INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS

OBJECTIVE:
In this project we shall discuss the role of international organisations after the collapse of the
Soviet Union. We shall examine how, in this emerging world, there were calls for the
restructuring of international organisations to cope with various new challenges including the
rise of US power. We then turn to India’s involvement in the UN and its view of Security
Council reforms. In this project we also look at some other trans-national organisations that
are playing a crucial role.

INTRODUCTION:
An international organization, also known as an intergovernmental organization or an
international institution, is an organization that is established by a treaty or other type of
instrument governed by international law and possesses its own legal personality, such as
the United Nations, the World Health Organization, International Union for Conservation of
Nature, and NATO. International organizations are composed of primarily member states,
but may also include other entities, such as other international organizations, firms, and non-
governmental organizations. Additionally, entities (including states) may hold observer
status. An alternative definition is that an international organization is a stable set of norms
and rules meant to govern the behaviour of states and other actors in the international
system.
Notable examples include the United Nations (UN), Organization for Security and Co-
operation in Europe (OSCE), Bank for International Settlements (BIS), Council of Europe
(COE), International Labour Organization (ILO), International Criminal Court, and
International Criminal Police Organization (INTERPOL).

WHY INTERNATIONAL
ORGANIZATIONS?
International organisations are not the answer to everything, but they are important.
International organisations help with matters of war and peace. They also help countries
cooperate to make better living conditions for us all. Countries have conflicts and differences
with each other. That does not necessarily mean they must go to war to deal with their
antagonisms. They can, instead, discuss contentious issues and find peaceful solutions. An
international organisation is not a super-state with authority over its members. It is created
by and responds to states. It comes into being when states agree to its creation. Once
created, it can help member states resolve their problems peacefully. International
organisations are helpful in another way. Nations can usually see that there are some things
they must do together. There are issues that are so challenging that they can only be dealt
with when everyone works together. Disease and global warming are examples. Of course,
each country can try to find its own solution to these problems. But in the end a more
effective approach is to stop the crisis. This requires at least all of the major industrial
powers to cooperate. Unfortunately, recognising the need for cooperation and actually
cooperating are two different things. Nations can recognise the need to cooperate but cannot
always agree on how best to do so, how to share the costs of cooperating, how to make sure
that the benefits of cooperating are justly divided, and how to ensure that others do not
break their end of the bargain and cheat on an agreement. An international organisation can
help produce information and ideas about how to cooperate. It can provide mechanisms,
rules and a bureaucracy, to help members have more confidence that costs will be shared
properly, that the benefits government.

UN- UNITED NATIONS

“One place where the world's nations can gather
together, discuss common problems and find shared
solutions.”
The United Nations is a diplomatic and political international organization founded in 1945.
whose stated purposes are to maintain international peace and security, develop friendly
relations among nations, achieve international cooperation, and serve as a centre for
harmonizing the actions of nations. It is the world's largest international organization. Currently
made up of 193 Member States, the UN and its work are guided by the purposes and
principles contained in its founding Charter.
The UN is headquartered in New York City, in international territory with certain
privileges extraterritorial to the United States, and the UN has other offices
in Geneva, Nairobi, Vienna, and The Hague, where the International Court of Justice is
headquartered at the Peace Palace.

The UN has evolved over the years to keep pace with a rapidly changing world.
But one thing has stayed the same: it remains the one place on Earth where all the world’s
nations can gather together, discuss common problems, and find shared solutions that
benefit all of humanity.
The UN’s most visible public figure, and the representative head, is the Secretary-General.
The present Secretary-General is António Guterres. He is the ninth Secretary-General of the
UN. He took over as the Secretary-general on 1 January 2017. He was the Prime Minister of
Portugal (1995-2002) and the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (2005-2015)

HISTORY OF THE UN
1. league of nations
The First World War encouraged the world to invest in an international organisation to deal
with conflict. During World War I, several major leaders, especially U.S. President Woodrow
Wilson, advocated for a world body to guarantee peace. The winners of the war, the Allies,
met to decide on formal peace terms at the Paris Peace Conference. The League of
Nations was approved, and started operations, but the United States never joined. On 10
January 1920, the League of Nations formally came into being when the Covenant of the
League of Nations, ratified by 42 nations in 1919, took effect. The League Council acted as
an executive body directing the Assembly's business. It began with four permanent members
—the United Kingdom, France, Italy, and Japan. However, despite its initial success, it could
not prevent the Second World War (1939-45).
2. World War II
The first step towards the establishment of the United Nations was the Inter-Allied
Conference that led to the Declaration of St James's Palace on 12 June 1941. By August
1941, American President Franklin Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston
Churchill had drafted the Atlantic Charter; which defined goals for the post-war world. The
new international organisation was formulated and negotiated amongst the delegations from
the Allied Big Four at the Dumbarton Oaks Conference from 21 September to 7 October 1944.
They agreed on proposals for the aims, structure and functioning of the new organization. It took
the conference at Yalta in February 1945, and further negotiations with the Soviet Union, before
all the issues were resolved.

3. Founding
The UN was founded as a successor to the League of Nations. It was established in 1945
immediately after the Second World War. The organisation was set up through the signing of
the United Nations Charter by 51 states. It tried to achieve what the League could not
between the two world wars. The UN’s objective is to prevent international conflict and to
facilitate cooperation among states. It was founded with the hope that it would act to stop the
conflicts between states escalating into war and, if war broke out, to limit the extent of
hostilities. Furthermore, since conflicts often arose from the lack of social and economic
development, the UN was intended to bring countries together to improve the prospects of
social and economic development all over the world. By 2011, the UN had 193 member
states.
Timeline
1941 August: Signing of the Atlantic Charter by the US President Franklin D. Roosevelt and
British PM Winston Churchill
1942 January: 26 Allied nations fighting against the Axis Powers meet in Washington, D.C.,
to support the Atlantic Charter and sign the ‘Declaration by United Nations’
1943 December: Tehran Conference Declaration of the Three Powers (US, Britain and
Soviet Union)
1945 February: Yalta Conference of the ‘Big Three’ (Roosevelt, Churchill and Stalin) decides
to organise a United Nations conference on the proposed world organisation
April-May: The 2-month long United Nations Conference on International Organisation at
San Francisco
1945 June 26: Signing of the UN Charter by 50 nations (Poland signed on October 15; so,
the UN has 51 original founding members)
1945 October 24: the UN was founded (hence October 24 is celebrated as UN Day)
1945 October 30: India joins the UN

SIX PRINCIPLE ORGANS OF THE UN

The United Nations (UN) has six principal organs, each with distinct roles and
responsibilities designed to address various aspects of international relations, security, law,
and development. Here's an overview of each organ:

1. General Assembly (GA)

- Role: The General Assembly is the main deliberative, policymaking, and
representative body of the UN, comprising all 193 member states, each with
one vote.
 - Functions: It discusses and makes recommendations on international issues,
approves the UN budget, and appoints non-permanent members to the
Security Council and other bodies.
- Special Features: The GA can address any issue within the scope of the UN
Charter, though its resolutions are generally non-binding.

2. Security Council (SC)

- Role: The Security Council is responsible for maintaining international peace
and security. It has 15 members, including five permanent members (the P5
China, France, Russia, the UK, and the USA) with veto power.
- Functions: It can impose sanctions, authorize the use of force, and establish
peacekeeping operations.
- Special Features: Unlike other organs, the SC can make binding decisions
that member states are obligated to comply with.

3. International Court of Justice (ICJ)

- Role: Also known as the World Court, the ICJ is the principal judicial organ of
the UN, located in The Hague, Netherlands.
- Functions: It settles legal disputes between states according to international
law and gives advisory opinions on legal questions referred to it by other UN
organs and specialized agencies.
- Special Features: Only states (not individuals or organizations) can be parties
in cases before the ICJ.

4. Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)

- Role: ECOSOC coordinates the UN’s economic, social, and environmental
work, acting as a central platform for discussing international economic and
social issues and formulating policy recommendations.
- Functions: It oversees numerous commissions and specialized agencies
dealing with issues like health, education, and human rights.
- Special Features: ECOSOC plays a key role in achieving internationally
agreed development goals, such as the Sustainable Development Goals
(SDGs).

5. Trusteeship Council
- Role: Established to oversee the administration of trust territories and ensure
that their inhabitants were prepared for self-government and independence.
- Functions: It supervised the administration of these territories to promote their
advancement.
- Special Features: The Trusteeship Council suspended operations in 1994
after the last trust territory, Palau, gained independence. It currently exists in
a dormant state and meets as needed.

6. Secretariat
 - Role: The Secretariat carries out the day-to-day work of the UN, servicing the
other organs and administering the programs and policies laid out by them.
- Functions: Led by the Secretary-General, the Secretariat manages the UN’s
peacekeeping operations, mediates international disputes, and provides
studies and information on global issues.
- Special Features: The Secretary-General, the head of the Secretariat, is often
seen as the face of the UN, playing a significant diplomatic role in global
affairs.

These six organs together ensure that the UN can fulfill its broad mandate to promote peace,
security, social progress, and cooperation among nations.

REFORM OF THE UN AFTER THE COLD

WAR
After the Cold War, the United Nations underwent several reforms to address new global
challenges and improve its efficiency and effectiveness.
Two basic kinds of reforms that the UN faced:
1. reform of the organisation’s structures and processes;
2. a review of the issues that fall within the jurisdiction of the organisation.
Almost everyone is agreed that both aspects of reform are necessary. What they cannot
agree on is precisely what is to be done, how it is to be done, and when it is to be done.
On the reform of structures and processes, the biggest discussion has been on the
functioning of the Security Council.
 Expansion Proposals: There were discussions about expanding the Security
Council to include more permanent and non-permanent members to reflect the
changing global power dynamics. In particular, there are proposals to increase
membership from Asia, Africa and South America.
 Veto Power Debate: Calls were made to limit or regulate the use of veto power by
the permanent members which often paralyzed decision-making.
On the issues to be given greater priority or to be brought within the jurisdiction of the UN,
Some countries and experts want the organisation to play a greater or more effective role in
peace and security missions, while others want its role to be confined to development and
humanitarian work (health, education, environment, population control, human rights, gender
and social justice).
The UN was established in 1945, reflecting the world politics of the post-Second World War
era. After the Cold War, the global political landscape changed, making those initial
structures and functions less aligned with the new realities. The new realities were as follow:
1. The Soviet Union has collapsed.
2. The US is the strongest power.
 3. The relationship between Russia, the successor to the Soviet Union, and the US is
much more cooperative.
4. China is fast emerging as a great power, and India also is growing rapidly.
5. The economies of Asia are growing at an unprecedented rate.
6. Many new countries have joined the UN (as they became independent from the
Soviet Union or former communist states in eastern Europe).
7. A whole new set of challenges confronts the world (genocide, civil war, ethnic conflict,
terrorism, nuclear proliferation, climate change, environmental degradation,
epidemics).

REFORM OF STRUCTURES AND

PROCESSES
While the case for reform has widespread support, getting agreement on what to do is
difficult.
In 1992, the UN General Assembly adopted a resolution highlighting three main complaints
about the UN Security Council:
1. The Security Council no longer represents contemporary political realities.
2. Its decisions reflect only Western values and interests and are dominated by a few
powers.
3. It lacks equitable representation.
In view of these growing demands for the restructuring of the UN, on 1 January 1997, the
UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan initiated an inquiry into how the UN should be reformed
Since the proposal for reforming the UN Security Council, several criteria have been
suggested for selecting new permanent and non-permanent members. A new member
should ideally be:
1. A major economic power
2. A major military power
3. A substantial contributor to the UN budget
4. A big nation in terms of its population
5. A nation that respects democracy and human rights
6. A country that would make the Council more representative of the world’s diversity in
terms of geography, economic systems, and culture
The proposed criteria for new UN Security Council members are controversial and complex,
with each having its own merits and drawbacks depending on national interests. Questions
arise regarding the qualifications needed: Should economic or military power, population
size, or respect for democracy and human rights determine membership? Concerns also
surround equitable representation: Should seats be allocated by geography, economic
development, or cultural representation? The challenge lies in defining what constitutes
adequate representation—by continents, regions, or cultures—given the diversity within and
across nations. Even within the developing world, significant variations in development levels
complicate fair representation. Thus, no clear consensus exists on how to best balance the
Council’s composition, reflecting the difficulty in reforming an institution meant to represent a
diverse and evolving global landscape.

VETO POWER
The Security Council consists of five permanent members and ten non-permanent members.
The permanent members were granted a special status by the UN Charter to help maintain
global stability after World War II, with their main privileges being permanent seats and veto
power. Non-permanent members serve two-year terms and must step down afterward,
allowing new countries to be elected. A country cannot be re-elected immediately after
completing its term. Non-permanent members are chosen to ensure representation from all
continents around the world.
The word veto means to reject a proposal or decision. Veto power is the power to cast a
negative vote. Its significant importance is to cast a negative vote against any substantive
resolution in the UN council by the permanent member and also by the President of a
country in their parliament.
The Security Council makes decisions through voting, with each member having one vote.
However, the permanent members have the unique ability to cast a negative vote, known as
a veto. This means that even if all other permanent and non-permanent members vote in
favour of a decision, a single negative vote from any permanent member can block the
decision from being passed.
While there has been a move to abolish or modify the veto system, there is also a realisation
that the permanent members are unlikely to agree to such a reform.

JURISDICTION OF THE UN
The issue of UN membership is significant, but broader global concerns also demand
attention. As the UN marked its 60th anniversary in 2005, world leaders gathered to
celebrate and assess the organization's role. During this meeting, they agreed on steps to
reform and make the UN more relevant in the evolving global landscape.
1. Creation of a Peacebuilding Commission
2. Acceptance of the responsibility of the international community in case of failures of
national governments to protect their own citizens from atrocities
3. Establishment of a Human Rights Council (operational since 19 June 2006)
4. Agreements to achieve the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)
5. Condemnation of terrorism in all its forms and manifestations
6. Creation of a Democracy
7. Fund An agreement to wind up the Trusteeship Council
The UN faces several contentious issues that challenge its effectiveness. For instance, the
role of the Peacebuilding Commission is debated: with numerous global conflicts, it is
unclear which conflicts warrant intervention and whether intervening in all is feasible or
desirable. Questions also arise about the international community’s responsibility in
addressing atrocities, defining human rights violations, and determining the appropriate
responses. Achieving ambitious goals like the Sustainable Development Goals is particularly
challenging given the diverse development levels among member states. Defining terrorism
remains a divisive issue, as does the use of UN funds to promote democracy. These
complex questions reflect broader concerns about the UN’s capacity to address diverse and
often conflicting international priorities, highlighting the difficulties in building consensus on
global governance matters.

INDIA AND THE UN REFORMS

India has been a strong advocate for comprehensive reforms of the United Nations,
particularly the Security Council, to make it more representative, transparent, and effective.
Here’s a summary of India’s position and role in pushing for UN reforms:
1. Push for Security Council Reform
 Permanent Membership: India seeks a permanent seat on the Security Council,
arguing that the current structure, established post-World War II, no longer reflects
global realities. India emphasizes its large population, growing economic power, and
significant contributions to UN peacekeeping missions as justifications for inclusion.
 G4 Coalition: India, along with Germany, Japan, and Brazil, forms the G4 group,
which supports each other's bids for permanent seats and pushes for broader
Security Council reform.
2. Advocacy for Representation of Developing Countries
 Equitable Representation: India argues that the Security Council must better
represent the Global South, including Asia, Africa, and Latin America, to address
issues relevant to developing nations.
 Voice for the Global South: India consistently highlights that the concerns of
developing countries are often sidelined and calls for reforms to address this
imbalance.
3. Criticism of Veto Power
 India has questioned the legitimacy of veto power held by the permanent members,
which often paralyzes decision-making. It has called for a review and restructuring of
the veto system to prevent misuse.
4. Commitment to Peacekeeping and Global Governance
 Peacekeeping Contributions: India is one of the largest contributors to UN
peacekeeping forces, reinforcing its argument that it plays a crucial role in
maintaining global peace and security.
 Support for SDGs: India actively supports the Sustainable Development Goals and
calls for increased UN support to developing nations in achieving these targets.
5. Broader UN Reforms
 Administrative Efficiency: India advocates for administrative reforms to enhance
the efficiency and transparency of the UN, including better resource management
and accountability.
 Counter-Terrorism: India has called for a clear and universally accepted definition of
terrorism, emphasizing that terrorism is a major threat to global peace and stability.
India’s advocacy reflects its aspiration to play a larger role on the global stage and its
commitment to a more inclusive, representative, and effective United Nations.

INDIA AS A PERMANENT MEMBER

India’s bid for permanent membership in the UN Security Council is driven by its desire to
reshape the global governance structure to better reflect current geopolitical realities. Here
are the key reasons and arguments supporting India's case for becoming a permanent
member:
1. Largest Democracy and Population
 Demographic Significance: India is the world’s most populous country and the
largest democracy, representing nearly one-sixth of humanity. Its inclusion would
make the Security Council more representative of the global population.
2. Economic Powerhouse
 Growing Economy: India is one of the world’s fastest-growing major economies and
a significant player in global trade, technology, and investment. Its economic clout
enhances its case for permanent membership.
3. Key Contributor to Global Peace and Security
 Peacekeeping Role: India is among the top contributors to UN peacekeeping
missions, showcasing its commitment to maintaining international peace and stability.
 Responsible Nuclear Power: As a nuclear-armed state with a strong non-
proliferation record, India adheres to global security norms and has called for
responsible use of nuclear technology.
4. Strong Advocate for Developing Nations
 Voice of the Global South: India consistently represents the interests of developing
countries, advocating for equitable global governance, fair economic policies, and
addressing issues like climate change and sustainable development.
5. Proven Diplomatic and Strategic Capabilities
 Active in Global Forums: India is actively involved in major international forums like
G20, BRICS, and the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO), playing a key role
in addressing global issues.
 Conflict Resolution: India’s long-standing tradition of non-alignment and strategic
autonomy positions it as a balanced and independent actor on the world stage.
6. Strong Support from G4 Nations
 India’s membership bid is backed by the G4 (Germany, Japan, Brazil, and India),
who collectively advocate for Security Council reform and expanded permanent
membership.
Challenges to India’s Bid
 Resistance from Current Permanent Members: Some P5 members, particularly
China, have been resistant to India’s inclusion, often due to geopolitical rivalries.
 Consensus Among Member States: Achieving broad-based agreement among the
193 UN member states on Security Council reform remains a complex diplomatic
challenge.
India’s case for permanent membership is rooted in its demographic, economic, and
strategic strengths, as well as its commitment to global peace and representing the
developing world. However, geopolitical dynamics and the current structure of the UN pose
significant hurdles to its ambitions.
India’s bid for permanent membership in the UN Security Council faces opposition from
several countries. Concerns include India’s nuclear capabilities and its ongoing tensions with
Pakistan, which some fear could hinder its effectiveness. Additionally, there is apprehension
that admitting India would set a precedent, prompting demands for other emerging powers
like Brazil, Germany, Japan, and South Africa to be included, which some nations oppose.
There is also a push for Africa and South America to gain representation in an expanded
Council. These complex geopolitical concerns make India’s path to permanent membership
challenging in the near future.

THE UN IN A UNIPOLAR WORLD

Among the concerns about the reform and restructuring of the UN has been the hope of
some countries that changes could help the UN cope better with a unipolar word in which the
US was the most powerful country without any serious rivals
With the US as the world’s biggest power, the issue arises as to whether the UN can balance
the US’s global hegemony. With unrivalled economic and military might, the US can afford to
overlook the UN and also wield immense economic and administrative influence inside the
organisation
Following the collapse of the Soviet Union, the globe became a unipolar world. However,
analysts from throughout the globe believe that America’s unipolar era is drawing to a close
The United States wields significant influence within the UN. As the largest financial
contributor, it holds substantial economic leverage. The UN’s location in the U.S. further
enhances Washington’s influence, along with having numerous U.S. nationals within the UN
bureaucracy. With its veto power, the U.S. can block decisions that threaten its interests or
those of its allies. This veto also allows the U.S. to influence the selection of the UN
Secretary-General. The U.S. often uses its power to divide other member states and
minimize opposition to its policies.
The UN, while not a strong counterbalance to U.S. dominance, plays a crucial role in
facilitating dialogue between the U.S. and other nations. Despite criticisms, U.S. leaders
acknowledge the UN's value in addressing global conflicts and development issues. For the
rest of the world, the UN offers a platform to influence U.S. policies, voice opposition, and
negotiate compromises, even if fully balancing U.S. power remains unlikely.

OTHER AGENCIES OF THE UN

1. World Bank
The World Bank was created during the Second World War in 1944. Its activities are
focused on the developing countries. It works for human development (education,
health), agriculture and rural development (irrigation, rural services), environmental
protection (pollution reduction, establishing and enforcing regulations), infrastructure
(roads, urban regeneration, electricity) and governance (anti-corruption, development
of legal institutions). It provides loans and grants to the member-countries. In this
way, it exercises enormous influence on the economic policies of developing
countries. It is often criticised for setting the economic agenda of the poorer nations,
attaching stringent conditions to its loans and forcing free market reforms
2. IMF
The International Monetary Fund (IMF) is an international organisation that oversees
those financial institutions and regulations that act at the international level. The IMF
has 190 member countries (as on 19 February 2024) but they do not enjoy an equal
 say. The G-7 members US (16.52%), Japan (6.15%), Germany (5.32%), France
(4.03%), UK (4.03%), Italy (3.02%) and Canada (2.22%) have 41.29% of the votes.
China (6.09%), India (2.64%), Russia (2.59%) Brazil (2.22%) and Saudi Arabia
(2.02%) are the other major members.
3. WTO
The World Trade Organisation (WTO) is an international organisation which sets the
rules for global trade. This organisation was set up in 1995 as the successor to the
General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs (GATT) created after the Second World War.
It has 164 members (as on 29 July 2016). All decisions are taken unanimously but
the major economic powers such as the US, EU and Japan have managed to use the
WTO to frame rules of trade to advance their own interests. The developing countries
often complain of non-transparent procedures and being pushed around by big
powers.
4. IAEA
The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) was established in 1957. It came into
being to implement US President Dwight Eisenhower’s “Atoms for Peace” proposal.
It seeks to promote the peaceful use of nuclear energy and to prevent its use for
military purposes. IAEA teams regularly inspect nuclear facilities all over the world to
ensure that civilian reactors are not being used for military purposes.
5. Amnesty International
Amnesty International is an NGO that campaigns for the protection of human rights
all over the world. It promotes respect for all the human rights in the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights. It believes that human rights are interdependent and
indivisible. It prepares and publishes reports on human rights. Governments are not
always happy with these reports since a major focus of Amnesty is the misconduct of
government authorities. Nevertheless, these reports play an important role in
research and advocacy on human rights.
6. Human Rights Watch
Human Rights Watch is another international NGO involved in research and
advocacy on human rights. It is the largest international human rights organisation in
the US. It draws the global media’s attention to human rights abuses. It helped in
building international coalitions like the campaigns to ban landmines, to stop the use
of child soldiers and to establish the International Criminal Court.

CONCLUSION
The UN, despite its imperfections, is essential for global stability. As technology enhances
planetary interdependence, the role of the UN becomes increasingly crucial for managing
the complex interactions among over seven billion people. The UN provides a necessary
framework for cooperation and conflict resolution in a connected world. To address global
challenges effectively, nations must support and utilize the UN and other international
organizations in ways that align with both their own interests and the broader needs of the
international community.