9.
Euclidean amd Factorization Domains
421
t
a(ax + b}+* ta.(ax
+ b)"
ax + b)
=
then a
0
Since Aax + b) =0, we'll get a,a" =
and as a 0 , a,= 0
So Jx) =Go+ a,rt +a,_
Proceeding as above, we find a, 0, Vi =
fx) = 0 Kera = {0}
ois One one
Again, for any t) e Qla), Since fa* -
a'b) e Qx]
and as o ( a ' r - a b)) = Aa (ax + b) - ab) = Sx)
o is onto and hence it is an automorphism.
(i) Let now o: Q¥] QF] ring automorphism, then be a
t
ao() +a,(a() +*
+ a,(o()"
a a+at..ta)G t a,o () + + a,o (¥)
Notice that
aso)-I o=I ie, o-
So
known if a(x) is known
Now a is completely
Suppose
FCotX(C +Cx+ + cx
a x) can be put in the form
Thus
xg(*) + b, where gt*) e Q[r], b e Q
a )=
a is onto, both g(r) and x have pre images in Qr].
Since
Let g)= a (h).
a(h) p(x) + b) as o(b) =b
o ) oh(x))o (p(«) +b
=
=
Then
As o is 1-1, we get
x = hr)p(r) +b
d e g x = deg (hr)p() + b) = deg hr) + deg p(«)
ie., 1 = deg h(r) + deg p(r)
0
either deg h(r) =
1 and deg p) =
0 and deg p(r) =
1
or deg h) =
0, then p(x) is constant poly, say c e Q and so x =
ap(r) =
o (c) =
c
If deg p(a) =
a contradiction.
Thus deg pt)= 1 and deg h(r) 0, =
Let hx) =
a, then a e Q, a # 0, as h(r) is not a zero polynomial
A Course in Abstract
422 Algebrg
otherwise alsoa = 0 r =b which is not truc.
Now o r ) = o (h(r)p(x) + b)
gives o thma(p) + ob)
o(r) = o (a)x + b = ax +b, a, be Q, a^0
Hence for any x) e QF)
o
+ b), x)) Aax
a, be Q, a^0
=
oat any automorphism oof the ring Q] is of the form o (x) = J{ax + b), 4,b e Q
0
KEemark: If we are in Z[x], then a = +1 as a is invertible. Thus only ring automorphism or
Z} would be o
(fx) =ftx +b), be Z.
Theorem 13: 1f F is a
field, then Flx]
Euclidean domain. is a
Proof: We have seen that
Flx] an integral domain with unity.
is
For any
S) e Fxl. ft) # 0, define
df()) deg f(*) =
which is non ve integer
Since, for any
-
S). g0) e Flr, s), g) * 0
deg f) g) deg s(r) + =
we get deg gr)
deg (f() deg
(f)g), deg (g) 2 0
as
Lastly, we show for any non zero
f(), g{*)
F}. 3 (x) and r(*) in in FE| such that
where either r(x) is ro)
zero or
If
deg r(r) < deg g(r)
deg f) < deg gt)
then
S) 0. g) + f) =
Assume now the result is true for
gives the result.
Sx) all (non
zero) polynomials in F]r] of deg. less than deg
Let
J) =a, t+ at +
a
g)= b +
Suppose deg S) 2 deg g) b,x +
+
b"
Define
then coefficient
S)=f)- ab " gt)
of x" in
S) is
mm.b, = a a= 0
either )=0 (zero polynomial) or
If
st) =
0, then deg S) < m
0=f)- amb"" g(r)
gives
S) =
a,b,'>"-" g(t) +0
So by taking t(x) =
ab and r(x) =
0 we
get the required result.
9.Euclideam amd Factorization Domains 423
Suppose J ) # 0,
then deg ) < m
1.e., deg t ) < deg /(X)
By induction hypothesis
) = 1 , ) g ) + r(x)
where either rle) = 0 or deg rl) < deg g )
f ) - a b " - "g ) = 4 ) 8 ) + r )
or
) g ) + r)
where either r(x) = 0 or deg r(*) < deg g(«)
and hence Fx] is a Euclidean domain (and also, therefore, a PID)
Euclidean domain which is not a field.
Remarks: () Thus Qk] is a
i) One canshow that the above defined () r(x) unique. and are
+ r() where either r() =0 or deg r < deg g
Suppose f() t() g()
=
fo) = r(«) g) + r ) where either r(*) = 0 or deg < deg g
and
t() g ) + r ( ) = r ) g ) + r(t)
then
P-r ..(1)
-)
=
8
Suppose t() * "()
then t-f 0 and thus has degree 20
d e g (g(t - ) ) = deg ( - )
(1)
d e g g tdeg (t - ) = deg ( - r) .2)
Also since g(t - t) has positive degree (2 n), r' - r cannot be zero, otherwise
polynomial, its degree cannot be 2 n.
gt- ) would be a constant so
- r cannot be zero = both r and r cannot be zero together.
Now L.H.S. of (2) is greater than or equal to deg g
whereas R.H.S. of (2) is S max (deg r, deg r) < deg g
as if both r, P are non zero then deg r < deg g
deg deg8 8
m a x (deg r, deg r) < deg g
If one of r, r is zero, the other has deg less than deg g. In any case R.H.S. < deg g,
which is a contradiction.
Thus - t= 0 t = '
. (1) r=r.
Hence the uniqueness is established.
IfF is a field then Fa) being a Euclidean domain will be a PID. Hence we can state
Theorem 14: IfF is a field, every ideal in Fle] is principal
A Course in Abstract
gebra
424
IhenI =
g)>
¬ P|").
ideal in Fr] and g(x)
roblem Fbe field andI
14: Let a
im .
a non zero
g ( ) is non polynomial ofminimal degree
zero
(def. of 1deal)
Solution: Let g(r) ¬ / be of minimal degree then < gr)>
Euclidean domain, for flr), g{r) E H{E), 3 q)
F| be any element, since FJx] is a
r(x) ¬ F[x], s.t.,
J) qr)g(r) + r(x), where either r(x) =
0 or deg r(r) <
deg g{r)
If
r) 0, then deg r < deg g and as r(x) =x) - 8()4() ¬
we gel a contradiction as g(x) is of minimal degree in
I
Hence r(x) = 0
Mr) = g{)g(r) =>S*)E <g{)>
or that
Ic g) >
and thus
I= <g) >
Converselhy, Let I= <g(t) >
If A) e I be any member then sx) =
g(h()
deg fo) = deg gt) + deg hr)
deg g) s deg t) as deg h(r) 2 0
or that g) is of minimal
degree.
Problem 15: 1fR is the field
of reals show that R[x] =C, the ring of complex numbers.
<x+1>
Solution: Define a
mapping
: R[r] C, st.,
: C) =f),
Then o is easily seen to be an onto
homomorphism, homomorphism and thus by Fundamental theorem of
ring
C Rx
Ker
Let
Sx) e Ker o be any member
where
Je) =
at a,t + a,x"
*
Then )) = 0
1.e., t a,it +ai" =0
Iffx) is
polynomial of Ist degree then it is of the
a
thus in that case p
type ax + b, where a * 0
({c)) ai + b#0 as a #0
=
i
i h
A Course n Absiract Algebr.
426
f (x)) + e(g(r)
/)g(r)) Ac t
cr t c t.)
(ctA) t (C, t A)xt
(a,htA) +
(a,b +
a,b, t Axt +
+ [a,b, t A)
+ (a,h, + A)]r
(a, +
A)(b, t A)
(a +A) (b,+A) + A)]r+.
a,tA) (b, A)
+ (a, t A) (6, +
AIso S(r)) B(g(r)= |(a, A) + (a, t A)x + . 6 , t A) t..
(a, + A) (b A) + l(a, t A) (b + A) + (a, + A) (6, A)x
i s a homomorphism.
Fundamental theorem
hat & is onto is evident from the definition of e and hence by
RKer
Now S ) e Ker 0 » (Sx) = (0 + A) + (0+ A) x +.
( a , t A) + (a, A) x t ( 0 + A) + (0 + A) x+.
a , t A =A for all i
a,eA for all i
Hencc Rx
A
Finally, let A be a prime idcal of R.
R
Then is an integral domain
l is an integral domain
RIx] is
Ax]
an
intcgral domal, because of the
isomorphism
Ar] is a prime ideal of R[»
Remarks: () ll is clear then if A is an ideal of a ring R then
(Kernels are ideals). A[x| is an deal of R[«]
i) IfA is maximial ideal
of Rthen RIA is a ficld r} is not a ficld
A i
A[x
s not a ficld
Alx] is not maximal ideal
of R[«]. (Sec exercise 20 on
page 471).
Problem 17: Show that where I=< r'txlis not an
integral domain
Solution: (r + 2) + l e Zal|
9 Euclidean and Factorization Domains
427
and (r+ 2)+ D =(x+2+I =(r*+1. x+ )+I
= I = zero of
but (r + 2) +I is not zero of
Hence i s not an integral domain.
I domain. So
Notice 3 being prime, Z, integral domain and thus Z,lal is also an integral
is an
we discussed earlier
quotient ring of an integral domain may not be an integral domain, a result
also. (See page 356).
Theorem 15: For any commutative ring R with unity. in R.
Proof: Define a map 6: R\r] > R, s.t.,
(a+ ax + t a r ) = a,
then 6 is clearly well defined. Also
6Ia, +art ta) +(6, +br* t b")
Ol(a, +b)+ (a, +b,x+
atb= 6(a, +a,x+ +
a,") +
8(b, + b,x +
Similarly the result for product follows.
Thus 6 is a homomorphism which is clearly onto. By Fundamental theorem, we get
R R
Ker
Let a EKer 6
0
6a, t a,rt t ax) =
S ) = r la, t a +
+a =xh{r)
ft) e <r>
Hence Ker 6= <*> which proves our result.
Remark: If Z be the ring of integers then <r> is a prime but not maximal ideal
of Zr
By theorem 15, z
Since Z is an integral domain, so would be Zx and thus <r> is a prime ideal
If<r> is maximal ideal of Z{r] then will be a field implying that Z is a ficld which
is not true. Hence < r> is not maximal. See also problems 20 and 21 ahcad
