HSB Notes Form 5
1. DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid): A molecule that carries the genetic instructions used in
the growth, development, functioning, and reproduction of all living organisms and many
viruses. DNA is composed of two strands that coil around each other to form a double
helix.
2. Genes: Units of heredity made up of DNA that contain the instructions for building
proteins, which carry out various functions in a cell. Genes determine inherited traits and
are passed from parents to offspring.
3. Chromosomes: Thread-like structures made of DNA and proteins found in the nucleus of
most living cells. Chromosomes carry genetic information in the form of genes. Humans
typically have 46 chromosomes, arranged in 23 pairs.
4. Homologous Chromosomes: Pairs of chromosomes that are similar in shape, size, and
genetic content. One chromosome of each pair comes from each parent. Homologous
chromosomes contain the same genes in the same order but may have different alleles.
5. Haploid: A cell that contains a single set of chromosomes (n). In humans, gametes (sperm
and egg cells) are haploid and have 23 chromosomes.
6. Diploid: A cell that contains two complete sets of chromosomes (2n), one set inherited
from each parent. In humans, most body cells are diploid, with 46 chromosomes.
Mitosis
Mitosis is a type of cell division that results in the formation of two
daughter cells, each with the same number and kind of chromosomes
as the parent.
The entire process of mitosis can be broken down into several distinct stages:
1. Interphase: Though technically not part of mitosis, during interphase, the cell prepares for
division. The DNA is replicated so that each chromosome consists of two identical sister
chromatids.
2. Prophase: The chromatin (loose DNA) condenses into visible chromosomes. Each
chromosome consists of two sister chromatids joined by a centromere. The nuclear membrane
starts to break down, and spindle fibers begin to form from the centrosomes.
3. Metaphase: The chromosomes align at the cell's equatorial plate, guided by the spindle fibers.
This ensures that when the chromosomes are separated, each daughter cell will receive an
identical set of chromosomes.
4. Anaphase: The sister chromatids are pulled apart to opposite poles of the cell by the shortening
of the spindle fibers. Each chromatid is now considered an individual chromosome.
5. Telophase: The separated chromosomes reach the opposite poles, and new nuclear membranes
form around each set of chromosomes. The chromosomes begin to de-condense back into
chromatin.
6. Cytokinesis: This process occurs after telophase and involves the division of the cytoplasm,
resulting in two distinct daughter cells. Each daughter cell contains a complete set of
chromosomes identical to the parent cell.
Meiosis
Meiosis is a type of cell division that results in the formation of four daughter cells, each with
half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell. Gametes/ sex cells/ egg/ova/ovum/ sperms/
spermatozoa are terms that can be used interchangeably and are produced by meiosis.
Meiosis occurs in two distinct stages: Meiosis I and Meiosis II. It ensures genetic diversity and
maintains the stability of the species' chromosome number across generations.
1. Meiosis I: Reduction Division
This phase reduces the chromosome number by half.
Prophase I: Chromosomes condense and become visible. Homologous chromosomes (pairs of
similar chromosomes from each parent) pair up in a process called synapsis. During this stage,
crossing over occurs, where segments of genetic material are exchanged between homologous
chromosomes, creating new combinations of genes.
Metaphase I: The homologous pairs of chromosomes align along the cell's equatorial plate. Each
pair is oriented so that one chromosome faces each pole of the cell.
Anaphase I: Homologous chromosomes (not sister chromatids) are pulled apart to opposite poles
by the spindle fibers. This is where the chromosome number is halved, as only one chromosome
from each pair moves to each pole.
Telophase I and Cytokinesis: The separated homologous chromosomes reach the poles, and the
cell divides into two. Each daughter cell now has half the number of chromosomes, but each
chromosome still consists of two sister chromatids.
2. Meiosis II: Division of Sister Chromatids
Meiosis II is similar to mitosis, but it involves the two cells produced from Meiosis I.
Prophase II: The chromosomes condense again, and a new spindle apparatus forms in each
daughter cell.
Metaphase II: The chromosomes (still consisting of two sister chromatids) align along the
equatorial plate in each daughter cell.
Anaphase II: The sister chromatids are pulled apart to opposite poles of each cell by the spindle
fibers. Now, each chromatid becomes an individual chromosome.
Telophase II and Cytokinesis: The separated chromatids reach the poles, and both cells divide,
producing a total of four haploid daughter cells. Each of these cells has a unique combination of
chromosomes due to crossing over and the random assortment of chromosomes during
metaphase I.
