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

21PYB102J –Semiconductor Physics and Computational Physics

Continuity Equation

Lecture-17

14
21PYB102J Module-II Lecture-17
 CONTINUITY EQUATION

⮚ In the previous sections, we have understood the following concepts.

• Drift due to an electric field.

• Diffusion due to a concentration gradient.
• Recombination of carriers through intermediate-level recombination centers.

• The contribution of the overall effect when drift, diffusion, and recombination occur
simultaneously in a semiconductor material. The governing equation is called the
continuity equation.

15
21PYB102J Module-II Lecture-17
 ⮚ The continuity equation describes
a basic concept, namely that a
change in carrier density over
time is due to the difference
between the incoming and
outgoing flux of carriers plus
the generation and minus the
Electron currents and possible recombination and recombination.
generation processes

The flow of carriers and recombination and generation rates are illustrated with Figure

16
21PYB102J Module-II Lecture-17
One-dimensional continuity equation for electrons

• Consider an infinitesimal slice with thickness dx located at x. The number of electrons in the slice
may increase due to the net current flow into the slice and the net carrier generation in the slice
(mainly four components contribution). {Law of conservation of charges}

• The number of electrons flowing into the slice at x, minus the number of electrons flowing
out at x + dx, plus the rate at which electrons are generated, minus the rate at which they
are recombined with holes in the slice.

• The first two components are found by dividing the currents at each side of the slice by the charge
of an electron.

• The generation and recombination rates are designated by Gn and Rn , respectively.

• The overall rate of change in the number of electrons in the slice is given as below

where A is the cross-sectional area and Adx is the

volume of the slice where A is the cross-sectional
area and Adx is the volume of the slice

17
21PYB102J Module-II Lecture-17 17
 Expanding the expression for the current at x + dx in Taylor series yields

We thus obtain the basic continuity equation for electrons:

A similar continuity equation can be derived for holes, except that the sign of the first
term on the right-hand side of Eq is changed because of the positive charge
associated with a hole.
Gn = e- generation rate
Rn = e- recombination rate
Gp = hole generation rate
Rp = hole recombination rate

18
21PYB102J Module-II Lecture-17
For the one-dimensional case under low-injection condition, small electric
field, uniform doping etc.
The continuity equations for minority carriers :
(i.e., np in a p-type semiconductor or pn in an n-type semiconductor)

19
21PYB102J Module-II Lecture-17
 DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS AND NANOTECHNOLOGY
SRM INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

21PYB102J -SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS and Computational methods

Module-II

p-n Junction,
Biasing concept in p-n junction
Lecture
18

20
21PYB102J Module-II Lecture-18
 Basic Structure of p-n Junction, Band Diagram of
p-n Junction in Thermal Equilibrium

⮚p-n junction is one of the basic building blocks of integrated circuits. Such a
junction can be formed by selective diffusion or ion implantation of n-type or p-type
dopant to the p-type or n-type semiconductor.

⮚When p-region and n-region are brought in close contact a p-n junction forms due
to the diffusion of charge carriers. While, holes diffuse from p region to n region,
electrons diffuse from n region to p region.

⮚Under thermal equilibrium a built in electric field directed from positive to negative
charge which gives rise to drift current and no net transport of carriers due to
diffusion is observed across the potential barrier(also called as depletion region).

⮚At thermal equilibrium, drift and diffusion component of current must cancel each
other, Jn and Jp is zero. Hence the Fermi level must be constant throughout and the
electron and hole concentrations on both sides remain same.

⮚While in thermal equilibrium no external voltage is applied between the n-type

and p-type material, there is an internal potential, φi, which is caused by the work
function difference between the n-type and p-type semiconductors. This potential
equals the built-in potential. 21
21PYB102J Module-II Lecture-18
 Basic Structure of p-n Junction, Band
Diagram of p-n Junction in Thermal
Equilibrium

Flatband
diagram
Energy band diagram of a p-n junction (a) before and (b) after
merging the n-type and p-type regions

21PYB102J Module-II Lecture- 22

18
 Basic Structure of p-n Junction, Band
Diagram of p-n Junction in Thermal
Equilibrium

Energy band diagram of a p-n junction in thermal equilibrium

21PYB102J Module-II Lecture- 23

18
 Basic Structure of p-n Junction, Band
Diagram of p-n Junction in Thermal
Equilibrium

⮚Fermi level on p-region and n-region is given by

EF =Eip –kTln(Na/ni) for p-region

EF =Ein –kTln(Nd/ni) for n-region

EF(p-region) = EF(n-region)

Eip – Ein = kTln(NaNd/ni2)

If Eip – Ein =Vbi, Built in Potential, then Vbi = kT ln(NaNd/ni2)

24
21PYB102J Module-II Lecture-
 Basic Structure of p-n Junction, Band
Diagram of p-n Junction in Thermal
Equilibrium

(1
)

(3
(2 )
)

25
Formation of depletion 21PYB102J Module-II Lecture-
 Basic Structure of p-n Junction, Band
Diagram of p-n Junction in Thermal
Equilibrium

p-n junction under forward biasing

When the p-n junction is applied with external voltage both electrons and hole
concentrations deviates from their equilibrium values. Also potential difference across
depletion region deviates from its equilibrium value Vbi by an amount of applied bias.

When the p-n junction is forward biased by Vf ,ie., positive terminal of the battery is
connected to the p-region and the negative terminal of the battery is connected to the
n-region, the potential difference across the depletion region decreases by Vbi – Vf
.The width of depletion region decreases. Thus more electrons move from n region to
p region and increase the diffusion current.

21PYB102J Module-II Lecture- 26

18
 Basic Structure of p-n Junction, Band
Diagram of p-n Junction in Thermal
Equilibrium

p-n junction under reverse biasing

When the p-n junction is reverse biased by Vr ,ie., positive terminal of the battery is
connected to the n-region and the negative terminal of the battery is connected to the
p-region, the potential difference across the depletion region increases by Vbi +Vr.
The width of depletion region increases. Thus no electrons from n region and no
holes from p region diffuse across the junction. Now the current is due to the diffusion
of minority charge carriers in the p and n region which is extremely small.

21PYB102J Module-II Lecture- 27

18
Energy
Band diagrams
of forward and
reverse biased p-n
junctions

28
21PYB102J Module-II Lecture-
 Basic Structure of p-n Junction, Band
Diagram of p-n Junction in Thermal
Equilibrium

Junction Diode Symbol and Static I-V Characteristics

21PYB102J Module-II Lecture- 29
18
 DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS AND NANOTECHNOLOGY
SRM INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

21PYB102J -SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS

Module-II
Lecture-19

Metal-semiconductor junction
Ohmic Contact and Schottky Junction

21PYB102J Module-II Lecture- 30

19
 Metal-semiconductor junction
Ohmic Contact and Schottky Junction

⮚A metal–semiconductor (M–S) junction is a type of electrical junction in which a

metal comes in close contact with a semiconductor material. It is the oldest practical
semiconductor device

⮚ It can be either rectifying or non-rectifying.

⮚The rectifying semiconductor junction is called as Schottky diode and the non-
rectifying junction is called as ohmic contact.

21PYB102J Module-II Lecture- 31

19
 Rectifying Junction or Schottky Junction

Whenever, the work function of n type semiconductor is smaller than that of metal or
the work function of p type semiconductor is greater than that of metal, it forms
rectifying or Schottky junction.

Let φm and φs be the work function of metal and n type semiconductor , respectively
where
φm > φs.

When metal semiconductor contact is made, the conduction electrons begin to flow
from the semiconductor in to the metal until the Fermi energies on both sides of the
junction becomes equal. Therefore, metal becomes negative charged and the n-type
semiconductor becomes positive charged. As a result potential barrier is formed at
the metal semiconductor junction equal to φm – φS =eV.

When potential is applied to the system after contact such that

N-type is connected to positive charge and metal to negative charge, the height of
the barrier on the semiconductor side increases by (Vs +V) and the metal
remains unchanged. Therefore the junction is said to be reverse biased and the
current flows from metal to semiconductor.
21PYB102J Module-II Lecture- 32
19
 Rectifying Junction or Schottky Junction

Conversely if the voltage is reversed, so as to make semiconductor negative charge

and metal positive charge, the height of the barrier on the semiconductor side
decreases by (Vs –V) and the metal remains unchanged. Therefore the
junction is said to be forward biased and the current flows from semiconductor to
metal.

For forward bias the net current increases exponentially with applied voltage and for
reverse bias, the net current is constant. Hence, the metal semiconductor contact
acts like a rectifier i.e. it conducts in forward bias but not in reverse bias and hence
called as rectifying contact.

21PYB102J Module-II Lecture- 33

19
 Rectifying Junction or Schottky Junction

Metal-Semiconductor n-type junction. Φm and Φsc are the metal and semiconductor
thermionic work functions, while χsc is the semiconductor electron affinity. W is the
depletion zone, Φ b the barrier as seen from the metal side and V0 from the semiconductor
side.

21PYB102J Module-II Lecture- 34

19
Rectifying Junction or Schottky Junction

21PYB102J Module-II Lecture- 35

19
Rectifying Junction or Schottky Junction

21PYB102J Module-II Lecture- 36

19
Rectifying Junction or Schottky Junction

21PYB102J Module-II Lecture- 37

19
Rectifying Junction or Schottky Junction

21PYB102J Module-II Lecture- 38

19
 Non-Rectifying Junction or Ohmic Junction

Whenever, the work function of metal is smaller than that of n type semiconductor it
forms non rectifying or ohmic junction.

Let φm and φs be the work function of metal and n type semiconductor , respectively
where
φm < φs.

When metal semiconductor contact is made, the conduction electrons begin to flow
from the metal to semiconductor until the Fermi energies on both sides of the
junction becomes equal. Therefore, metal becomes positive charged and the n-type
semiconductor becomes negative charged. As a result potential barrier is formed at
the metal semiconductor junction equal to φS – φm =eV.

When potential is applied to the system after contact such that

N-type is connected to positive charge and metal to negative charge, the electrons
flow from semiconductor to metal without encountering an appreciable barrier.

21PYB102J Module-II Lecture- 39

19
 Non-Rectifying Junction or Ohmic Junction

Conversely if the voltage is reversed, so as to make semiconductor negative charge

and metal positive charge, the electrons flow from metal to semiconductor without
any change in barrier.

Thus in both the cases the current is directly proportional to the applied voltage in
accordance with ohms law. Such contacts are called as ohmic contacts.

Thus, a Ohmic junction behaves as a resistor conducting in both forward and reverse
bias. The resistivity is determined by the bulk resistivity of the semiconductor.

21PYB102J Module-II Lecture- 40

19
Non-Rectifying Junction or Ohmic Junction

21PYB102J Module-II Lecture- 41

19
Non-Rectifying Junction or Ohmic Junction

21PYB102J Module-II Lecture- 42

19
Rectifying Junction or Schottky Junction

21PYB102J Module-II Lecture- 43

19
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS AND NANOTECHNOLOGY
SRM INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

21PYB102J –Semiconductor Physics

Problem Solving
Lecture 20

21PYB102J Module-II Lecture- 44

20
 Numericals

Important data needed for the calculation

21PYB102J Module-II Lecture- 45

20
1) In a P-type Ge the intrinsic carrier concentration ni = 2.1×1019 e-s/m-3, density of boron = 4.5 ×1023 atoms/m-3. The electron
and hole mobility are 0.4 and 0.2 m2V-1 s-1. What is its conductivity before and after the addition of boron dopants?

Given Data

ni = 2.1×1019 e-s/m-3
μe = 0.4 m2V-1 s-1 and μh = 0.4 m2V-1 s-1
Solution
Before adding boron atoms, the semiconductor is an intrinsic SC

σi = nie (μe+μh)
= 2.1×1019 × 1.602 × 10-19 × (0.4 +0.2) = 2.01852 S/m
After adding boron atoms, the semiconductor become p-type SC
σp ≈ nboron e μh
= 4.5 ×1023 atoms/m-3 × 1.602 × 10-19 × 0.2
≈ 1.4418 × 104 S/m

Comment
The addition of p-type dopants makes the semiconductor more conductive in nature.
46
21PYB102J Module-II Lecture-
2) An abrupt silicon p-n junction consists of a p-type region containing 2 x 1016 cm-3 acceptors and an n-type region
containing also 1016 cm-3 acceptors in addition to 1017 cm-3 donors. ni2 = 1020 cm-3

A) Calculate the thermal equilibrium density of electrons and holes in the p-type region as well as both densities in the
n-type region.

B) Calculate the built-in potential of the p-n junction.

C) Calculate the built-in potential of the p-n junction at 400 K.

Solution

a. The thermal equilibrium densities are: In the p-type region: p = Na = 2 x 1016 cm-3
n = ni 2 /p = 1020/2 x 1016 = 5 x 103 cm-3

In the n-type region n = Nd - Na = 9 x 1016 cm-3

p = ni2 /n = 1020/1 x 1016 = 1.11 x 103 cm-3
b. The built-in potential is obtained from this expression

φI = Vt ln [pn pp/ni2] = 0.0259 V × ln[2 x 1016 cm-3 × 9×1016 cm-3 /1020 cm-3]

= 0.79 V

c. Similarly, the built-in potential at 400 K equals 0.63 V, if you do carefully. You get ni (400K) = 4.52 × 1010 e-s/cm-3

47
21PYB102J Module-II Lecture-
3) Estimate the built-in potential of a pn based Si diode with the following assumptions
Solution

The donor concentration Nd = 1×1017 atoms/cm-3

Depletion widths of p-type and n-type regions are Wp ≈ 1 μm, and Wn ≈ 0.1 μm
As we know that WnNd = WpNa;
Then Na = WnNd / Wp = [0.1 μm × 1×1017 atoms/cm-3]/1 μm
= 1×1017 atoms/cm-3
qVbi = KT/q ln[NaNd/ni2]
ni2 = NcNv exp[-Eg/KBT]
= 2.894634 ×1025 states/m3 × 5.646987 ×1024 states/m3
× exp [-1.12 ×1.602 × 10-19/(1.38 ×10-23×300)]
= 2.463004786 × 1031
Whereas ni = 4.962866858 × 10 15 e-s /m3 and substituting this value in the expression for contact potential that
arises due to diffusion of charge carriers at the junctions
qVbi= 1.38 ×10-23 * 300 * ln [(1×1017 × 1×1016)/(2.463004786 × 10 9)2]
Vbi = 1.355270908 × 10-19 /1.602 × 10-19
= 0.845986834 V
Comment: -
Though it is a degenerate semiconductor [heavily doped, the dopant concentrations are large when
compared to that of intrinsic carrier concentration] 48
21PYB102J Module-II Lecture-
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS AND NANOTECHNOLOGY
SRM INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

21PYB102J –Semiconductor Physics and Computational Methods

Module 2

Lecture 21

1
 Semiconductor material for
optoelectronic applications: Introduction

 Major semiconducting materials used for optoelectronics are III – V and II – VI groups.
 Among the two groups of semiconductors, III – V is more suitable as they are direct
band gap materials which is necessary condition needed for optoelectronic devices to
convert electrical energy into light energy conversion.
 III – V materials – Column III and V in the periodic table
III column – Al, Ga, In
V column - N, P, As, Sb

Important applications for some III – V semiconducting materials:

 AlGaAs – Light emitter and modulator

 GaInAsP – Optoelectronic device
 AlGaInP – Red Emitter LED
 GaAsP – Visible LED
 AlGaAsSb – Light emitter and detector
2
Candidate Materials: Group III-V & Group II-VI

3
 Semiconductor material for
optoelectronic applications: Introduction
 The suitable choice of above materials depends on their quantum dimensions (1D, 2D
or 3D) for optoelectronic applications.
 II-VI semiconducting materials: column II and VI in periodic table. They are having
wide range of optoelectronic properties ranging from far IR to UV region. This can be
easily tuned to different band gap (Eg) by incorporating magnetic ions. They have
stronger polarity due to ionic bonding character.

Important applications of some II-VI

semiconductors:

 ZnSe – Blue-Green LEDs

 ZnS – UV emitters, Display
 ZnO – UV emitters
 CdS – Visible light LEDs
 CdSe – Colour LEDs (Short wave)
4
 Semiconductor material for
optoelectronic applications: Introduction

5
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS AND NANOTECHNOLOGY
SRM INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

21PYB102J –Semiconductor Physics and Computational Methods

Module 2

Lecture 22

1
 Photocurrent in pn junction diode (Photodiode)
What is a photodiode?
❖ Photodiode is a form of light-weight sensor that converts light energy into
electrical voltage or current. Photodiode is a type of semi conducting device
with PN junction. Between the p (positive) and n (negative) layers, an
intrinsic layer is present. The photodiode accepts light energy as input to
generate electric current.
❖ It is also called as photodetector, photosensor or light detector. Photodiode
operates in reverse bias condition i.e., the p- side of the photodiode is
connected to negative terminal of battery (or the power supply) and n- side
to the positive terminal of battery.
❖ Typical photodiode materials are Silicon, Germanium, Indium Gallium
Arsenide Phosphide and Indium gallium arsenide.
❖ Internally, a photodiode has optical filters, built in lens and a surface area.
When surface area of photodiode increases, it results in more response time.
Few photo diodes will look like Light Emitting Diode (LED). It has two
terminals as shown below. The smaller terminal acts as cathode and longer
terminal acts as anode.

2
 Photocurrent in pn junction diode (Photodiode)
❖ In a photodiode, the incident optical signal generates electron-hole pairs that gives rise to a photo
current across PN junction.
❖ When a PN junction is illuminated with light of photon energy (E) greater than Eg, photons are
absorbed in semiconductor and electron-hole pairs are generated both in n-region and p-region of
the junction.
❖ For the electron-hole pair to contribute towards current in external circuit, the generated electron
and holes must be separated before they recombine.
❖ Once electron-hole pairs are generated in the depletion layer, the electric field in the built-in-
potential or contact potential sweeps away the electron and holes in opposite directions.
❖ The photo generated minority carriers which are generated within one diffusion length from the
depletion layer edge, can also diffuse to the depletion region without recombining.

Symbol Circuit Thinfilm Device

3
Photocurrent in pn junction diode (Photodiode)

4
 Working principle of Photodiode

❖ Generally, when a light is made to illuminate the PN junction, covalent bonds are
ionized. This generates hole and electron pairs. Photocurrents are produced due to
generation of electron-hole pairs. Electron hole pairs are formed when photons of energy
more than 1.1eV hits the diode.
❖ When the photon enters the depletion region of diode, it hits the atom with high energy.
❖ This results in release of electron from atom structure. After the electron release, free
electrons and hole are produced.
❖ In general, an electron will have negative charge and holes will have a positive charge.
The depletion energy will have built in electric filed. Due to that electric filed, electron
hole pairs moves away from the junction.
❖ Hence, holes move to anode and electrons move to cathode to produce photo current.
The photon absorption intensity and photon energy are directly proportional to each
other. When energy of photons is less, the absorption will be more. This entire process is
known as Inner Photoelectric Effect.

5
Energy band diagram of Photodiode

6
 Photocurrent in Photodiode

The photocurrent generated in photodiode has three component:

1. Photo generated current in space-charge region
2. Photo generated current in n-region
3. Photo generated current in p-region

If G is the generation rate of excess carrier and A is diode area then photo current,
the excess carrier in depletion region quickly moved by electric field (electron to
n-region and holes to p-region).

7
Photocurrent in Photodiode

8
 Light Emitting Diode (LED) –
Construction and working principle
What is LED?

LED are semiconductor p-n junctions that under forward Semiconductors bring
quality to light!
bias conditions can emit radiation by electroluminescence
in the UV, visible or infrared regions of the electromagnetic
spectrum. The quanta of light energy released is
approximately proportional to the band gap of the
semiconductor.

1
Application of LED

2
 Basics of LED

 A light emitting diode (LED) is essentially a pn junction opto-semiconductor

that emits a monochromatic (single color) light when operated in a forward
biased direction.
 LEDs convert electrical energy into light energy. They are frequently used as
"pilot" lights in electronic appliances to indicate whether the circuit is closed or
not.

3
 Principles of LED

 The p-n junction diode is forward biased. Due to forward bias, the majority
carriers from ‘n’ and ‘p’ regions cross the junction and become minority
carriers in the other junction. That is electrons, which are majority carriers in
‘n’ region cross the junction and go to ‘p’ region and become minority carriers
in p-region.
 Similarly, holes which are majority carries in ‘p’ region cross the junction and
go to ‘n’ region and become minority carriers in ‘n’ region and this
phenomenon is called minority carrier injection.

4
 Radioactive Recombination

 Now, if the biasing voltage is further increased, these excess minority carriers
diffuse away from the junction, and they directly recombine with the majority
carriers. i.e., the electrons, which are excess minority carriers in p-region
recombine with the holes which are the majority carriers in ‘p’ region and emit
light. Similarly, the holes which are excess minority carriers in ‘n’ region
recombine with the electrons which are majority carriers in ‘n’ region and emit
light.

5
 Radioactive Recombination

 Thus, radiative recombination events lead to photon emission. The number of radiative
recombination is proportional to the carrier injection rate and hence to the total current flowing
through the device as given by I I exp  eVkT  1
0

where, I0 - the saturation current; V- the forward bias voltage; k - the Boltzmann constant ;  -
varies from 1 and 2 depending on the semiconductor and temperature.
 The optical photon emitted due to radiative recombination has the energy very close to the bandgap
hc
energy Eg and frequency of the emitted photon is given by   E g , where,  - the photon
wavelength; h – Planck’s constant; c - the velocity of light in vacuum.

6
 Construction of LED

An LED must be constructed such that the light emitted by the radiative
recombination events can escape the structure.

7
Surface Emitting LED

8
Edge Emitting LED

9
Construction of a typical LED

10
 Construction of a typical LED

 LEDs can be designed as either surface or edge emitters. Surface emitting

LEDs can be made such that the bottom edge reflects light back towards
the top surface to enhance the output intensity. The main advantage of
edge emitter LEDs is the emitted radiation is relatively direct. Hence
edge emitter LEDs have a higher efficiency when coupled to optical fiber.
 Although, the internal quantum efficiency of LEDs is 100%, the external
efficiencies are much lower. The main reason is that most of the emitted
light radiation strikes the material interface at greater than critical angle
and hence trapped with in the device. The internal critical angle at the
semiconductor – air boundary is given by sin q  nn
c
2

where n1 is the refractive index of air (1.0), and n2 is the refractive index
of the semiconductor. For group III semiconductor n2 = 3.5; therefore, qc
= 16°
 Therefore, all rays of light striking the surface at an angle exceeding 16°
suffer total internal reflection and as a result most of the emitted light is
reflected inside the semiconductor crystal.

11
Construction of a typical LED

1. Transparent Plastic Case

2. Terminal Pins
3. Diode

12
 Hemispherical Dome Shape

 Hence, to improve the external efficiency losses caused by bulk absorption

must be minimized and the surface transmission must be increased. One
method to achieve this is to give the semiconductor a dome structure.
 Hemi spherical domes made from plastics are effective in increasing the
external efficiency by a factor 2 or 3. There will be some losses at the
plastic/air interface, but these are easily minimized by molding the plastic into
an approximately hemispherical shape.

13
Hemispherical Dome Shape

14
 LED Materials

 The choice of the materials for an LED is decided by the spectral requirements
for a particular application. The most used materials for LEDs are GaP, GaAs
and their related ternary compound GaAsxP1-x.
 The bandgap radiation of GaP, GaAs and GaAsP. GaP which gives a peak at
560 nm is very close to the wavelength of maximum eye response.
 This makes GaP one of the most useful of all visible semiconductor light
sources since in addition to green light both red and other colours can be
produced by appropriate dopants.

Wavelength response of LED materials

15
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS AND NANOTECHNOLOGY
SRM INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

21PYB102J –Semiconductor Physics and Computational Methods

Module 2

Lecture 23

1
 Optoelectronics Integrated Circuits

 Optoelectronic Integrated Circuits (OEICs) which involves monolithic

integration of optical devices (lasers, waveguides) and electronics
(transistors, modulators) devices.
 Optoelectronic Integrated Circuits (OEICs) have numerous applications in
different fields of applied science and engineering due to their advantages
such as high data transmission speed, improved reliability, small size, light
weight and potential low cost.
 Due to these advantages, it is now widely recognized that monolithic OEICs
will play an important role in the field of data processing and transmission.
 An OEIC consists of active and passive components, monolithically
integrated on the same substrate.
 The active components are those components which require the application
of voltage or the passage for current (i.e. they are the components which
must be integrated with electronic circuits).

2
 Optoelectronics Integrated Circuits

 The passive components are those components which do not require electric
signals for their operation.
 Therefore, the active components are lasers, photo detectors, switches,
modulators etc., and the passive components are spectral filters, couplers,
multiplexers, de-multiplexers, lenses etc.

3
 Optoelectronics Integrated Circuits

 Most optical elements should relate to electronic circuitry in an OEIC. It is

reasonable to expect that the progress in optoelectronic device technology
will follow that of silicon-based VLSI technology.
 However, the integration of several optical components on a single substrate
is still a technological challenges.
 Since the technology of monolithic integration of electronic components is
mature, now the task is to select a suitable material, structure and technology,
which can address the challenges, faced by this new technology and can
meet the demands of communication and computing systems.

4
Optoelectronics Integrated Circuits

5
 Organic Light Emitting Diode (OLED)

 A type of LED where emissive electroluminescent layer is a film of organic

compound which emit light in response to an electric current.

Structure of OLED:

 A simple OLED is made of six different layers. On the top and bottom layers
of protective glass or plastic. The top layer is called seal and the bottom layer
is substrate. In between seal and substrate, a negative terminal (cathode) and
positive terminal (anode), and finally between cathode and anode there are
two layers made of organic molecules called emissive layer which produces
light and the conductive layer.

6
 Organic Light Emitting Diode (OLED)

1. Substrate – Clean glass / plastic

2. Anode – Positively charged (Indium Tin Oxide) which ejects holes
3. Organic layer –Emissive and Conductive layers –Polyaniline and
Polyfluorene
4. Cathode – Negatively charged which injects electrons
Conjugated polymers are having characteristics of LED and having energy
gap (Eg) same like semiconductors by doping with p-type/ n-type materials
used for light emission.

7
 Components of OLED

Like an LED, an OLED is a solid-state semiconductor device that is 100

to 500 nanometers thick or about 200 times smaller than a human hair.
OLEDs can have either two layers or three layers of organic material; in
the latter design, the third layer helps transport electrons from the
cathode to the emissive layer.
8
 How does OLED emit light?

OLEDs emit light in a similar manner to LEDs, through a process

called electro phosphorescence.
The process is as follows:

1. The battery or power supply of the device containing the OLED

applies a voltage across the OLED.
2. An electrical current flows from the cathode to the anode through the
organic layers (an electrical current is a flow of electrons). The
cathode gives electrons to the emissive layer of organic molecules.
The anode removes electrons from the conductive layer of organic
molecules. (This is the equivalent to giving electron holes to the
conductive layer.)

9
How does OLED emit light?

10
 How does OLED emit light?

3. At the boundary between the emissive and the conductive layers,

electrons find electron holes. When an electron finds an electron hole,
the electron fills the hole (it falls into an energy level of
the atom that's missing an electron). When this happens, the electron
gives up energy in the form of a photon of light.
4. The OLED emits light.
5. The color of the light depends on the type of organic molecule in the
emissive layer. Manufacturers place several types of organic films on
the same OLED to make color displays.
6. The intensity or brightness of the light depends on the amount of
electrical current applied: the more current, the brighter the light.

11
 Types of OLEDs

 Passive-matrix OLED (PMOLED) – PMOLEDs have strips of cathode,

organic layers and strips of anode. The anode strips are arranged
perpendicular to the cathode strips. The intersections of the cathode and
anode make up the pixels where light is emitted. External circuitry applies
current to selected strips of anode and cathode, determining which pixels get
turned on and which pixels remain off. Again, the brightness of each pixel is
proportional to the amount of applied current.

 PMOLEDs are easy to make, but they consume more power than other types
of OLED, mainly due to the power needed for the external circuitry.
PMOLEDs are most efficient for text and icons and are best suited for small
screens (2- to 3-inch diagonal) such as those you find in cell
phones, Personal Digital Assistants ( PDAs) and MP3 players. Even with
the external circuitry, passive-matrix OLEDs consume less battery power
than the LCDs that currently power these devices.

12
 Types of OLEDs

 Active-matrix OLED (AMOLED) – AMOLEDs have full layers of

cathode, organic molecules and anode, but the anode layer overlays a
thin film transistor (TFT) array that forms a matrix. The TFT array
itself is the circuitry that determines which pixels get turned on to
form an image.
 AMOLEDs consume less power than PMOLEDs because the TFT
array requires less power than external circuitry, so they are efficient
for large displays. AMOLEDs also have faster refresh rates suitable
for video. The best uses for AMOLEDs are computer monitors,
large-screen TVs and electronic signs or billboards.

13
 Types of OLEDs

 Transparent OLED (TOLED) - Transparent OLEDs have only

transparent components (substrate, cathode and anode) and, when
turned off, are up to 85 percent as transparent as their substrate.
When a transparent OLED display is turned on, it allows light to pass
in both directions. A transparent OLED display can be either active-
or passive-matrix. This technology can be used for heads-up
displays.

14
 Types of OLEDs

 Top-emitting OLED (TEOLED) - Top-emitting OLEDs have a

substrate that is either opaque or reflective. They are best suited to
active-matrix design. Manufacturers may use top-emitting OLED
displays in smart cards.

15
 Types of OLEDs

 Foldable OLED (FOLED) - Foldable OLEDs have substrates made

of very flexible metallic foils or plastics. Foldable OLEDs are very
lightweight and durable. Their use in devices such as cell phones and
PDAs can reduce breakage, a major cause for return or repair.
Potentially, foldable OLED displays can be attached to fabrics to
create "smart" clothing, such as outdoor survival clothing with an
integrated computer chip, cell phone, GPS receiver and OLED
display sewn into it.
 White OLED (WOLED) - White OLEDs emit white light that is
brighter, more uniform and more energy efficient than that emitted
by fluorescent lights. White OLEDs also have the true-color qualities
of incandescent lighting. Because OLEDs can be made in large
sheets, they can replace fluorescent lights that are currently used in
homes and buildings. Their use could potentially reduce energy costs
for lighting.

16
 Advantages of OLEDs
The LCD is currently the display of choice in small devices and is also popular
in large-screen TVs. Regular LEDs often form the digits on digital clocks and
other electronic devices. OLEDs offer many advantages over both LCDs and
LEDs:
1. The plastic, organic layers of an OLED are thinner, lighter and more
flexible than the crystalline layers in an LED or LCD.
2. OLEDs are brighter than LEDs. Because the organic layers of an OLED are
much thinner than the corresponding inorganic crystal layers of an LED, the
conductive and emissive layers of an OLED can be multi-layered. Also,
LEDs and LCDs require glass for support, and glass absorbs some light.
OLEDs do not require glass.
3. OLEDs do not require backlighting like LCDs and hence they consume
much less power than LCDs. This is especially important for battery-
operated devices such as cell phones.
4. OLEDs are easier to produce and can be made to larger sizes. Because
OLEDs are essentially plastics, they can be made into large, thin sheets.
5. OLEDs have large fields of view, about 170 degrees. OLEDs produce their
own light, so they have a much wider viewing range.
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 Disadvantages of OLEDs

OLED seems to be the perfect technology for all types of displays, but it also
has some problems:

1. Lifetime - While red and green OLED films have longer lifetimes (46,000
to 230,000 hours), blue organics currently have much shorter lifetimes.

2. Manufacturing - Manufacturing processes are expensive right now.

3. Water - Water can easily damage OLEDs

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 Applications of OLEDs

1. OLEDs are used in small-screen devices such as cell phones,

PDAs and digital cameras.

2. Because OLEDs refresh faster than LCDs -- almost 1,000 times

faster -- a device with an OLED display could change
information almost in real time.

3. Several companies have already built prototype computer

monitors and large-screen TVs that use OLED technology.

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DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS AND NANOTECHNOLOGY
SRM INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

21PYB102J –Semiconductor Physics and Computational Methods

Module 2

Solving Problems (Lecture 24 )

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