Air, Water and Soil Pollution

UNIT 3 WATER POLLUTION

Structure
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Objectives
3.2 Physico-Chemical and Biological Parameters of Water
3.3 Types of Water Pollutants
3.3.1 Industrial Water Pollutants
3.3.2 Pollutants from Food Processing Industry
3.3.3 Pollutants from Petrochemical Industry
3.3.4 Pollutants from Textile Industry
3.3.6 Pollutants from Tanning Industry
3.3.6 Pollutants from Paper and Pulp Industry
3.3.7 Water Pollutants due to Agrochemicals
3.3.8 Sewage Water Pollutants

3.4 Sewage Treatment Methods

3.5 Role of the Government
3.6 Key Words
3.7 Let Us Sum Up
3.8 References and Suggested Further Readings
3.9 Answers to Check Your Progress

3.0 INTRODUCTION
Water pollution can be defined as the presence of any solid, liquid, gaseous material
and the heat generated contaminants in such concentration that maydrasticallychange
the quality of water thereby impairing the utility of water. Water pollution problem
has become more pressing nowadays because of increase in population growth and
increased use of per capita material energy. This has resulted in increase in the
production of by-products as effluents that reach water bodies and affect the entire
biosphere. The water pollutants generated from human activities reach surface and
ground water through various pathways. These pollutants are categorized as point
and non-point sources. Effluents from factories, sewage systems are point sources
where as agriculture run-off and atmospheric deposition are some of the examples
of non-point sources. Water is an excellent solvent for many chemicals which have
adverse health effects on the environment. Petroleum products, pesticide run-off
and industrial chemicals pollute many water bodies even at low concentrations.
Dear learner, in this unit we would first learn about physico-chemical and biological
parameters of water which is helpful in understanding the pollution levels of various
water sources. The point and non-point sources of water pollutants, pollution
parameters and waste water treatment methods are discussed in detail in different
sections. We start with the study of physico-chemical parameters.

48
 Water Pollution
3.1 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
 define various physicochemical parameters of waste water,
 define industrial effluents and describe their characteristics,
 explain the origin of pollutants in petrochemical industries,
 enlist various health effects of industrial pollutants,
 explain water pollutants due to agrochemicals
 List out the general characteristics of sewage, and
 Describe sewage treatment methods.

3.2 PHYSICO-CHEMICALAND BIOLOGICAL

PARAMETERS OFWATER
Water gets contaminated byhuman use for different purposes that include household,
industry, agriculture, etc. The contaminated water is called the waste water which is
required to be estimated by known methods of analysis. Quantitative analysis of
waste water is indicated by predictable parameters which delineate the nature of
waste and its potential impact on the health of environment and human health. The
following are the physico-chemical and biological parameters:
Total Suspended Solids 2. pH 3. Dissolved Oxygen (DO) 4 Total Dissolved Solids
(TDS) 5. Oil 6. Turbidity 7. Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) 8. Chemical
Oxygen Demand (COD)
Let us understand these parameters in detail.
Total Suspended Solids (TSS): The particles that are larger than 2 microns and
non-filterable are considered as suspended solids. These particles may be sediments,
sand, silt, plankton, algae, animal decay and chemical precipitates. The heavier
suspended particles settled at the bottom of the water body over a period of time
are known as sediments or bedload. The remaining particles which float in water
are known as colloids.
Effects: The SS changes the colour and reduces the light penetration there byaffecting
the photosynthesis process where generation of oxygen ceases.
Hypoxic inadequate supply of oxygen at the tissue level
The increase in TSS increases the water temperature and decrease in dissolved
oxygen levels. The high rate of heat absorption by TSS than clear water increases
the temperature of surrounding water bythe process of conduction there bydecrease
in dissolved oxygen levels.Another effect of increase in surface water temperature
is the water stratification. Because of this, the lower layers of water become hypoxic
for survival of the organisms.
pH: pH is a chemical parameter that values between 0 to 14 on a defined scale. It
provides the intensity of acidity and alkalinity of a given water sample along a 49
Air, Water and Soil Pollution logarithmic scale. It has direct influence on the treatment procedures. It provides
critical information in the treatment of waste water which removes heavy metals
or organic compounds. The effluents contain heavy and toxic metals in the
dissolved form. These will be removed by altering the pH by different suitable
methods. High or low pH of water may kill water organisms and sterilize the
water bodies, thereby inactivate the vital microorganisms in waste water
treatment.

Do you Know?
The lower the number, the more acidic the water is. The higher the number, the
more basic it is. A pH of 7 is considered neutral. The logarithmic scale means
that each number below 7 is 10 times more acidic than the previous number
when counting down. Likewise, when counting up above 7, each number is 10
times more basic than the previous number. The pH measurement can be done
byusing electrometric technique.

Dissolved Oxygen:
Dissolved oxygen (DO) is non-compound, free oxygen in the stream of water which
is an important criterion to assess the quality of water.
The dissolved oxygen for aquatic animals varies from species to species ranges 1-6
mg/L to 4-15 mg/L. The DO is required for microbial decomposition of organic
material at the bottom of the water. The DO levels decrease with increase of
temperature, concentration of salts and increase in pressure.

Do You Know?
Causes of low dissolved oxygen (DO) primarily result from excessive algal
growth caused by phosphorus. Nitrogen is another nutrient that can
contribute to algae growth. As the algae die and decompose, the process
consumes dissolved oxygen. This can result in insufficient amounts of
dissolved oxygen available for fish and other aquatic life. Dying off and
decomposition of submerged plants also contribute to low dissolved oxygen.
The process of decomposition is called Carbonaceous Biochemical
Oxygen Demand (CBOD). Sources of phosphorus include discharges
from municipal and private wastewater treatment, cropland and urban storm
water runoff, and natural decay of vegetation. Direct discharge of pollutants
from point source and non-point sources into a river segment add to its
CBOD loadings, creating an oxygen demand that may depress DO below
acceptable concentrations.

Total Dissolved Solids (TDS): It is a measure of organic and inorganic substance

in a given liquid. TDS mainlyconstitutes calcium, magnesium, sodium, and potassium
cations and carbonate, hydrogen carbonate, chloride, sulfate, and nitrate anions.
The organoleptic properties (qualities like taste, colour, odour, feel, etc.) of water
with respect to TDS are as follows:
<300mg/L - Excellent
300-600 mg/L –Good
50 600-900 mg/L –Fair
900-1200 mg/L –Poor Water Pollution

>1200 mg/l L -Unacceptable

TDS in water streams is generated from urban and agricultural run-off, sewage,
industrial wastewater, road de-icing salts and natural sources.
Turbidity: Turbidity is the only parameter which has optical determination. It
is an indicator of water quality on the basis of clarity and relatively estimated
TDS in water. Turbid water looks cloudy, coloured because of suspended solids
that is based on the amount of light scattered by these. In addition to the
suspended solids, coloured dissolved organic matter (CDOM), fluorescent
dissolved organic matter (FDOM) and dyes enhance the turbidity of water.
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
Biochemical oxygen demand is the amount of dissolved oxygen required for
microbial metabolism of organic compounds in water at certain temperature
(~200C) and a period of time (~5 days). It is a chemical procedure to measure
the quantity of dissolved oxygen that indicates the quality of water. It is
dependant on temperature, pH, microorganisms and organic and inorganic
materials.
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD): It is the amount of oxygen required in
chemical oxidation of organic matter present in water. It essentially indicates
the amount of oxidizable pollutants in water body and thus helps to know the
pollution levels.
Check Your Progress 1
Note : a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
b) Check your progress with possible answer given at the end of the
unit.
1. List out physico-chemical parameters of the waste waters.
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2. What is the importance of pH in waster waters?
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3.3 TYPES OFWATER POLLUTANTS

As mentioned earlier, water can get contaminated by various means. There are a
number of sources that are responsible for adding pollutants to the running water,
underground water or a natural water body. Thus the pollutants can come from
Food Processing, Petrochemical, Textile, Tanning, Paper, etc. industry and also
fromAgrochemicals and Sewage. The pollutants from all these sources are discussed
in the following subsections.
3.3.1 Industrial Water Pollutants
Industrialdevelopment leads to industrial effluents, andthe untreated effluents become
responsible for water, soil and air pollution. The quantitative assessment depends on 51
Air, Water and Soil Pollution the concentration of these effluents present in the waste water. The expression of
concentration of impurities is either by mgL-1 or ppm or percent saturation.

According to the Press Information Bureau, Government Of India (GOI), Ministry

of Environment and Forest (MoEF) 2016, the Ministry of Environment, Forest and
Climate Change (MoEFCC) has developed the criteria of categorization of industrial
sectors based on the Pollution Index (PI) which is a function of the emissions (air
pollutants), effluents (water pollutants), hazardous wastes generated and consumption
of resources. For this purpose the references are taken from the the Water (Prevention
and Control of Pollution) Cess (Amendment)Act, 2003, Standards so far prescribed
for various pollutants under Environment (Protection) Act , 1986 and Doon Valley
Notification, 1989 issued by MoEFCC. The Pollution Index of any industrial
sector is a number from 0 to 100 and the increasing value of PI denotes the increasing
degree of pollution load from the industrial sector and the following is the criteria
on ‘Range of Pollution Index ‘for the purpose of categorization of industrial
sectors.

 Industrial Sectors having Pollution Index score of 60 and above –

Red category

 Industrial Sectors having Pollution Index score of 41 to 59 –

Orange category

 Industrial Sectors having Pollution Index score of 21 to 40 –

Green category

 Industrial Sectors having Pollution Index score incl.&upto 20 –

White category

This unit discusses about some of the industries which are under the category of
Red.

3.3.2 Food processing industry

The waste from food and food processing industries are termed as by-products.
These by-products have the properties of high water holding capacity, binding,
gelling and thickening. Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD), Chemical Oxygen
Demand (COD), and Dissolved Oxygen (DO) are the important organic
parameters to determine the liquid wastes from food industry.
The by-products from some of the food processing industries which pollute
the water bodies are summarized in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1: Some food processing industries and their by-products
Industry By-Products/Wastes

Fruit and Vegetable Industry High amount in glucose, citric and linoleic
acids, tocopherols, and isorhamnetin-O-(di-
deoxyhexosyl-hexoside), polysaccharides
(e.g. pectin, cellulose, hemicelluloses, lignin
and gums) and phenolic compounds bound
with skin, i.e. dihydrochalcones, flavonols and
phenolic acids
52
DairyIndustry Dairy effluents, fats, oil and grease, whey by- Water Pollution
product contains solvent proteins like ²-
lactoglobulin, ±-lactalbumin, immunoglobulin,
bovine serum albumin, lactoferrin, and
lactoperoxidase, high content of essential amino
acids, urea, uric acid, creatine, creatinine and
ammonia.

Grain Processing Industry Rice bran, oil, tocotrienols ²-glucans, the spent
grain rich in cellulose and non-cellulosic
polysaccharides, the hot trub and the residual
yeast, the powder of macaroni boiling water,
slime and waste waters

Brewery and Winery Industry Wine prunings, grape stalks, grape pomace
and grape seeds, yeast lees, tartrate, carbon
dioxide and wastewater

Meat Industry Carcasses, skins, bones, meat trimmings,

blood, fatty tissues, horns, feet, hoofs or
internal organs that are rich in lipids,
carbohydrates and proteins

Marine Industry É-3 PUFAs from the livers of white lean fish,
waste flesh parts of fatty fish, blubber of
marine animals, hydrolysates from fish guts/
cleanings, peptides, and products from
crustaceans such as chitosan, chitosan
oligomers and glucosamines

Check Your Progress 2

Note : a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
b) Check your progress with possible answer given at the end of the
unit.
3. What are sources of waste in fruit and vegetable industry?
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4. What is the range of pollution index?
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Air, Water and Soil Pollution 3.3.3 Pollutants from Petrochemical Industry
Petrochemical waste from production to refining is considered to be complex to
treat among the industrial wastewaters. Occasionally these are released into the
atmosphere by accidental discharges due to the technical error and abnormal
operations from polyethylene and ethylene oxide glycol industries. These are
highly industry specific and typically generate hazardous solid waste, sludges
and colloids which contain huge quantities of heavy metals, toxic organic
substances like polycyclic and aromatic hydrocarbons, phenols, metal
derivatives surface-active substances, sulphides, naphthylenic acids and other
chemicals which contaminate the water bodies that pose adverse consequences
on the ecosystem.

3.3.4 Pollutants from Textile Industry

The textile industry is one of most rapidly developing important industry on
the globe. It requires large volume of water for numerous unit operations and
chemicals for various processes involves wet processing sequences. The waste
generated by this industry has high negative impact on the environment since
this industry plays a major role in the fashion garment that varies in type of
demand and coloured fabrics. The textile processing produce loads of liquid,
solid and gaseous waste in each step.

The textile industry uses natural fibres like wool, hair, silk, cotton and flax and
synthetic fibres like rayon and nylon. These wastes have salts, surfactants,
ionic metals and their complexes, toxic chemicals, emulsifiers, dispersants
and biocides that contributes to BOD,foaming and effluent aquatic toxicity.
The pollutants generated in various processes of the textile industry are listed
in the Table 3.2.

Table 3.2: Nature of effluents generated in the textile

industrial processes

Process Pollutants

Energy production Particulate matter, NOX, SO2

Coating, drying and curing Volatile organic compounds

Cotton handling activities Particulate matter

Sizing NOx, SOx, COx

Bleaching Chlorine and Chlorine dioxide

Dyeing H2 S

Printing and finishing Hydrocarbons and NH3

Chemical storage VOCs

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 Water Pollution
3.3.5 Pollutants from Tanning Industry
Tanning Industry is considered to be one of the major sources of pollution
with a potential environmental concern. The leather production process
consists of the following stages and used hazardous chemicals at every stage.
These are 1. Preparatory stages 2. Tanning 3. Crusting and 4. Surface Coating
(Fig. 3.3).

Fig. 3.3: Different stages in leather production process

Nature of Effluents:Approximately80% of the organic pollutants, limed and non-

limed waste is generated in the pretanning process. The waste water contains
pollutants like salts (Cl), fats, proteins, preservatives (soaking); lime and ammonium
salts,ammonia, protein (hair), andsulphides(fleshing, trimmingating);chromium(salts)
and polyphenolic compounds (tanning);and dye and solventchemicals (wet-finishing).
Significantthreat to environmentand human healthfromtanneries have beenobserved
because of chromium contamination, high chemical oxygen demand and BOD.

3.3.6 Pollutants from Paper and Pulp Industry

Paper and pulp industry is also one of the large industrial polluter to water, air and
soil. The major process of a paper industry is depicted in Fig. 3.4. 55
Air, Water and Soil Pollution Acid sulphite Liquor
Alkaline Sulphate Liquor (Kraft)
Neutral Sulphite

Pulp Log

Wood Pulping Screening Washing

Preparation

Evaporation (Heat
generation As by- Thickning

Kraft and neutral

sulphite recovery

Bleaching

Finalising and neutral Paper Machine Stock

sulphite recovery preparation

Fig. 3.4: Flow diagram of the processes in paper and pulp industry

Paper and pulp are manufactured from cellulosic fibres of wood, straw, cereal,
reeds, jute, flax and esparto grass. These different raw materials used for different
types of paper. For example, coarse type paper is generated from straw. Kraft,
sulphite, neutral sulphite, soda, cold soda and ground wood are important pulps
used to produce paper.
The major steps in the industry are raw material preparation, wood pulping, pulp
bleaching and paper manufacturing. Raw material preparation includes debarking of
wood, chipping of logs and screening of chips. The chemical pulping process fibres
are released from the wood matrix since the lignin is eliminated by solubilizing in
cooking liquor at elevated temperature.
Nature of Effluents
The major effluents from pulp and paper making are from wood preparation unit,
screeningand pulp cleaningunit, mechanical and chemical pulping, chemical pulping,
textile fiber pulping unit, machine and bleaching waste which contains dissolved
organic substances and suspended particles. They contain chlorine and chlorine
based materials, sulfur, hydrogen sulfide and sulfur dioxide. The chlorinated
compounds are mainly used in bleaching process of wood pulp and chemical pulp.
The pollutants from bleaching process contain significant amounts of dioxins which
belong to a group of POPs, with high toxic potentials. The waste waters contain
various solids, nutrients; sulfur compounds and Dissolved Organic Matter (DOM).
Nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorous cause eutrophication. DOM changes the
ecological characteristics of water bodies that lead to the high levels of BOD which
can cause the death of aquatic organisms, SO2 released from the processing of
sulphur compounds that makes the water bodies more acidic. Solid pollutants consist
of clay particles, CaCO3, titanium dioxide and fiber.
3.3.7 Water Pollutants due to Agrochemicals
The pesticides, biocides, manures and fertilizers are categorized under agrochemicals
56 that are used to enhance the yield of the crop. The essential hydrological processes
that loop rainfall, runoff and leaching, and which bring about erosion and transport Water Pollution
of chemically augmented soil particles, are important in aquatic contamination by
fertilizer products. The major sources of pollutants due to pesticides are industries,
agriculture, forestryand also air which becomes a means of spreading the pollutants.
The dust particles in the air adsorb the pesticides from pesticides sprayin agriculture,
forestry and then contaminate water bodies, sediments and soil through rain water.
The high quantity of the residual pesticide eventuallybe leached to aquifer levels and
pollute the groundwater. The amount of pesticide leachability is measured in terms
of the groundwater ubiquity score (GUS).

The GUS indexcan be written as

GUS = log (DT50). [4–log(Ka )],Where DT50 and Ka are persistence and
mobilityrespectively. The tendencies of groundwater contamination are (i) non-
leacher (GUS < 1.8), (ii) transition (1.8 < GUS < 2.8) and (iii) leacher
(GUS > 2.8).

Leaching of pesticides depends on the amount applied per area per year, application
procedure, the solubility of the compound, how strongly it is bound by the soil and
how quickly it degrades in the root zone. After a pesticide application a part of it
may be lost to the atmosphere through volatilization, and a part is carried away to
surface waters by runoff, or broken down by photolysis. The pesticides from the
contaminated water are taken up by plants and animals and enter the food chain.
Once they enter into the body they are tissue degradative, relatively stable and
carcinogenic in nature. Some of them damage the liver and the nervous system.
Further more, certain pesticides are found to alter the enzymatic activities of the
bodywhich leads to different types of diseases. Some of the commonlyused pesticides
and their health hazards are given in Table 3.3.
Table 3.3 : Most commonly used pesticides and their health hazards
Pesticide Diseases/Adverse effects
Aldrin Attacks the nervous system, convulsion,
repeated dosage damages the liver,
carcinogenic
Benzene hexa chloride (BHC) Liver tumour
Captan Abnormality in the eyes and brain,
carcinogenic
Chlordane Carcinogenic
DDT Liver damage, carcinogenic
Dieldrin Liver damage, carcinogenic, destroys
enzymatic activities
Endosulfan Carcinogenic
Hexa Chloro Benzene Highly toxic, bone marrow damage,
mutagenic, teratogenic, carcinogenic
57
Air, Water and Soil Pollution
Heptachlor Liver damage, carcinogenic
Malathion Low toxic but sometimes carcinogenic
Methoxychlor Low toxic but sometimes carcinogenic
Mirex Carcinogenic
Commercialfertilizers contain mainlypotassiumand nitrogen and phosphorous. Some
of the fertilizers are identified as possible sources of water pollution. The improper
dissemination causes adverse toxic effects on the environment and humans as well
since these substances are toxic in nature. For example, surface water fertilization
results in eutrophication, i.e., intense growth of algae which causes unmanageable
changes to the biological equilibrium. These chemicals enter the water bodies by
intentional or unintentional application for pest control. Globally many soils are
deficient in phosphorous, which is required for plant growth. In its phosphate form,
phosphorus is significant for cell’s genetic material, and available as adenosine
triphosphate (ATP), the energy carrier in cells. Phosphorous based fertilizer is the
major contributor to run-off phosphorous pollution from the agriculture land and
through manure into waterways. Excess phosphorus results into harmful algal blooms,
known as eutrophication. The blooms consume much of the dissolved oxygen in
the water, are lethal to fish and other plant life, also release toxins that are toxic to
humans and animals. Toxic effects of potassium in humans are very rare since it is
promptly excreted in the absence of pre-existing kidney damage. The impacts of
some of the agrochemicals are listed in Table 3.3.
Table 3.4: Some agrochemicals and their impacts
Agrochemicals Impacts

Ground Surface Ecosystem Humans

water water

Pesticides Some pesticides Pesticides runoff Pesticides Adverse

may leach into contaminates the inhibit the effects on
groundwater surface water and growth and human health
and contaminate biota; Pesticides causes by eating
the drinking are also travel reproductive contaminated
water causing long distances as failure. food like
human health dust by wind and Consequent fruits,
problems. contaminate upon vegetables and
aquatic systems. malfunctioning fish, breathing
of ecological contaminated
system in air etc.,
surface waters
occurs by loss
of top predators.
Fertilizers Nitrogen Surface runoff Water with
Nitrate can toxic
Nitrogen fertilizers in any carry nitrogen high quantity
to plants that
based form leach in to fertilizer to the of nitrate and
causes stunted
groundwater water streams and food
growth and
and converted lakes there by consumed by
excessive nitrate
into nitrites by contaminates. humans and
accumulates in
microorganisms cattle gets
the leaves of the
that converted into
crop.
contaminate nitrites by
ground water. microorganism’s
causes the
disease
58
 Water Pollution
methemogl-
obinemea (blue
baby
syndrome) in
children and
by the
formation
nitrosamines
have the same
effect in cattle
also.

Potassium Potassium is Potassium

based strongly held by toxicity causes
clay particles in chest tightness,
soil. Therefore, nausea and
leaching of vomiting,
potassium diarrhea,
through the soil hyperkalaemia,
profile and into shortness of
ground water is breath and
important only heart failure.
on coarse-
textured soils

Phosphorous Leached Excess Excess of Excess of

based phosphorus phosphorus Phosphorous phosphate can
stored in bed caused harmful causes toxic cause health
sediments algal blooms algal blooms, problems, such
which is known as loss of as irritation in
released back to eutrophication. biodiversity and eyes, kidney
the water The blooms increased health damage and
column causing consume much risks for the osteoporosis.
‘dead zones’. of the dissolved plants, animals
Phosphate oxygen in the and humans that
fertilizer can water, lethal to come in contact
also contribute fish and other with polluted
heavy metal like plant life, also waters.
cadmium to release toxins
food chain. that are toxic to
Cadmium is humans and
present in animals.
concentrations
ranges between
5-280mgkg-1 in
Rock
phosphate.

Do You Know?
Methemoglobinemea is caused byhigh levels of methemoglobin in the blood.
Methemoglobin is one of the forms of hemoglobin that contains the ferric [Fe3+]
ion and the affinity for oxygen of ferric iron is impaired and the binding of
oxygen in the remaining heme sites that are in ferrous state within the same
tetrameric hemoglobin unit will increase. Hypoxia will occur when
methemoglobin concentration is elevated in red blood cells. This leads to an
overall reduced ability of the red blood cell to release oxygen to tissues.
59
Air, Water and Soil Pollution 3.3.8 Sewage Water Pollutants Sewage includes domestic
wastewaters and municipal wastewater that is produced by a population. Sewage
contains organic wastes as well as chemicals pollutants. It consists of grey water,
black water, soaps and detergents. Sewage is drained off in large quantities into
rivers and other water bodies without treating. This causes adverse effects on
biodiversity and humans. The characteristics of sewage water are as follows.
i. Temperature, Odour and Turbidity: The information about the temperature
of sewage is helpful in measuring the solubility of oxygen, which affects
sedimentation and rate of biological activity. At extremely low temperature
viscosity increases and affects sedimentation adversely. The odour of old
sewage is offensive and unusual smell observed in the case of industrial sewage
water. Fresh sewage is highly turbid and grayish in colour.
ii. Inorganic and Organic Matter: The nitrogen compounds in domestic sewage
are proteins, amines, amino acids, and urea formed by the bacterial
decomposition of organic constituents. Nitrogen content in the untreated
sewage is observed to be in the range of 20 to 50 mg/L measured as Total
Kjeldahl Nitrogen(TKN). Phosphorus in domestic sewage arises from food
residues containing phosphorus and their disintegration products. The huge
quantities of synthetic detergents add substantially to the phosphorus
content.
Organic constituents in the sewage are mainly proteins, carbohydrates
and fats. The microorganisms metabolize sewage organic compounds for
the source of energy by catabolism. Protein contains C, N, H and O and
sometimes P. The source of nitrogen in the sewage is urea that decomposes
immediately to CO2 and NH3. Proteins also release H2S gas in the process
of reduction. Carbohydrates contain C, H, O and mainly exist in the form
of sugars and starch. By the bacterial action they produce organic acids
and the pH of brackish sewage water is low when compared to the fresh
sewage. Fats also contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. They form thin
film and decompose to produce filthy smell.
The parameter that characterizes all sewage organic compounds is that
which can be oxidized and contains organic carbon. Oxidation of organic
compounds can be measured by 1) the Biochemical Oxygen Demand
(BOD) and 2) the Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) tests. Total Organic
Carbon (TOC) test is the other test to measure the concentration of the
organic material.
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD): The BOD of the sewage is the
amount of oxygen required for the biochemical decomposition of
biodegradable organic matter under aerobic conditions. The established
range of BOD for raw sewage is 100 to 400 mg/L.
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD): The COD of the sewage is the
amount of oxygen required for chemical oxidation. The established range
of the COD of raw sewage is 200 to 700 mg/L. In BOD test, the oxidation
of organic matter takes several weeks, whereas, biochemical oxidation of
organic matter takes barely two hours.
iii. Microorganisms: Microorganisms found in sewage emerge from two sources.
1. soil and 2. sanitary waste. One milliliter of sewage ranges between 100,000
60
 and 1 million microorganisms. Some of them considered as good bacteria that Water Pollution
purify sewage. In anaerobic conditions they hydrolyze protein, reduce urea
and emulsify fats. They also reduce sulphate and nitrates giving rise to CH4,
CO2 and NH3. They add nitrites, nitrates, CO2 and H2O. Some forms of
parasitic bacteria produce toxins that are capable to cause diseases and infection
in humans and animals. Pathogens commonly found in sewage are E. coli,
Salmonella, Shigella, Pseudomonas aeroginosa, Streptococcus,
Mycobacterium and Giardia Lamblia.

3.5 SEWAGE TREATMENT METHODS

The polluted water has to be treated by using different waste water treatment
technologies depending upon the type of pollutants. The type of pollutants in
waste is divided into four categories.
1. Debris and grit
2. Particulate organic material
3. Colloidal and dissolved organic material
4. Dissolved inorganic matter.
In addition to these pollutants raw waste water, pesticides, heavy metals and
other toxic compounds are also present. The general procedure of sewage
treatment is depicted in Fig. 3.5.
The sewage treatment invoves the following steps:
1. Preliminary treatment involves screening and settling process for the removal
of debris and the grit.
2. Primarytreatment for the removal of particulate organic matter involves floating
process by primary clarifiers.
3. Secondary treament involves trickling-filter system or activated sludge
system for the removal of colloidal and dissolved organic matter. Secondary
treatment is also known as biological treatment because it uses organisms
which are natural decomposers and detritus (waste) feeders.The principle
behind this is creating such environment that enables these organisms to feed
on the waste containing organic matter and break it down to CO2, mineral
nutrients and water in the process of cell respiration.
4. Biological nutrient removal (BNR) process for the removal of dissolved
inorganic material involves various processes like denitrification for
nitrogen containg pollutants and chemical filtration for phosphorus
containg pollutants.
The secondary-treatment systems were designed for biological digestion
and the secondary activated-sludge systems have been added, which
remove both nutrients and oxidize detritus by the process known as
biological nutrient removal.
Nitrogen: It is converted by bacteria (ammonia and nitrate) through
denitrification process into nonnutritive nitrogen gas that is released into
the atmosphere.
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Air, Water and Soil Pollution Phosphorus: In oxygen rich environment the bacteria absorb phosphate from
solution and store it in their bodies. The raw sludge istreated with these phosphate
containing bacteria producing a more nutrient-rich treated-sludge product and
can be removed. Phosphorous can be eliminated by precipitating as calcium
phosphate with lime or treat the effluent with ferric chloride, which produces
insoluble ferric phosphate, or with an organic polymer, which gives rise to a
floc.
5. Treatment of sludge: Anaerobic digetion,composting,and pasteurization
procedures are used for the treatment of sludge. These are explained below.
Anaerobic Digestion: Anaerobic digestion is a process of enabling the
bacteria to feed on the detritus in the absence of oxygen. In the absence of
oxygen, organic matter is broken down by anaerobic bacteria and
decomposed to biogas which is a mixture of carbon dioxide, methane,
and water. Because of its methane content, biogas is flammable and can
be used for fuel.
Composting: Another process used to treat sewage sludge is composting.
Raw sludge is mixed with wood chips or some other water-absorbing
material to reduce the water content. It is then placed in windrows – long,
narrow piles that allow air to circulate conveniently through the material
and that can be turned with machinery. Bacteria and other decomposers
break down the organic material to rich humus-like material that makes
an excellent treatment for poor soil.
Pasteurization: After the raw sludge is dewatered, the resulting sludge
cake may be put through ovens where the sludge is pasteurized to
sufficiently kill any pathogens. The product is dry, odorless and the organic
pellets are used as organic fertilizer.
6. On-site waste water treatment systems, reconstructing wetland systems
are the alternate treatment methods.
7. Ground water remediation involves drilling wells, pumping out the
contaminated water, purifying and reinjecting.
You are aware that water pollution is one of the most burning problem
across the globe. The intervention of the Government is a must and it has
tried to enforce a number of Acts to streamline the procedures for reducing
water pollution. In the next and the last section of the unit let us study
about the Acts and the regulations formulated by the Government and
analyse the role of stakeholders in the whole proces.

3.6 ROLE OF THE GOVERNMENT

1. In India Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act 1974 has been
enacted for the Prevention and Control of Water Pollution and the
maintenance or restoration of the wholesomeness of water for the
establishment.
2. Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) under the Water Act 1974 advise
the Central Government on any matter concerning the prevention and
control of water pollution by collecting, compiling and publishing technical
62 and statistical data relating to water pollution and the measures devised
 for its effective prevention and control and prepare manuals, codes or guides Water Pollution
relating to treatment and disposal of sewage and trade effluents and disseminate
information (MoEF).
3. CPCB in association with state pollution control boards has been monitoring
the qualities of water bodies under National Water Quality Monitoring
Programme (NWQMP).
4. CPCB has identified many polluted rivers and preparing action plans for
prevention and treatment of pollution.
5. Steps have been taken for the initiation of installation of online effluent
monitoring system, issuance of directions to the industries for
implementation of zero liquid discharge etc.

3.7 LET US SUM UP

Quantitative analysis of waste waters is indicated by predictable parameters
which delineate the nature of waste and its potential impact on the health of
environment and human health. The physico-chemical and biological
parameters are total suspended solids, pH, dissolved oxygen, oil, turbidity,
biochemical oxygen demand and chemical oxygen demand. The waste water
from dairy includes huge amounts of nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus.
The waste water from petrochemical industries release huge quantities of heavy
metals, toxic organic substances like polycyclic and aromatic hydrocarbons,
phenols, metal derivatives, surface-active substances, sulphides, naphthylenic
acids and other chemicals which contaminate the water bodies that pose adverse
consequences on the ecosystem. This unit also discussed different pollutants
from tanning industry, paper and pulp industry. The sewage treatment plant for
treating the polluted water involves different stages like, preliminary, primary,
secondary, biological removal of nutrients and sludge treatment. The unit finally
discusses the role of the Government to mitigate the water pollution problem
in the country.

3.8 KEY WORDS

Acidity : Quantitative capacity of aqueous
solutions to react with hydroxyl ions.
Chemical Oxygen Demand : Measure of oxygen consuming capacity
of substances present in the waste water.
Turbidity : Condition in waste water due to the
presence of suspended particles
resulting in the absorption and
scattering of light rays.
Eutrophication : Eutrophication, or hypertrophication, is
when a water body becomes nutrient
rich that influence excessive growth of
plants and algae.
Herbicide : A chemical used to kill or inhibit the
growth of undesired plants.
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Air, Water and Soil Pollution Petrochemical : A chemical made frompetroleumas a base
rawmaterial–include plasic, synthetic fibre
etc.
pH : Scale used to designate the acidity or
alkalinity of solutions or soil, expressed
as the logarithm of the concentration of
hydrogen ions.(H+),pH 7 is neutral;
values decreasing from 7 indicate
increase in acidity, values increasing
from 7 increasing alkalinity.
Persistent organic pollutants : Any member of a class of organic
(POP) pollutants that are resistant to
biodegradation and that are often toxic;
for ex: DDT, PCBs and dioxin are
POPs. Such chemicals may remain
present in the environment for periods
of years.
Phosphate : An ion composed of a phosphorous
atom with four oxygen atoms attached.
Denoted PO 4 -3 , phosphate is an
important plant nutrient. In natural
waters, it is frequently the limiting
factor; therefore, additions of phosphate
to natural water are often responsible
for algal blooms.
Pathogen : An organism, usually a microbe that is
capable of causing disease.
Pasteurization : The process of applying enough heat to
kill pathogens to extend the shelf life
of the product.
Sludge cake : Treated sewage sludge that has been
dewatered to make a moist solid.

3.9 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED FURTHER

READINGS
1. Fundamentals of Environmental Chemistry by A.K.De
2. Environmental Chemistry by Stanley Manahan
3. Textbook of Environmental Science by Pearson.

3.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. a. Total suspended solids b. Total dissolved solids c. Dissolved oxygen d.
Biological oxygen demand e. Chemical oxygen demand
2. One of the most important characteristics of industrial waste is their acid
or alkali content. It provides critical information in treatment of waste
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 waterswhich removesheavymetals or organic compounds. The effluents contain Water Pollution
heavyand toxic metals in dissolved form. These will be removed byaltering the
pH by different suitable methods. High or low pH of water may kill water
organisms and sterilize the water bodies, thereby inactivate the vital
microorganisms in waste water treatment.
3. High amount in glucose, citric and linoleic acids, tocopherols, and isorhamnetin-
O-(di-deoxyhexosyl-hexoside), polysaccharides (e.g. pectin, cellulose,
hemicelluloses, lignin and gums) and phenolic compounds bound with skin, i.e.
dihydrochalcones, flavonols, and phenolic acids.
4. The Pollution Index PI of any industrial sector is a number from 0 to 100 and
the increasing value of PI denotes the increasing degree of pollution load from
the industrial sector and the following is the criteria on ‘Range of Pollution
Index ‘for the purpose of categorization of industrial sectors.
 Industrial Sectors having Pollution Index score of 60 and above
- Red category
 Industrial Sectors having Pollution Index score of 41 to 59
– Orange category
 Industrial Sectors having Pollution Index score of 21 to 40
– Green category
 Industrial Sectors having Pollution Index score incl.&upto 20
- White category
5. Eutrophication, or hypertrophication, is when a water body becomes
nutrient rich that influence excessive growth of plants and algae.
6. Water with high quantity of nitrate and food consumed by humans and
cattle gets converted into nitrites by microorganism’s causes the disease
methemoglobinemea in children and by the formation nitrosamines have
the same effect in cattle also.

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