Introduction to the atmosphere and climate

The atmosphere is a dynamic system (with inputs, outputs, flows and storages) that has
changed throughout geological time

The Earth's atmosphere can be seen as a closed system: the input is solar radiation and the
output is heat energy. Matter is recycled within the system

Spaceships and meteorites move tiny matter in and out

The atmospheric system is an interactive system consisting of five major components:

- the atmosphere
- the hydrosphere (oceans, lakes, rivers
- the cryosphere (ice sheets, glaciers, and snow)
- the land surface
- the biosphere (plants, animals)

The atmosphere contains gases- some constant, some not:

Constant:
● Nitrogen- 78%- Dilutes oxygen and prevents rapid burning at the earth’s surface.
Living things need it to make oxygen- Living things won’t survive without it
● Oxygen- 21%- Used by all living things. Essential for respiration. It is necessary for
combustion or burning
● Argon- 0,9%- Used in light bulbs

Variable- amount in atmosphere changes, usually due to human actions:

● Carbon Dioxide- 0,03%- Plants use it to make oxygen. Acts as a blanket and
prevents the escape of heat into outer space.- Variable because of human action
● Water Vapour- 0.0 to 0.4%- Essential for life processes. Also prevents heat loss from
the earth
● Trace gases- gases found only in very small amounts. They include neon, helium,
krypton, and xenon

Pollutants- are normally found at high concentrations near the emission source but also
disperse and are diluted by winds.
Solids- dust, pollen and mould spores, smoke (black carbon), salt spray
Effects energy budget, amount of sun that reaches Earth

Earth’s atmosphere is both influenced by the biosphere and influences the biosphere
● If the effect of biosphere were removed, it is estimated that the atmospheric
composition would be 1.9% nitrogen, 0% oxygen and 98% carbon
● Without plants, oxygen levels would be 1000 times smaller than they currently are
Photosynthesize: carbon dioxide -> carbon and free oxygen
Changes over geological time caused by more methane:
- rapid population growth
- urbanisation
- industrialisation

Main factors affecting the atmosphere:

● Global industrialisation and the subsequent production of pollution derived from fossil
fuels
● Deforestation, particularly of rainforest
● Economic development- rate of fossil fuel increase
● Natural factors
- volcanic activity
- sunspot activity

Volcanic eruptions:
● Large explosive volcanoes have a short-term (1-3 years) cooling effect
● They release sulphur dioxide into the atmosphere which increases atmospheric
albedo (reflecting incoming solar radiation)

Dimming effect (opposite of brightening) Reflection-> less radiation-> cooling-> precipitation

gradually removes aerosols

Atmosphere- temperature changes together with altitude- and together with that the
composition

Troposphere:
● Up to 16-18 km above the equator, 7 km above the poles
● Temperature declines by around 6.5 C per km increase in altitude
● Wind speeds increase with altitude. The jet stream occurs at the top of the
troposphere
● Most of the atmospheric mass is found (about 80%)
● Most of our weather occurs here (about 99%)
● Most of the gases occur here
● Cloud formation
● Humans and other organisms have the most interaction e.g. through the exchange of
gases or the introduction of pollutants
● Greenhouse gases (GHG) help to regulate the temperature of the Earth

Stratosphere:
● 20-50 km above sea level
● concentration of ozone
● ozone absorbs ultraviolet radiation -> temperatures rise with increasing altitude in the
stratosphere
● The temperature at the top of the stratosphere is fairly constant 0C
● At its lower limit, the temperature is about -50C
Mesosphere:
● Extends between 50 km to 80 km
● The coldest part of the atmosphere (very little cloud, dust, ozone, water to absorb
heat from the sun)
● The strongest wind in the atmosphere appear (3000 km per hour)
● Very little presence of gases

Thermosphere:
● The highest layer of the atmosphere
● Extending from about 80 km above sea level out to the farthest limits of the
atmosphere
● Oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen absorb ultraviolet radiations from the sun heating up
to very high temperatures (1000-1500 C)
● Hottest
● Lower part of the thermosphere is called ionosphere
● The International Space Station and many satellites orbit within the ionosphere
● The ionosphere is named for the ions created within this layer by energetic particles
from sunlight and outer space. These ions create an electrical layer that reflects radio
waves, allowing radio messages to be sent across oceans in the days before
communication satellites. Electrical displays in the ionosphere also create auroras
called the Northern and Southern Lights

Gases have a relation to temperature of atmosphere

The global heat budget and atmospheric circulation

The incoming solar radiation is called insolation

The sun gives out short-wave radiation- the hotter the body supplying the energy, the shorter
the wavelength
The Earth gives out long-wave radiation which is absorbed in the atmosphere before leaving

PICTURE
Energy balance

Factors affecting the earth-atmosphere energy balance:

● Latitude (solar radiation)
- Effects on solar radiation
- Effects on global energy balance
- Less solar energy is absorbed by the ground because:
1. The sun’s rays strike the Earth’s surface at a lower angle near the
poles. - Angles [PICTURE- SUN ANGLES]
2. The poles receive less solar radiation because the sun’s rays must
penetrate a greater thickness of atmosphere near the poles
 3. The Earth’s surface at the poles absorbs less solar radiation because
more of the light that fdos reach the surface is reflected back into
space
● Cloud cover (solar and long-wave radiation)
- Clouds reduce the amount of solar (shortwave) radiation reaching the surface
and longwave radiation leaving the atmosphere
- Clouds can reflect and absorb solar (shortwave) radiation
- The amount reflected or absorbed…
● Formed of millions of tiny water droplets held in suspension
● High clouds consist mostly of ice crystals
● Alto or middle high clouds generally consist of water droplets. They
exist in temperatures of <0C
● Low clouds indicate wet weather
● Cumulonimbus brings storm and hail
● Ci, Cc, Cs clouds will have the highest albedo
● Ns, Sc, St clouds will have the lowest albedo
● Atmosphere characteristics (solar and long-wave radiation)

Albedo- ratio between incoming radiation and the amount reflected, expressed as a
percentage. Dark-> absorbs heat-> low albedo
Fresh snow-> 80-95% albedo
Asphalt-> 5-10%

Cirrus- Ci:
● Delicate
● Light
● High up
● High Albedo
● Sometimes may bring changes within a weather

‘Cirrus na niebie pogoda się zjebie’

Cirrocumulus- CC
● High Albedo

Cirrostratus- Cs
● Darker
● Less Albedo

Altocumulus
● Darker
● Middle
● Lower albedo

Nimbostratus- Ns
● Lower
● Darker
 ● Lower albedo

The lower we go, the darker the clouds

Greenhouse effect
● The greenhouse effect is an atmospheric heating phenomenon
● Earth experiences rise in temperature because certain gases (water vapour, carbon
dioxide, nitrous oxide, and methane) in the atmosphere allow incoming sunlight
(shortwave radiation) to pass through but trap heat radiated from the earth’s surface
(longwave radiation)
● If these gases wouldn’t trap heat in the atmosphere, the temperature of the earth
would be about 33 degrees centigrade colder on average
● Because how these gases warm our planet, they are called

Human’s cause enhanced greenhouse effect-> carbon dioxide, methane, CFCs, Nitrous
Oxide

CFCs-> actions to limit

The main human activities releasing greenhouse gases are:

● burning fossil fuels (oil, coal, gas) and releasing carbon dioxide
● deforestation
● growing population
● increased intensive cattle farming has led to increase methane levels: cows digest
grass and release methane as a waste product
● rice farming in paddy fields
● using fertilisers in agricultural systems
(concentration of nitrous oxide)

CFCs aerosols in e.g. refrigerators, that have been banned in a lot of places, not low income
countries

Stratospheric Ozone

Ozone (O3) is a faintly blue-tinged odourless gas with the capacity to absorb ultraviolet
radiation and convert it into heat energy.

About 90% of ozone is in the stratosphere (maximum concentration at altitude about 20-25
km) and about 10% in troposphere

Ozone in the stratosphere (“good ozone”) absorbs most of the biologically damaging
ultraviolet sunlight. ITs a radiation shield
In tropospheric ozone (“bad ozone”) comes into direct contact with file forms, casing a range
of environmental problems because high levels of ozone are toxic to life

Ultraviolet light is part of the electromagnetic spectrum. It has a relatively short wavelength
and therefore contains a relatively high amount of energy

Ozone is made up of three atoms of oxygen (O3) and is formed naturally in the stratosphere
by the action of ultraviolet light on O2

1st step:
An oxygen molecule is split by ultraviolet light into 2 atoms of oxygen O2 -> O + O
2nd step:
Each atom combines with an oxygen molecule to produce an ozone molecule O2 + O -> O3

As there is more light at the tropics, more ozone production takes place there
This ozone is then transported by the normal air circulation towards the poles

● The production of stratospheric ozone is balances by its destruction in chemical

reactions
● Ozone reacts continually with a wide variety of natural and human produced
chemicals in the stratosphere
● In each reaction, an ozone molecule is lost and other chemical compounds are
produced
● This process is in a dynamic equilibrium

The Tropospheric ozone:

Near Earth’s surface, ozone is produced in chemical reactions involving naturally
occurring gases and gases from pollution sources
Fossil fuel combustion is a primary pollution source for tropospheric ozone
production.
The surface production of ozone does not significantly contribute to the abundance of
the stratospheric ozone
The amount of surface ozone is too small and the transport of surface air to the
stratosphere is not effective enough

Ultraviolet radiation has a wavelength between 100 and 400 nanometers (nm), whereas the
wavelength of visible radiation is between 400 and 780 nm

There are 3 types of ultraviolet radiation according to wavelength:

● UV-A: The near ultraviolet (320-400 nm) It causes little famnages, with only 5%
absorbed by the ozone
● UV-B: The far ultraviolet (280-320 nm) Causes sunburn, genetic damage and skin
cancer over prolonged exposure. 95% absorbed by the ozone
● UV-C: The extreme ultraviolet. Closest- 100% absorbed by the ozone
Ozone-depleting substances (ODS)

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs or freons)- propellants in spray cans, foam, refrigerants

Halon- fire extinguishers
Methyl bromide- pesticides
Nitrogen oxide- bacterial breakdowns of nitrites and nitrates in the soil, supersonic aircraft
Carbon tetrachloride- cleaning substances

How the ozone is depleted by CFCs:

UV radiation breaks off a chlorine atom from a CFC molecule
The chlorine atom attacks an ozone molecule (O3), breaking it apart and destroying the
ozone
The result is an ordinary oxygen molecule (O2) and chlorine monoxide molecule (ClO)
The chlorine monoxide molecule (ClO) is attacked by a free oxygen atom releasing the
chlorine atom and forming an ordinary oxygen molecule

Principal steps in the depletion of stratospheric ozone

Emissions (especially halogens) -> Accumulation -> Transport -> Conversion -> Chemical
reaction -> Removal

Ozone Hole- Not technically a ‘hole’ where no ozone is present, but is actually a region of
exceptionally depleted ozone in the stratosphere over the Antarctic that happens at the
beginning of Southern Hemisphere spring (August-October)

Ozone above the antarctic thins between 40-55% of pre-1980 levels, up to 70% deficiency
for short periods
Because of Antarctica being cut off from the rest of the atmosphere by circumpolar winds-
warm air is blocked from entering.
Temperature in Antarctica is colder -90C in the stratosphere, which allows for the formation
of clouds of ice particles which act as a surface for chemical reactions to take place involving
chlorine compounds
The chlorine atoms with sunlight in spring destroy the ozone with chemical reactions
As it gets warmer the ice clouds evaporate chlorine converts to chlorine nitrate and the hole
is smaller but returns the following year

Ozone layer is also affected by natural processes, but the increases are too large to be just
natural

Human impact

Ozone layer depletion increases the amount of UVB that reaches the Earth’s surface.
Laboratory and epidemiological studies demonstrate that UVB causes skin cancer. In
addition, UVB has been linked to the development of eye cataracts, a clouding of the eye’s
lens. Increase in mutation rates in DNA causing cancer/ decreased immune responses
Exposure during immunisation can reduce the effectiveness of vaccines

Effect on plants

UVB radiation affects the physiological and developmental processes of plants. Despite
mechanisms to reduce or repair theses effects and an ability to adapt to increased levels of
UVB, plant growth can be directly affected by UVB radiation

Indirect changes caused by UVB, such as changes in plant form, how nutrients are
distributed within the plant. Changes can have important implication for plant competitive
balance, herbivore, plant diseases, and biogeochemical cycles

Can damage the ability to carry out photosynthesis in plants and phytoplanktons

Effects on marine organisms

Exposure to solar UVB radiation has been shown to affect both orientation and motility in
phytoplankton, resulting in reduced survival rates for these organisms. Scientists have
demonstrated a direct reduction in phytoplankton production due to ozone depletion-related
increases in UVB

UVB radiation has been found to cause damage to early developmental stages of fish,
shrimp, crab, amphibians, and other marine animals. The most severe effects are decreased
reproductive capacity and impaired larval development. Small increases in UVB exposure
could result in population reductions for small marine organisms with implications for the
whole marine food chain

Two reasons why impact on marine ecosystems is so important:

● More than 30% of the world’s animal protein for human consumption comes from
seas and oceans
● Aquatic ecosystems account for roughly half the global production of carbon. A
reduction in phytoplankton can lead to decrease in the ability of these ecosystems to
absorb carbon dioxide

Vid notes:
● Montreal protocol- 1987- Reduces emissions, change in concentrations
● Scientific base -> politicians -> industry makers and tech people
● mid 1990s limitations on chlorofluorocarbons
● replacements are checked so they aren’t bad for the ozone
● ⅔ of ozone by 2065 would be gone if the montreal protocol wouldn’t have been
adopted
● ozone hole might disappear towards the end of the century
Pollution management:
Local:
● Replace the old fridge with the existing “greenfreeze” technology which does not
deplete the ozone
● Propane and butane have replaced CFCs as a propellant
● Non-propellant alternatives
● Methyl bromide can be replaced with other pesticides
● Ban on production and use of ODS (ozone depleting substances)- legislations
● Simply: Reduction of ODS

The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (1987) and subsequent
updates in an international agreement for the reduction of use of ozone-depleting
substances signed under the direction of UNEP (UN Environmental Programme). National
governments complying with the agreement made national laws and regulations to decrease
the consumption and production of halogenated organic gases such as chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs)
● As the Montreal Protocol came into force, industries developed alternatives to
gas-blown plastics, halogenated pesticides, propellants and aerosols
● Non-propellant alternatives have also been developed- Ways to remove CFCs
● Success:
- The production and consumption of ODSs has reduced by more than 95%
compared to 1986- Success mostly due to developed and high income
countries, because of the requirement of new technologies that only those
countries could provide
● High consumption of CFCs:
- China
- India
- Malaysia
- Pakistan
- The Philippines
- Quickly developing, but lacking in money to invest in new technology, so
households stick to their own; also developing to fast, so they need to use
propellants and others

Illegal market:
● In many low-income countries, there is still a significant demand for CFCs as a
reliance on equipment using these chemicals remains high. The problem is made
worse by the imports of used refrigeration and air-conditioning
● The black market in ozone-depleting substances is a direct consequence of
international agreement on targets to reduce and phase-out the production and
consumption of such chemicals. The illegal trade in CFCs is undermining the
“Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer
● Because of this and the production of ODS emissions has slightly gone up
● Alternatives can often be no more expensive than ODS, but the problem arises
because equipment must often by retrofitted, sometimes even completely replaced,
to use the new chemicals
● The life cycle of the ODSs is very long and so the depletion of ozone will continue
long after the CFC gases has ceased
 ● The ODSs act as catalysts and so they take a very long time to break down and stop
affecting stratospheric ozone
● In 2018, scientists discovered that ODSs started to rise again and its suspected that
a rogues operation has started to produce them again

Vid notes:
● 2012 slowed reduction
● 2010- production to fully stop
● demolition of old buildings
● changes in atmospheric patterns
● accidental production
● East Asia

● The montreal Protocol, from 1987, allowed for differential timing of responses to the
removal of ODSs and the phased replacement of CFCs with transitional substances
● It is illegal bingeing and national governments implemented

The Transitional substances included HFCs (hydrofluorocarbons) which are strong

greenhouse gases
In 2016 UNEP steered the world towards the Kigali Amendment (Accor) which banned the
use of HFCs with a planned phase out. This is widely acclaimed as a great way for the
Montreal Protocol to help combat climate change

Vid notes:
● 0,5 degree centigrade
● slash use 85% by 2026

Problem: Money, LIC will struggle to implement

Photochemical smog

Formation of Photochemical Smog- formed when fossil fuels are burned, and in this context
we are largely talking about vehicles, primary pollutants are produced. This includes:
● Carbon dioxide
● Black carbon - soot
● Unburned hydrocarbons (chemicals with a C-H structure
● Oxides of nitrogen (usually represented as NOx
● Oxides of sulphur
Secondary air pollutants are produced in the air by the interaction of two or more primary
pollutants or by reaction with normal atmospheric constituents. Secondary pollutants are not
directly emitted as such, but forms when other pollutants (primary pollutants) react in the
atmosphere

Examples of secondary pollutant include ozone, which is formed when hydrocarbons (HC)
and nitrogen oxides (NOx) combine in the presence of sunlight; and acid rain, which is
formed when sulphur dioxide or nitrogen oxides react with water

NO2 + Sunlight -> NO + O

O + O2 -> O3

Los angeles smog is different from London smog, because it has different access to sun
Primary pollutants + Sun = Secondary pollutants

Photochemical smog is a mixture of pollutants that are formed when nitrogen oxides and
volatile organic compounds (VOCs) react to sunlight, creating a brown haze above cities. It
tends to occur more often in summer, because that is when we have the most sunlight

VOCs are substances made up of carbon and other elements, and they encompass nearly
all carbon compounds with the exception of carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide. E.g.
ethanol, alcohol, hydrocarbons

London smog: Winter

Photochemical smog: Summer

Nitrogen oxides-> produced mainly from the combustion of fossil fuels, particularly in power
stations and motor vehicles
VOCs-> formed from the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels, from the evaporation of
solvents and fuels, and from burning plant matter- such as backyard and wood-burning
stoves

In Adelaide in 2000, an estimated 66% of nitrogen oxides (NO and NO2) came from motor
vehicles and a further 20% form fuel combustion
Motor vehicle contributes 44% of VOC emissions, and area sources including petrol and
solvent evaporation contributed 33%

Tropospheric ozone
● Ozone occurs naturally at ground-level in low concentrations
● Major sources of natural ground level ozone
- hydrocarbons-> released by plants and soil
- small amounts of stratospheric ozone-> occasionally migrate down to the
earth’s surface
- neither of these sources contributed enough ozone to be considered a threat
to the health of humans of the environment
Extreme risk to human health
 ● The ozone that is a byproduct of certain human activities becomes a problem at
ground level
● With increasing populations, more automobiles, and more industry, there’s more
ozone in the lower atmosphere
● Since 1900 the amount of ozone near the earth;s surface has more than doubled
● Unlike most other air pollutants, ozone is not directly emitted from any one source
● Tropospheric ozone is formed by the interaction of sunlight, particularly ultraviolet
light, with hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides, which are emitted by automobiles,
power plants, refineries, and certain other industries
● Tropospheric ozone is highly reactive and damages plants (crops and forests),
irritates eyes, creates respiratory illnesses, and damages fabrics and rubber
materials

Toxic chemicals:
● Tropospheric ozone
● VOCs
● NOx
● PAN’s

Impact of location and weather

The accumulation of the smog is greatest when there is strong sun so cities suffer
most on hit clear days.
The topography of the area surrounding a city can vastly influence the formation of
photochemical smog
Because of the restriction of air movement, a city in a valley can experience
problems that a city on an open plain may not

Los Angeles:
● Mediterranean climate
● Lies on the california coast where an upwelling occurs and to the east is surrounded
by mountains = bad airflow, which is good for photochemical smog
● A very poor public transport system infrastructure and a high use of cars, creating the
precursors for photochemical smog accumulation
Other cities to suffer from photochemical smog regularly include: Santiago, Chile, Mexico
City, Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo, and Beijing

Thermal Inversions Trap Pollution:

● Temperature inversion occurs when cold air is trapped under warm air. Cold air
doesn’t more or sinks in from surrounding hills
● Precipitation cleans the air and winds disperse the smog. Thermal inversion traps the
smog in valleys (lack of movement of air)- accompanied by low wind speeds

Advection-> an upper layer of warmer air is blown in, trapping the layer of cool air below it
This ‘stable’ condition may last for several days
A variation of this is when a cooler layer of air, such as a sea breeze, is blown in underneath
Radiation inversion-> usually occurs overnight
The ground cools and in turn cools the air layer closest to it, resulting in the lower air layer
being cooler than air above ir, forming an inversion (usually occurs when there's no clouds)

Thermal inversions trap pollution

● In some areas this is typical of fine winter days when the amount of radiation from the
earth may exceed that from the winter sun but it can occur at other times of the year
too
● It is also caused when warm moist heavy air, associated with a warm front moves
across an area and is sometimes associated with the oceanic upwellings-> the
Californian coast

Deforestation and burning may also contribute to smog:

● The primary way trees are burned is by slash-and-burn agriculture
● The trees are but down and then burned to clear the land for farming
● Biomass from other biomes, like savannah, is also burned to clear farmland

Pollutants are much the same as from burning fossil fuels: CO2, carbon monoxide, methane,
particulates, nitrous oxide, hydrocarbons, and organic and elemental carbon

Variety of causes of fire:

● Northern India-> the annual burning of the rice stubble in NOvember releases smoke
which disperses down the Indo-Gangetic Plain
● Combined with other urban air pollution this exacerbates the smog which hangs over
Northern India in the winter
● Indonesia-> large tracts of tropical rainforests, especially peat bog forests, are set on
fire to clear land for (potentially illegal) palm oil plantations
● This typically happens in May and June contributing to the terrible (brown) haze and
air pollution which hangs over South East Asia; Singapore, Malaysia

Impact of Tropospheric Ozone:

● High concentration of ozone causes plants to close their stomata. This slows down
photosynthesis and plant growth = reducing primary productivity
● Ozone may also enter the plants through the stomata and directly damage internal
cells
● Animals-> ozone irritates eyes, can cause breathing difficulties in humans and may
increase susceptibility to infection
● Children, elderly people, and those suffering from asthma-> are particularly prone to
high levels of ozone pollution
● As ozone is highly reactive it can also attack fabrics and rubber materials making
them become brittle and crack
● In fact ozone is actually used in the fashion industry to deliberately degrade textiles
● Ozone is also a greenhouse gas in the upper troposphere and is included in the
Kyoto protocol and in the IPCC’s reports
Economic losses caused by urban air pollution
● Poor air quality is one of the most serious environmental problems in urban areas
around the world, especially in developing countries
● Adverse health effects from short and long term exposure to air pollution range from
premature deaths caused by heart and lung disease to worsening of asthmatic
condition and can lead to reduced quality of life and increased costs of hospital
admissions
● People in the hospital can’t work = loss of productiveness

Mexico City-> economic damages due to air pollution are estimated at $1.5 billion per year.
Jakarta-> 14,000 deaths, about 2% of annual deaths, in the cities could be avoided every
year if particulate could be kept at the level recommended by the WHO
The researchers asserted that the health effects of air pollution are massive. It
causes huge economic losses in terms of loss of current workforce, treatment cost,
employment loss and so on

Vid notes:
● Delhi's air
● every 2 min a person dies
● day outside = 50 cigarettes
● 2nd largest
● rapid population-> industries, cars, building dust
● air pollution spike october-november
● 50x of what's safe
● punjab haryana
● rice water, to save water ban, monsoon season
● to clear crops, crop stubble burns
● smoke heads to delhi
● geography-> mountains act as wall
● cold mountain air towards delhi + warm traps it
● halt construction, limit vehicles

CNBC- Pollution crisis is choking the Chinese economy

China:
● Poor air quality
● 1.6 mln people die per year in china from breathing toxic air
● People are wearing masks, using air purifiers, moving to get away from the smog
● Smog dings China’s GDP 6.5% annually because of lost productivity- shutting down
factories
● Heavy metals in soil
● ‘War on Pollution’-> capping coal
Air pollution reduces food production and timber harvests, because high levels of pollution
impair photosynthesis
In Germany- about 4.7 billion USD a year in agricultural production is lost due to high levels
of sulphur, nitrogen oxides, and ozone
The World Health Organisation estimates that about 700,000 deaths annually could be
prevented in developing countries if three major atmospheric pollutants- carbon monoxide,
suspended particulate matter, and lead- were brought down to safer levels

Pollution Management of Urban Air Pollution

1. Controlling the release of the pollutant:
● Government regulation on pollutant at points of emission- such as
petrol/gas/diesel taxation
● Use of catalytic converters to remove primary pollutants from exhaust (tail)
pipe of vehicles
● Regulating fuel quality
● Regulating car-free zones

2. Altering human activity

● Education to encourage choice of energy-efficient technologies
● Use of public transport or walking/cycling
3. Clean-up and restoration
● Reforestation and re-greening programmes
● Conservation areas
● Spraying water at junctions to wash out pollution from atmosphere

Acid Deposition

rain-> transboundary pollution

source of pollution is in one place, but affects other countries

Acid rain-> term referring to a mixture of wet and dry deposition (deposited material) from the
atmosphere containing higher than normal amounts of nitric and sulfuric acids
responsible for creation of acid rain: sulphur monoxide, sulphur dioxide, nitrous oxide

The precursors, or chemical forerunners, of acid rain formation result from:

● natural sources-> volcanoes and decaying vegetation
● man-made sources-> primarily emissions of sulphur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen
oxides (NOx) resulting from fossil fuel combustion
● The main primary pollutants leading to acid rain are sulphur dioxide (SO2) and
nitrous oxides (NO, NO2, NOx)
● The origin = burning fossil fuels in transportation, industry and electricity generating
plants
● Any fossil fuel will contain both sulphur and nitrogen due to its origins as living
organism matter
 ● Nitrogen in the atmosphere is also oxidised by high levels of atmosphere

What does acid mean?

● The pH scale is a non-linear scale (negative logarithmic scale) of the concentration of
hydrogen ions in a solution
● For each decreasing point on the pH scale there are ten times more hydrogen ions in
the solution
● The pH scale runs from 0-14 with 0 being the strongest acid, 7 being neutral and 14
being alkali

The primary air pollutants of SO2 and NOx both react with water in the atmosphere forming
secondary pollutants
Sulphur dioxide can react with oxygen to form sulphur trioxide. Both sulphur dioxide and
sulphur trioxide (SO3) react with water to form sulphuric acid (H2SO3) and sulphuric acid
SO2 + H2O-> H2SO4
Nitrogen oxides react with water to form nitric acid
NOx + H2O -> HNO3

Rain water is normally a weak acid (about 5.5 pH) as the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
dissolves in the rain creating a weak solution of carbonic acid. This is not considered to be
acid rain

What are the effects of acid rain deposition:

● direct effect- for example, acid on aquatic organisms and coniferous forests
● indirect toxic effect- for example, increased solubility of metal (such as aluminium
ions) on fish
● indirect nutrient effect- for example, leaching of plant nutrients
● dying organism
Soil
● The effect that acid rain has on soil depends upon the base rock (geology)
● If the base rock forming the soil is calcium carbonate, e.g. limestone, chalk, and
serpentine, then these soils tend to be alkaline and will buffer the acidic rain
(neutralise the hydrogen ions)
● If the soils are derived from acidic rocks, e.g. granite and rhyolite, then there will be
few available ions to neutralise the acidic rain and therefore acidic soil is very
sensitive to acid rain
● Acid rain reduces a soil's ability to hold onto nutrients such as calcium, magnesium
and potassium ions->
- are leached out of the soil reducing the productivity of the soil
- This is combined with the reduced effectiveness of symbiotic bacteria which
further decreases the availability mineral ions for plants
- Classified as an INDIRECT NUTRIENT EFFECT
Forest:
● Acid rain has caused dieback of trees in forests around the world including the Black
Forest in southern Germany, forests across Sweden, central Europe, north-east USA,
and north-east China
● Both coniferous and deciduous trees can be affected but coniferous is particularly at
risk
 ● Leaves and buds can show yellowing (loss of chlorophyll) and damage in the form of
lesions, thinning of wax cuticles and needle dropping in coniferous trees
● -> results in reduced growth and productivity
● Trees become increasingly vulnerable to pathogens and low temperatures
● classified as a DIRECT EFFECT
Poland-> gory Izerskie-> getting coal from ground + pollution from Czech republic and
Germany cause the total destruction of trees (chronic- ecosystem won’t improve/regenerate)

Fresh water:
● Some aquatic organisms are very vulnerable to acidification of freshwater systems
● Trout and Bass are sensitive to acidic water while shellfish are very sensitive and
frogs are much less sensitive
● Most fish eggs won’t develop below pH 5
● Some acidic lakes contain no fish
● classified as a DIRECT EFFECT
● At low concentrations, the aluminium that is leached into water systems-> affects the
ability of fish to regulate the amount of water and salts in their bodies
● This can affect the intake of oxygen and salt-> the fish slowly suffocating
● + causes chronic stress, reducing body weight and the ability to compete for food and
habitat- effects the entire food chain
● At higher concentrations a solid is formed on the fish’s gills leading to suffocation
● Classified as an INDIRECT TOXIC EFFECT
● Impacts capacity for organisms to produce shells

Lichen:
● Lichens are indicator species for air pollution, particularly sulphur dioxide
● Very few species of lichen can tolerate heavy air pollution while some species are
only found in the cleanest air
● Lichen indicator species can be used to estimate the amount of air pollution
● Maps have been produced of air quality based on the distribution of lichens
● Classified as a DIRECT EFFECT

Effect on buildings:
Acid rain damages limestone buildings and statues causing their degradation; the acid
reacts with the calcium carbonate releasing carbon dioxide. This can cause economic
impacts as the cost of repair can be large.

Impacts of Acid Deposition Cross Country Boundaries

Europe gets pollution from Asia

The primary pollutants contributing to acid rain are produced in industrialised areas
Wind blows particles, sometimes thousands of kilometres away from the source
-> leads to regional problems but not global problems due to the distance travelled and the
pollutants eventually being washed out of the air by (?)
● Until about the 1960s acid rains was a local phenomenon
 ● The construction of tall smokestacks forced the pollutants higher in the atmosphere
and resulted in acid rain falling at greater distances from their original source
● In Europe Sweden has suffered from acidic rain originating in the North of England
and Germany
● The soils in Sweden are particularly vulnerable as they are largely of acidic nature
● Globally, North East USA, Europe and Eastern China are particularly hit by acidic rain
● There are many areas with acidic soils which could become vulnerable if emissions
from fossil fuel combustion increase in these regions

Pollution Management Strategies for Acid Deposition

1. Altering human activity

Strategy:
● Replace car transport with low emission transport such as bicycles, electric vehicles,
alternative energy driven transportation
- EVS-> Ecocentric/Technocentric
● Carpooling reduces cars on road but requires people to change habits and organise
time with others
- EVS-> Ecocentric
● Improving public transportation networks; expensive, but very effective. Some people
resistance may come from political beliefs against a social way of living
- EVS-> Ecocentric/Technocentric
● Encouraging home-working to reduce transportation requirements. May reduce
people’s social contact causing depression
- EVS-> Ecocentric
● Encouraging people to walk more instead of using vehicles

2. Controlling release of Pollutant

Strategy:
● Reduce the sulphur content of fossil fuels
- Increases cost as low sulphur fuel is more expensive and requires
technological investment.
- Can be anthropocentric if the government requires the sulphur content to be
reduced. This has been the most successful way of reucing acid deposition in
the US.
- EVS-> Technocentric/Anthropocentric
● Use catalytic converters on car exhausts
- Very effective at reducing NOx but costs more and uses heavy metals which
need to be mined.
- Expensive to install and maintain.
- Catalysts need replacing frequently.
- EVS-> Technocentric
● Removing sulphur from emission using scrubbers which are fitted to chimneys of
power generation plants
 - These spray limestone powder into the chimney which reduces the sulphur
content of the emissions.
- Water then washes this out of the chimney and the product is collects
- Technology for this already exists. Hard to introduce
- Effective but requires investment in the technology though not particularly
high-tech
- Desulphurisation of coal is costly
- Technocentric/Anthropocentric as usually mandated by the government
● Switch to use of renewable energy sources
- Requires diversification of energy supply in order to ensure constant supply.
Requires massive investment in infrastructure and political will to do this
- Many alternative sources have disadvantages e.g. aesthetic aspects of
solar/wind generation
- Problems of disposing of nuclear waste
- Many governments depend on tax revenue from extraction/use of fossil fuels;
especially in LEDCs with repidly rising populations/aspirations
- Many alternatives are costly and require advanced technology
- Production of solar panels may involve some pollution- e.g. heavy metals
needed
- EVS->
Technocentric when thinking about the changes in technology and
future carbon zero economy
Anthropocentric when governments require the switch
Ecocentric when individuals make the choice to change their source of
energy e.g. installing solar panels on the roof
● Increasing efficiency of power production and vehicles.
- EVS-> Technocentric and Anthropocentric
- Can be encouraged through legislation. Could reduce cost for consumer in
long run but investment in more energy efficient technology may be required
- Has advantage of reducing emissions of all pollutants produced by burning
fossil fuels
● Use acid resistant building materials instead of limestone
- Alternative building materials may have other environmental cost and is costly
to replace old buildings
- EVS-> Technocentric
● Congestion charges- a tax on driving into the city, e.g. London
- Very effective but requires political will and requires improved public transport
as an alternative
- EVS-> Anthropocentric
● Alternate days when cars allowed to be used
- Has proved very successful when used in PAris, Delhi and Beijing bt often
used when emergency measures are required due to very bad air pollution
- EVS-> Anthropocentric
● Encourage carbon trading (carbon credits)
- Can be successful and still widely encouraged by economists but schemes
have failed when the price placed on carbon is not correct or if too many
permits are awarded
- EVS-> Anthropocentric
 ● National legislation to reduce sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides production
- International legislation to control and reduce sulphur dioxide (Sulphur
Emissions Reduction Protocol and Convention on Long Range
Transboundary Air Pollution)
- Both of these measures have proven successful although concentration on
sulphur dioxide emissions has led to an increase in nitrous oxide production
- Can be difficult to implement international/regional agreements
- Limiting one pollutant often leads to an increase in another

3. Clean-Up and Restoration of Damaged Systems

Strategy:
● Adding limestone powder to acidic lakes Neutralises the acid present and increases
the pH of water
- EVS-> Technocentric
- Effective and cheap solution to restoring freshwater ecosystems but does not
remove the cause of the problem and therefore needs to be repeated
- There is an environmental impact from the quarrying of the limestone
● Restocking of lakes after remediation
- Needs careful management and unlikely to restore the same ecosystem that
existed prior to the pollution event due to the nature of complex systems and
alternate stable state theory
- EVS-> Technocentric

Internal Assessment:
● 1,500- 1,250 words
● Max 30 points
● Air pollution - Child mortality related to air pollution
● Air pollution - Beijing air pollution change over time
● Water Scarcity - Comparison of population density on water scarcity indicators

Research question - connect to an environmental problem

- Theoretical background

You can use secondary sources

Planning:
● Bullet points of the step by step process of writing my paper (I settled on a research
question, I used ONZ and GUS websites- justify the use of these pages, are they
reliable?)
● Results- use different graphs
● Analysis
● Discussion and evaluation- in relation to the environmental issues, judge the
methods used, suggest modifications to the method to make it better
● Applications- suggest a solution to solve the environmental issue based on what we
discovered- sort of evaluation of the solution you propose, the limitations of it. Focus
on one potential solution, pros + cons
Communication:
● Structure
● Logic
● Terminology

1. Context
2. Planning
- Method
- Justification of method
- Ethics/safety
3. Data presentation, analysis and conclusion
4. Discussion and evaluation
- Links to global issue
5. Application